1.

Data and Its Types

●​ Definition: Data are facts, figures, or information collected, analyzed, and

interpreted.
●​ Types:
○​ Qualitative (Categorical): Descriptive, non-numerical.
■​ Nominal: Categories with no inherent order (e.g., blood groups A, B, O).
■​ Ordinal: Categories with a meaningful order but unequal intervals (e.g.,
pain scale: mild, moderate, severe).
○​ Quantitative (Numerical): Measurable, numerical.
■​ Discrete: Countable, usually whole numbers (e.g., number of patients).
■​ Continuous: Can take any value within a range (e.g., height, weight,
temperature).

2. Frequency Distribution
●​ Definition: A table or graph that shows the number of times each value or group
of values occurs in a dataset.
●​ Types:
○​ Ungrouped: Lists each distinct value and its frequency.
○​ Grouped: Organizes data into class intervals and shows the frequency within
each interval. Includes class limits, class boundaries, class width, and class
midpoint.
○​ Relative Frequency: Proportion of observations in each category/interval
(frequency / total number of observations).
○​ Cumulative Frequency: Total number of observations up to and including a
specific category/interval.

3. Graphical Representation
●​ Purpose: To visually summarize and present data, making patterns and trends
easier to understand.
●​ Types:
○​ Categorical Data:
■​ Bar Chart: Compares frequencies of different categories (bars don't
touch).
■​ Pie Chart: Shows proportions of different categories as slices of a circle.
○​ Numerical Data:
■​ Histogram: Represents the frequency distribution of continuous data (bars
 touch).
■​ Frequency Polygon: Line graph connecting the midpoints of the tops of
histogram bars.
■​ Ogive (Cumulative Frequency Curve): Line graph showing cumulative
frequencies.
■​ Scatter Plot: Shows the relationship between two quantitative variables.
■​ Box Plot (Box and Whisker Plot): Displays the distribution of data based on
quartiles, median, and outliers.

4. Measures of Central Tendencies: Mean, Median, and Mode

●​ Definition: Single values that attempt to describe the "center" or "typical" value
of a dataset.
○​ Mean (Average): Sum of all values divided by the number of values (xˉ=n∑xi​​).
■​ Advantages: Uses all data points, easy to calculate.
■​ Disadvantages: Sensitive to outliers.
○​ Median (Middle Value): The middle value when data is arranged in order. For
even number of data points, it's the average of the two middle values.
■​ Advantages: Not affected by outliers.
■​ Disadvantages: Doesn't use all data points.
○​ Mode (Most Frequent Value): The value that appears most often in the
dataset. A dataset can have no mode, one mode (unimodal), or multiple
modes (bimodal, trimodal, etc.).
■​ Advantages: Easy to identify, useful for categorical data.
■​ Disadvantages: Not always unique, may not represent the center well.

5. Binomial Distribution
●​ Definition: A discrete probability distribution that describes the probability of
obtaining a certain number of successes in a fixed number of independent
Bernoulli trials (experiments with only two possible outcomes: success or failure).1
●​ Conditions (BINS):
○​ Binary outcome (success or failure).
○​ Independent trials.
○​ Number of trials is fixed (n).
○​ Same probability of success (p) for each trial.
●​ Probability Mass Function: P(X=k)=(kn​)pk(1−p)n−k, where:
○​ n = number of trials
○​ k = number of successes
 ○​ p = probability of success in a single trial
○​ (kn​)=k!(n−k)!n!​(binomial coefficient)
●​ Mean: μ=np
●​ Variance: σ2=np(1−p)

6. Hypothesis Testing
●​ Definition: A formal procedure used to determine whether there is enough
statistical evidence to reject a null hypothesis in favor of an alternative
hypothesis.2
●​ Hypotheses:
○​ Null Hypothesis (H0​): A statement of no effect or no difference (the status
quo).
○​ Alternative Hypothesis (H1​or Ha​): A statement that contradicts the null
hypothesis (what the researcher wants to find evidence for). Can be
one-tailed (directional) or two-tailed (non-directional).
●​ Types of Errors:
○​ Type I Error (False Positive, α): Rejecting a true null hypothesis. The
probability of making a Type I error is the significance level (α).
○​ Type II Error (False Negative, β): Failing to reject a false null hypothesis. The
power of a test is 1−β, the probability of correctly rejecting a false null
hypothesis.
●​ Significance Level (α): The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is
true (commonly 0.05).
●​ P-value: The probability of obtaining test results at least as extreme as the
observed results, assuming the null hypothesis is true.3 If the p-value is less than4
α, we reject H0​.
●​ Parametric Tests: Statistical tests that assume the data follows a specific
distribution (usually normal) and make assumptions about population parameters.
Examples: t-tests, ANOVA, Pearson correlation.
●​ Non-Parametric Tests: Statistical tests that do not rely on specific distributional
assumptions. Used when data is not normally distributed or is ordinal/nominal.
Examples: Chi-square tests, Mann-Whitney U test, Kruskal-Wallis test, Spearman
correlation.

7. Correlation
●​ Definition: A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two or more
variables fluctuate together. It indicates the strength and direction of a linear
 relationship.
●​ Types:
○​ Positive Correlation: Both variables increase or decrease together (e.g.,
height and weight).
○​ Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases (e.g.,
study time and exam anxiety).
○​ No Correlation: No linear relationship between the variables.
●​ Measures:
○​ Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r): Measures the strength and direction of
a linear relationship between two continuous variables.5 Ranges from -1 to +1.
■​ r=+1: Perfect positive correlation
■​ r=−1: Perfect negative correlation
■​ r=0: No linear correlation
○​ Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient (ρ): Measures the strength and
direction of a monotonic relationship (not necessarily linear) between two
ordinal or continuous variables after ranking them.
●​ Advantages: Helps identify relationships between variables, useful for prediction
(in conjunction with regression).
●​ Importance: Provides insights into how variables are associated, guides further
research.
●​ Limitations: Correlation does not imply causation! Can be affected by outliers.
Only measures linear (Pearson) or monotonic (Spearman) relationships.

8. Regression
●​ Definition: A statistical method used to model the relationship between a
dependent variable (outcome) and one or more independent variables
(predictors).6 It aims to predict the value of the dependent variable based on the
values of the independent variables.7
●​ Types:
○​ Simple Linear Regression: One independent variable predicts a dependent
variable. The model is a straight line: Y=a+bX, where:
■​ Y = dependent variable
■​ X = independent variable
■​ a = y-intercept (value of Y when X=0)
■​ b = slope (change in Y for a one-unit change in X)
○​ Multiple Linear Regression: Two or more independent variables predict a
dependent variable.
●​ Purpose: Prediction, explanation of relationships between variables.
●​ Assumptions of Linear Regression: Linearity, independence of errors,
homoscedasticity (constant variance of errors), normality of errors.
●​ R-squared (R2): Coefficient of determination, represents the proportion of the
variance in the dependent variable that is predictable from the independent8
variable(s). Ranges from 0 to 1.