Module 2:

Compare resolutions of TEM and SEM microscopes and differences in

image obtained (4 marks)

Outline a practical method which could be used to determine the density

of hairs on the underside of a leaf (4 marks);
- Use a microscope and calibrate the eyepiece graticule using a stage
micrometre.
- Count the number of hairs per unit area on a leaf.
- Repeat the measurements on the same leaf and calculate a mean of
leaf hair density.
Explain why unsaturated fatty acids have lower melting points than
saturated. ( 2 marks)
- As no of hydrogens decrease, so does the melting point as fewer
hydrogens means fatty acid chain is more kinked.
- Therefore molecules less uniformly packed together therefore lower
melting point.

Describe how each of these 4 cells is specialised for its function. 6 marks
Order the following carbohydrates from most to least soluble:
Glucose, ribose amylose and amylopectin.

Outline the role of cholesterol In living organisms (2marks)

- regulates fluidity of plasma membrane

- used to manufacture hormones/ vitamin D.

Describe the relationship between number of C=C double bonds in fatty

acid chains and their melting points. (3)
- the greater the number of double bonds, the less saturated the fatty
acids the lower the melting point
- double bonds means the chain is more kinked
- so less uniformly packed together. ( so lower temperature needed
for melting.

outline how the tertiary structure of a protein is determined by the

primary structure ( 3marks)

- primary structure is determined by the sequence of amino acids

- different amino acids have different R groups
- tertiary structures are determined by the interactions between
these R groups.
Compare the structure of glucose and starch (3 marks)
- glucose is a monosaccharide and starch is a polysaccharide
- glucose has no glycosidic bonds but starch does have them.
- C6H12O6 for glucose
- C6H10O5 for starch.

Describe a method to test for the presence of a non-reducing sugar eg

sucrose. (6):
- To the test sample, add dilute HCl to break down sucrose into
monosaccharides.
- Heat in a water bath that’s been brought to a boil
- Neutralise with sodium hydrogen carbonate
- Perform benedict’s test
- And heat in water bath
- If colour change to a coloured precipitate, then non-reducing sugar
present.

Describe how a method that uses benedict’s reagent and a colourimeter

can be used to measure the concentration of lactose in an unknown
sample. (4 marks)

- Zero the colourimeter by using a cuvette of distilled water.

- Use a red filter in the colourimeter
- Use a series of known concentrations produced by serial dilution
- Use these results to produce a calibration curve.
- Test unknown sample using same method
- Use curve to determine unknown concentration.

Describe the food text for proteins (3):

- Add NaOH to test sample to make alkali.
- Then add copper (II) sulphate solution (biurets reagent)
- Watch colour change from blue to purple if positive

Describe test for lipids:

- Shake substance with ethanol for one min
- Then pour solution into water
- If solution turns milky then test is positive,

Describe 3 properties of cellulose that make it suitable for cell walls 3

marks)
- Insoluble
- Unreactive
- High tensile strength
Water component plasma is separated and frozen for storage when blood
is donated. Discuss how the freezing process changes the properties of
water (6marks)

- When frozen, hydrogen bonds set the molecules further apart than
in other frozen liquids.
- Frozen water has an open tetrahedral structure
- Frozen plasma is less dense than in the liquid state
- Volume of plasma expands on freezing
- Frozen plasma can no longer act as a solvent and it cannot flow
either.

Explain why different amino acids move different distances in

chromatography. ( 2 marks)
- The rate of movement/ distance moved is determined by the
solubility
- dependant on the size/charge of the amino acid

explain how the structure of triglycerides make them suitable for energy
storage ( 3 )

- contain lots of C-H bonds which can be broken to release energy

- they also release water when they are broken via hydrolysis
reactions
- they are hydrophobic so do not cause water uptake by osmosis so
can be stored inside the cell

contrast the processes of transcription and translation ( 6 marks)

Transcription Translation
Occurs in the nucleus Occurs in the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm
Produced mRNA Produces a polypeptide chain
Involves rna polymerase Involves tRNA
Rna polymerase joins adjacent trna has anti codons
nucleotides together forming complimentary to codon on mRNA
phosphodiester bonds. and delivers amino acids.

Describe the role of rna polymerase during transcription 3 marks

- Iniates transcriptions
- Joins rna nucleotides together
- Catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds
Describe the role of covalent bonds in linking nucleotides together to form
a polynucleotide such as DNA ) 2 marks

- These bonds are called phosphodiester bonds

- They link the 5 carbons of the sugar to the phosphate group within
each nucleotide
- They also link the phosphate group of one nucleotide to the 3
carbon of deoxyribose on the next nucleotide.
- They provide stability to the sugar phosphate backbone.

Explain how the structure of DNA allows for semi conservative replication
of the molecule (3 marks)
- Base pairing occurs eg a to t and c to g
- Hydrogen bonds allow for the DNA helix to unwind
- so that each strand can act as a template strand.

Explain the importance of DNA molecules formed during semi

conservative replication being identical to each other.
- Ensures cells are genetically identical/ genetic information os
conserved
- Minimises risks of mutations

Describe the role of the ribosome in translation ( 4 marks)

- Attach to mRNA molecules

- There are 2 codon attachment sites
- It provides attachment sites for 2 tRNA molecules
- Allows tRNA anticodon to bind to complementary codon on mRNA
- Catalyses the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids.
- Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid.

Explain how tRNA is used in the translation stage of protein synthesis. 5

marks.
- TRNA has anti codons and carries an amino acid
- These anti codons bind to the complementary codons on the mRNA
strand
- As the ribosome moves along the mRNA, another tRNA molecule
binds to the mRNA codon
- A peptide bond is formed between the amino acids delivered by the
tRNA
- The resulting amino acid chain forms a polypeptide.
Explain the importance of the genetic code being universal across most
forms of life (2 marks)

- Same triplet, of bases/ codons code for the same amino acids in all
living organisms.
- This means that genetic information is transferrable between
different species.

Explain how Meselson and Stahl’s experiment demonstrated the semi

conservative replication of DNA ( 5 marks)

- In semi conservative replication, when DNA is replicated, the new

DNA molecule contains one original strand and one newly
synthesised strand
- When bacteria are grown in heavy nitrogen, their DNA settles
towards the bottom of the test tube
- When bacteria is grown in the light nitrogen, its DNA settles towards
the top of the test tube.
- However, when the bacteria from the heavy nitrogen is transferred
to the light nitrogen, and allowed to replicate once, DNA from the
new strands separates out in the middle of these 2 bands showing
that the resulting DNA is made of one light strand and one
containing heavy nitrogen.

Compare and contrast the structures and functions of ADP and ATP( 4
marks)

- ADP has 2 phosphate groups while ATP has 3

- ATP is hydrolysed to release energy

- They both have the nitrogenous base adenine

- ADP can be phosphorylated to produce ATP via a condensation

reaction

- Both have one ribose sugar

- Both Important for energy requiring processes.

Discuss the similarities and differences of the processes of transcription

and DNA replication ( 6 marks)

Similarities:
- Both involve hydrogen bonds being broken
 - Both occur in the nucleus
- Both processes make use of complimentary base pairing.
- Both require DNA helicase to unwind the double strand.
- Both use free nucleotides

Differences:
- Transcription involves the production of mRNA but DNA replication
involves the production of a DNA double helix.
- Transcription has uracil but DNA replication does not.
- Transcription involves RNA polymerase whereas DNA replication
involves DNA polymerase.
- In transcription, there is a template strand and a non-template
strand but in DNA replication, both strands act as template strands.
- Transcription results in the synthesis of one molecule while DNA
replication results in the synthesis of 2 strands.
- Function of transcription is proteins synthesis while function of DNA
replication is to copy DNA.

Module 3 model answers:

Explain why erythrocytes do not make use of any of the oxygen they are
transporting. (3 marks)

- Oxygen is bound to hb while being transported

- Erythrocytes lack mitochondria therefore no aerobic respiration
- Red blood cells are moved by mass flow therefore do not need atp
to move.

With reference to the structure of blood vessels, explain why oxygen is not
released until blood reaches the capillaries. (2 marks)

- Arteries have thick walls

- so diffusion distance is too long in an artery.

Explain why the blood offloads more oxygen to actively respiring tissues
than to resting tissues. (3 makrs)

- there is a high pco2 in actively respiring tissues

- the high levels of carbon dioxide result in carbonic acid which
changes the shape of hb
- leading to more O2 being released therefore hb has a lower affinity
for oxygen.

Explain what causes different tissues to have different partial pressures of

oxygen and co2. 2 marks)
- different tissues respire at different rates
- Resulting in different oxygen consumption and co2 production.

Explain why multicellular organisms require a mass transport system (3

marks)
- large organisms have a smaller s.a to v ratio
- therefore diffusion distances are much longer
- therefore diffusion would be too slow to transport substances around
the organism to meet metabolic demands.

Explain why veins have a very large lumen ( 2 marks)

- ensures that blood returns to the heart at an adequate speed.
- Reduced friction between blood and endothelial layer of vein.

List 2 structures that assist with the flow of blood in veins ( 2 makrs)
- Valves prevent backflow
- Contraction of skeletal muscles.

Explain how the hydrogen ion concentration enables the active loading of
sucrose in the phloem. (6 marks):

- In companion cells, H+ is actively transported out of the cell into

surrounding tissue cells
- There are more H+ ions in surrounding tissue than in the companion
cells which creates a concentration gradient.
- A H+ ion binds to a cotransport protein in the companion cell
membrane and re-enters the cell
- Together with a sucrose molecule, the movement of the h+ ion is
used to move the sucrose molecule into the cell against its
concentration gradient.
- Sucrose molecules are then transported out of the companion cells
and into the sieve tubes

Explain how mass flow of the phloem sap occurs in plants with a vascular
system :

- at the source end, assimilates are actively loaded into the sieve
tube elements from companion cells.
- This lowers the w.p of the sieve tube elements and water moves in
from the xylem and companion cells into the sieve tube elements
via osmosis.
- This creates a high hydrostatic pressure at the source end.

At the sink end:

 - Assimilates are removed from the sieve tubes elements where they
are either used in respiration or stored as starch.
- This increases the water potential so water moves out of the phloem
back into the xylem via osmosis.
- This lowers the hydrostatic pressure creating a pressure gradient
from source to sink and assimilates are pushed down due to this
pressure gradient.

Explain why the surface area to volume ratio of an organism determines

whether it needs a circulatory system. ( 3 marks)

- Larger organisms have smaller S.A to V ratios therefore rate of

diffusion is too slow because the diffusion distance is too long.
- For sufficient delivery of oxygen and nutrients
- To meet their metabolic demands.
- Therefore need a circulatory system

The xylem and phloem are produced by mitosis.

Which tissue is responsible for producing them?

- The meristem / cambium

What is the role of the casparian strip?

- It blocks the apoplast pathway, forcing water to take the symplast
pathway

How does water move across plant roots via the symplast pathway ?
- The symplast pathway requires water to move across the cell
surface membrane which is partially permeable into the cytoplasm.
- Once in the cytoplasm, water may also move through the vacuole
by crossing the partially permeable tonoplast.
- Symplast is living eg cytoplasm
- Apoplast is non living eg cell walls.

Explain why people with a hole in their heart can become easily tired (4
marks)
 - Oxygenated and deoxy blood mix
- more oxygenated blood is delivered to lungs
- deoxy blood passes into left ventricle during atrial systole
- less oxygenated blood is pumped around the body to respiring cells
- so less oxygen available for aeirobic respiration.

Why do high levels of creatine kinase ( enzyme that catalyses reactions in

heart muscle) indicate a person may have had a heart attack. 1 mark)
- ck is an intracellular enzyme found inside the cells of the heart
- presence in the blood indicates damage to heart cells.

Why is it Important that fetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen
than adult haemoglobin. 2 marks)

- there is a low po2 in the placenta

- adult hb releases oxygen in the placenta at low po2
- fetus receives sufficient oxygen for respiration
- this maintains oxygen concentration gradient.

Compare and contrast the circulatory systems of mammals and fish (6

marks)
- both carry and deliver oxygen in blood
- both use hb to carry oxygen in blood
- both have closed circulatory systems
- both have arteries, veins, capillaries

- mammals have double while fish have single

- mammals have a more efficient circulatory system compared to fish
- mammals have 4 chambers while fish only have 2
- fish don’t have septum but mammals do
- blood pressure is lower in fish

explain why visible blood vessels are likely to be veins ( 2 marks)

- veins have a thin muscular wall so they will bulge.
- Veins have a large lumen as they have a large volume of slow-
moving blood
- They are found closer to skin surface than arteries.
 A- Cartilage to provide strength to keep airways open
B- Alveoli
C- Ciliated epithelium

Give one difference in the composition of ciliated epithelial cells between

trachea and bronchioles. 1 mark

- Ciliated epithelial cells In trachea and bronchi have goblet cells

while epithelial cells in the bronchioles does not.

Outline the reasons why insects and other animals need well developed
transport systems (4 marks).
- They have high metabolic demands so higher rates of respiration
- So they need rapid oxygen supply
- Diffusion distance/ pathway is too far
- A transport system will help to maintain a steep concentration
gradient.
- Their surface area to vol ratio is usually very low.

Describe the process of gas exchange that takes place in the alveoli ( 4
makrs)
- Inhalation raises the conc of oxygen in alveoli and oxygen moves
into the blood
- Exhalation lowers the concentration of co2 in the alveoli and co2
moves into the alveoli
- Oxygen and co2 move by diffusion
- Through the squamous epithelium of the alveoli
- Blood carries oxygen away from the alveoli so maintains the
concentration gradient.

When allergens are inhaled, they cause the smooth muscle in the walls of
the airways to contract. Suggest the effects this muscle contraction has
on ventilation ( 3 marks)

- Reduction in diameter of bronchioles therefore harder to exhale so

less air exhaled.
- More air remains in lungs or reverse.

Suggest events that could occur in the gas exchange system in response
to an allergen that might make breathing more difficult. (4 marks)
- Muscle fibres in the lining of the trachea and bronchi contract
 - Goblet cells in the lining of the trachea and bronchi secrete mucus
- Fluid leaks out of the capillaries into the alveoli
- and the diameter of the lumen of the airways decreases.

Explain how increasing gill surface area in shark can cause an increase in
body mass ( 2 marks)

- as gill s.a increases, the rate of oxygen diffusion into the blood also
increases
- increased oxygen availability increases aerobic respiration so more
energy available for growth and production of biomass.

Explain why the walls of the alveoli contain elastic fibres ( 2 marks)
- allows stretch and recoil
- stretch so alveoli doesn’t burst during inhalation
- recoil so there’s rapid expulsion of air from the lungs.

Describe and explain the mechanism by which air is taken into the lungs (
5 marks)

- diaphragm and external intercoastal muscles contract

- volume of thoracic cavity increases
- pressure inside lungs decreases to below atmospheric pressure
- air moves into lungs down a pressure gradient
- air travels through the trachea into bronchi into smaller bronchioles
before finally reaching alveoli.

Name 2 substances that enter the lymphatic system from tissue fluid ( 2
marks)
- excess water
- lipids
- plasma proteins.

Explain the Bohr effect (3 marks)

- it’s a shift of the dissociation curve to the right because h+ ions
produced from the dissociation of carbonic acid bind with Hb
causing oxygen to be released
- the affinity of hb for oxygen Is reduced.
Explain the importance of the Bohr shift to metabolically active tissues (3
marks)
- metabolically active tissues produce co2 during respiration
- this means Hb releases more oxygen
- increased release of oxygen occurs without the need for an increase
in po2
- supplying the oxygen needed for aerobic respiration to continue.

Explain why the dissociation curve for Hb is s shaped (5 marks)

- curve is relatively shallow at the beginning

- because it is difficult for the 1st oxygen molecule to bind to Hb
- the curve becomes steeper
- because Hb changes shape after the first oxygen molecule binds
making it easier for the remaining molecules to bind. – cooperative
binding occurs.
- The curve levels off as the oxygen binding sites become more
saturated so it takes longer for the final oxygen molecule to bind.

Explain why blood pressure contintues to drop as it enters arteries further

away from the heart ( 3 marks)

- Increased distance from the heart

- Increases surface area of blood vessels in relation to their volume as
blood vessel diameter increases.
- Increased friction/ increased resistance to blood flow due to reduced
diameter of blood vessel.

Explain how the contractions of the chambers of the heart are

coordinated. (4 marks)

- Impulse passes from SAN to atria

- Atria contract at same time- atrial systole occurs
- Atria contract before ventricles
- Non conducting tissues prevent impulse from travelling between
atria and ventricles.
- Impulse delayed at AVN.
- Impulse passed onto bundle of his/ purkyne fibres
- Ventricles contract together
- Ventricles contract from apex upwards.

Open vs closed

Module 4:
Suggest 2 ways in which a plant could respond to infection by p.
Infestanswhich causes potato late blight:

- Formation of callose
- Production of antimicrobials/ toxic chemicals
- Leaf dropping / abcession – to prevent spread of pathogen

Outline the action of agglutination (2 amrks)

- Clumps pathogens together
- Stops them from moving/ reproducing
- Allows multiple pathogens to be phagocytosed at once.