Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

Chapter 01

Frequency Response (Graphical Representation)

Important Tips

• The course duration is about five weeks, with one exercise serie and one Lab.
• Course Support: “Katsuhiko Ogata” book.

1. Introduction

I
n this chapter, we consider the steady-state response of a system to a sinusoidal input test signal.
We will see that the response of a linear constant coefficient system (time-invariant) to a
sinusoidal input signal is an output sinusoidal signal at the same frequency as the input.
However, the magnitude and phase of the output signal differ from those of the input sinusoidal
signal, and the amount of difference is a function of the input frequency. Thus, we will be
investigating the steady-state response of the system to a sinusoidal input as the frequency varies.
We will examine the transfer function 𝐺(𝑠) when 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 and develop methods for graphically
displaying the complex number 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) as 𝜔 varies. We will start by considering polar plots and log-
magnitude and phase diagrams, and then the Bode plot. It’s well-known that Bode plot is one of the
most powerful graphical tools for analyzing and designing control systems, and we will cover that
subject in this chapter.

The outline of this chapter is summarized below:

• Frequency Response.
• Polar plot
• Stability using Polar plot
• Bode Plot

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

• Stability in Bode plot

• Nyquist Stability criterions
• Black-Nichols Diagram

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

1. Frequency Response

The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady-state response of the system to a
sinusoidal input signal. The sinusoid is a unique input signal, and the resulting output signal for a
linear system is sinusoidal in the steady state; it differs from the input only in amplitude and phase
angle.

Let consider the system block below:

u(t) System y(t)
g(t)
when, 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡), we suppose to obtain in the output 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴́𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

Ty to obtain the value of 𝐴́ and 𝜙 Proof (in the course)

Definition: The frequency response of a time-invariant linear system is given by the variation of the
magnitude 𝐴́ and the phase 𝜙, when the input frequency is changing. Thus, the steady-state output
signal depends only on the magnitude and phase of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) at a specific frequency 𝜔.

One advantage of the frequency response method is the ready availability of sinusoid test signals
for various ranges of frequencies and amplitudes. Thus, the experimental determination of the
system frequency response is easily accomplished. The unknown transfer function of a system can
often be deduced from the experimentally determined frequency response of a system. Furthermore,
the design of a system in the frequency domain provides the designer with control of the bandwidth
of a system, as well as some measure of the response of the system to undesired noise and
disturbances.

A second advantage of the frequency response method is that the transfer function describing the
sinusoidal steady-state behavior of a system can be obtained by replacing 𝑠 with 𝑗𝜔 in the system
transfer function 𝐺(𝑗𝑤). The transfer function representing the sinusoidal steady-state behavior of a
system is then a function of the complex variable 𝑗𝜔 and is itself a complex function 𝐺(𝑗𝑤) that

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

possesses a magnitude and phase angle. The magnitude and phase angle of 𝐺(𝑗𝑤) are readily
represented by graphical plots that provide significant insight into the analysis and design of control
systems.

The basic disadvantage of the frequency response method for analysis and design is the indirect
link between the frequency and the time domain. Direct correlations between the frequency response
and the corresponding transient response characteristics are somewhat tenuous, and in practice the
frequency response characteristic is adjusted by using various design criteria that will normally
result in a satisfactory transient response.

1.1.1- Magnitude and phase of second order system

The typical transfer function of the second-order system is given by the following relationship:

𝜔𝑛2
𝑇 (𝑠 ) =
𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2

where 𝜔𝑛: Natural frequency (undamped)

𝜁: Damping coefficient

The first step in frequency response is to replace 𝑠 by 𝑗𝜔, then calculate the magnitude and the phase
(see the development in the course).

1.1.2- Resonant frequency 𝝎𝒓

It is the frequency at which the output magnitude is maximum.

Depending on this definition, try to find the mathematical formula of 𝝎𝒓 (see the development in
the course).

1.1.3- Resonant peak 𝑴𝒑

It is the peak value of the magnitude of the transfer function 𝑇 (𝑗𝜔).

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

Depending on this definition, try to find the mathematical formula of 𝑴𝒑 (see the development in
the course).

1.1.4- Bandwidth

It is the range of frequencies over at which the magnitude of the frequency response is equal or
1
greater than −3𝑑𝐵 or or 70.7% from the zero initial value.
√2

Depending on this definition, try to find the mathematical formula of the bandwidth (see the
development in the course).

Example. 1.1

A second order system has a maximum overshoot of 50% and period of damped oscillation 0.25𝑠
in step response, determine:

• Resonant frequency
• Resonant peak
• Bandwidth

Solution (in the course)

Example. 1.2

For the second order system with unity feedback 𝐻(𝑠) = 1

200
𝐺( 𝑠 ) =
𝑠 (𝑠 + 8 )

• Find the frequency response specifications

Solution (in the course)

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

1.1- Frequency Response Plots

The transfer function of a system 𝐺(𝑠) can be described in the frequency domain by the relation

Alternatively, the transfer function can be represented by a magnitude |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)| and phase as 𝜙(𝑗𝜔)

where

The graphical representation of the frequency response of the system 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) can utilize either the
first or the second representation given below. The polar plot representation of the frequency
response is obtained by using Equations above. The coordinates of the polar plot are the real and
imaginary parts of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔), as shown in Figure. 1.

Figure. 1
An example of a polar plot will illustrate this approach.
The simplest steps to sketch a polar plot ae given below:
• Replace 𝑠 by 𝑗𝜔 in the transfer function 𝐺(𝑠)
• Calculate the real part and the imaginary part of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) (if needed).
• Calculate the module and phase of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔).
• Replace 𝜔 from 0 𝑡𝑜 + ∞ and calculate the real part, the imaginary part, module and phase
of 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) (use a table).

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

Example. 1 (Frequency response of an RC filter) A simple RC filter is shown below.

• Find the transfer function of this filter.

• Sketch the polar plot following the steps below.

Example. 2 A simple transfer function is shown below.

𝑘
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠(1 + 𝜏𝑠)

where 𝜏 represent the time-constant of the system

• Sketch the polar plot

Example. 3 A simple second order transfer function is shown below.

𝑘
𝐺 (𝑠 ) =
(1 + 𝜏2 𝑠)(1 + 𝜏1𝑠)

• Sketch the polar plot

1.2- Advantages of Polar plot
• Polar plot explains the frequency response characteristic by only single plot.
• Polar plot study the stability easily comparing with Bode plot.
• Easy to obtain gain and phase margin.
• Polar plot need only the open-loop transfer function (OLTF) to find the frequency response.
1.3- Disadvantages of Polar plot

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

• The polar plot doesn’t clearly indicate the contribution of each individual factor of the open-
loop transfer function.

Remark: Polar plot is also called Nyquist plot

2. Stability using Polar plot

Stability is the essence of control system analysis. Automation engineer must know almost all the
tools to determine whether the system is stable or no. during the time-domain analysis studied in the
last chapters, we have seen that all poles of the closed-loop system must lie in the left half side
(LHS), and due the hardness to calculate the poles when the degree of the characteristic equation is
higher. Routh criterion was used to determine the stability of the system without calculating the
poles. Moreover, Routh criterion can determine the number of the poles lie in the right half side
(RHS) without clearly indicates their values. In this chapter, graphical methods will be illustrated in
order to assess the stability, and the first one will be the Reverse criterion.

• Revers criterion: The criterion of Revers is a graphical tool because it relies on the graphical
representation of the open-loop transfer function as 𝜔 varies. This criterion is applicable only
to a system whose open-loop transfer function does not have poles and zeros with positive
real parts, this is also called a minimum phase system.
To study the stability using this criterion, we should check the enclosement around the critical
point (-1,0), if the polar plot encloses the critical point, so the system is said to be unstable, if
not, the system is stable. In another words, if the critical point is at the left of the polar plot
when 𝜔 is increasing, so the system is stable, otherwise the system is unstable.
Why the critical point is chosen (-1,0), this question is your first exercise in the first home
work.
Examples: (in the course)
2.1- Gain Margin and Phase Margin

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

• Gain Margin: It is defined as the factor by which the system gain can be increased to drive
the system to the verge of instability. In other word, the gain margin represents the additional
gain a system can tolerate before it reaches instability. This margin is computed by
determining the gain at the phase crossover frequency where the phase angle of the system
becomes -180 degrees.
The formula for gain margin in a polar plot is typically given as:
1
Gain Margin 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 (𝐺𝑀) = |
𝐺 (𝑗𝜔 𝑝𝑐|

This gain margin can be written in terms of decibel:

1
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 (𝐺𝑀)𝑑𝑏 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) = −20𝑙𝑜𝑔(|𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑝𝑐 )|)
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑝𝑐 )|
where
• 𝜔𝑝𝑐 is the phase crossover frequency (frequency at which the phase angle is -180 degrees).
• |𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑝𝑐 )| is the gain of the system at the phase crossover frequency.
This formula represents the reciprocal of the magnitude of the system's gain at the phase
crossover frequency. It essentially quantifies the amount of additional gain the system can
handle at that frequency before it becomes unstable.
If the gain margin in decibel is positive, then the system is stable, and if it is negative, so the
system is said to be unstable.
Examples (in the course).
• Phase Margin: The phase margin in a polar plot refers to the additional phase shift a system
can tolerate before it reaches instability. It is calculated as the difference between the phase
angle of the system at the frequency where the gain is unity (0 dB) and the phase angle at the
gain crossover frequency where the magnitude of the system's transfer function is unity.
The formula for phase margin in a polar plot is:
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 (𝑃𝑀) = 180° + 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒(𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑔𝑐 ))
where

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

• 𝜔𝑔𝑐 : is the gain crossover frequency (frequency at which the magnitude of the system's
transfer function is unity).
• 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒(𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑔𝑐 ): represents the phase angle of the system at the gain crossover frequency.
In a polar plot, the phase margin can be determined by finding the phase angle at the gain
crossover frequency (𝜔𝑔𝑐 ), this result represents the phase margin and indicates how much
additional phase shift the system can handle before it becomes unstable.
Examples (in the course).
3. Bode plot
The introduction of logarithmic plots, often called Bode plots, simplifies the determination of
the graphical portrayal of the frequency response. The logarithmic plots are called Bode plots in
honor of H. W. Bode, who used them extensively in his studies of feedback amplifiers. The
transfer function in the frequency domain is

Bode plot is applicable only if the system is minimum-phase system (all poles and zeros lie in the
left-half side). The Bode plot or the Bode diagram consists of two plots:
• Magnitude plot
• Phase plot
In both the plots, x-axis represents angular frequency (logarithmic scale). Whereas, y-axis represents
the magnitude (linear scale) of open loop transfer function in the magnitude plot and the phase angle
(linear scale) of the open loop transfer function in the phase plot.
The magnitude of the open loop transfer function in dB is

The phase angle of the open-loop transfer function in degrees is

Note − The base of logarithm is 10.

3.1- Bode plot of basic functions:

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

• Constant term: For the gain K, the magnitude is 𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝑲 and the phase is 0°; both are
constant with frequency. Thus, the magnitude and phase plots of the gain are shown in the
Figure (a: gain, b: phase) below

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

• Pole/zero at the origin: For the zero (𝑗𝜔) at the origin, the magnitude is 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝜔 and the
phase is 90° . These are plotted in the following Figure (a: gain, b: phase), where we notice
that the slope of the magnitude plot is 20 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒, while the phase is constant with
1
frequency. The corner frequency is 𝑧 = 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 (generally, the corner frequency 𝑧 = ,
𝑇

𝑇:time constant).

Remark: A decade is an interval between two frequencies with a ratio of 10; e.g., between 𝜔0 and
10𝜔0 , or between 10 and 100 𝐻𝑧. Thus, 20 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 means that the magnitude changes 20 𝑑𝐵
whenever the frequency changes tenfold or one decade.
1
The Bode plots for the pole are similar except that the slope of the magnitude plot is −20
𝑗𝜔

dB/decade while the phase is −90°. In general, for 𝑗𝜔𝑁 , where 𝑁 is an integer, the magnitude plot
will have a slope of 20𝑁 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒, while the phase is 90𝑁 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠.
• Simple pole/zero: For the simple zero (1 + 𝑗𝜔/𝑧1), the magnitude is 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 |1 +
𝑗𝜔/𝑧1 | and the phase is 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝜔/𝑧1 ). We notice that

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showing that we can approximate the magnitude as zero (a straight line with zero slope) for
small values of ω and by a straight line with slope 20 dB/decade for large values of ω.

The frequency 𝜔 = 𝑧1 where the two asymptotic lines meet is called the corner frequency or
break frequency (see the figure below, where a: gain plot and b: phase plot).

Notice that the approximate plot is close to the actual plot except at the break frequency, where
𝜔 = 𝑧1 and the deviation is 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔10|(1 + 𝑗1)| = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔10√2 = 3𝑑𝐵.

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

The phase 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝜔⁄𝑧1) can be expressed as

To make things easy, the phase plot is having phase angle of 0 degrees up to 𝝎 = 𝒛𝟏 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄
and from here, it is having phase angle of 𝟗𝟎° .

3.2- Procedure to sketch the bode plot:

• Step1: write the open-loop transfer function in a standard form (with time constant).
• Step 2: Identify the corner frequencies of the transfer function in ascending order and give
the slope for each line.
• Step 3: calculate the resulting slope
• Step4: Identify the slope of the 1 st line for Bode plot (the first corner frequency) and shift the
graph depending on the static gain 𝐾.
• Step 5: Write the phase equation.
• Step 6: sketch the gain and deduce the phase plot
Example. 1: Construct the Bode plots for the transfer function

Example. 2: Construct the Bode plots for the transfer function

14400 (𝑠 + 5)
𝑠 2 (𝑠 + 20)(100 + 5)

Table of usual bode plot for basics transfer function: (in the course).

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

Try to sketch the Bode plot for a second order system transfer function in two cases: 𝑮(𝒔) =
𝟏
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒔 + 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 and 𝑮(𝒔) = (The first exercise of the fourth homework)
𝒔 𝟐 +𝟐𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒔+𝝎𝒏 𝟐

3.3- Stability with Gain Margin and phase margin in bode plot

The definitions of gain margin and phase margin are the same given in Polar plot section, so the
gain margin is computed by determining the gain at the phase crossover frequency where the phase
angle of the system becomes -180 degrees.
The formula for gain margin in a polar plot is typically given as:
1
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 (𝐺𝑀) =
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑝𝑐 |
This gain margin can be written in terms of decibel:
1
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 (𝐺𝑀)𝑑𝑏 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) = −20𝑙𝑜𝑔(|𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑝𝑐 )|)
|𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑝𝑐 )|
Whereas, the phase margin is calculated as the difference between the phase angle of the system at
the frequency where the gain is unity (0 dB) and the phase angle at the gain crossover frequency
where the magnitude of the system's transfer function is unity.
The formula for phase margin in a polar plot is:
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 (𝑃𝑀) = 180° + 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 (𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑔𝑐 ))

The advantage of using Bode plot instead of polar plot is the possibility to find the gain and phase
margin graphically if the plot is sketched on a semi log sheet.

In the figure below, we can see how to determine the gain margin readily and we can also read the
direct value on the semi log sheet. As we have seen in Polar (Nyquist) plot, the stability can be
determined using gain margin, if the gain margin is positive, then the system is said to be stable,

The gain margin is also called the measure of relative stability.

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

𝝎 𝒑𝒄

𝑀𝐺 = −20𝑙𝑜𝑔(|𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑝𝑐)|)
20𝑙𝑜𝑔(|𝐺(𝑗𝜔𝑝𝑐 )|)

The phase margin can be also determined on the semi log sheet as in the following figure:

𝝎 𝒈𝒄

𝝎 𝒈𝒄
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(𝑃𝑀) = 180° + 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 (𝐺 (𝑗𝜔𝑔𝑐 ))

Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

In this case the system is said to be stable if the phase margin is positive and we can say that we
have a good stability if the phase margin is more than 45°.
3.4- Physical meaning of the bode plot (in the course)
4. Nyquist Stability criterions

A frequency domain stability criterion was developed by H. Nyquist in 1932, and it remains a
fundamental approach to the investigation of the stability of linear control systems. The Nyquist
stability criterion is based on a theorem in the theory of the function of a complex variable due to
Cauchy. Cauchy’s theorem (argument theorem) is concerned with mapping contours in the complex
s-plane, and fortunately the theorem can be understood without a formal proof requiring complex
variable theory.

To determine the relative stability of a closed-loop system, we must investigate the characteristic
equation of the system:
1 + 𝐺( 𝑠 ) 𝐻 ( 𝑠 ) = 0
where

To ensure stability, we must ascertain that all the zeros of 1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) lie in the left-hand s-
plane. Nyquist thus proposed a mapping of the right-hand s-plane into the 1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒.
Therefore, to use and understand Nyquist’s criterion, we shall first consider briefly the
mapping of contours in the complex plane.

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

• Poles and zeros of the open-loop transfer function

Let’s write the characteristic equation 1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)

which can be arranged in the following form:

𝑧𝑐1 , 𝑧𝑐2, … , 𝑧𝑐𝑛 : are the zeros of 1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)

The argument of 1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) can be given as follows

The argument of 1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) can be written:

∠(1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠))

= (∠(𝑠 − 𝑧𝑐1 ) + ∠(𝑠 − 𝑧𝑐2 ) + ⋯ + ∠(𝑠 − 𝑧𝑐𝑛 ))

− (∠(𝑠 − 𝑝1 ) + ∠(𝑠 − 𝑝2 ) + ⋯ + ∠(𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛))

The s-plane to 1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) plane mapping phase angle of the 1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) vector, corresponding
to a point on the s-plane is the difference between the sum of the phase of all vectors drawn from
zeros of 1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) (close loop poles) and open loops poles on the s plane. If this point 𝑠 is
moved along a closed contour enclosing any or all of the above zeros and poles, only the phase of
the vector of each of the enclosed zeros or open-loop poles will change by 360°. The direction will
be in the same sense of the contour enclosing zeros and in the opposite sense for the contour
enclosing open-loop poles.

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

4.1- Principle of Argument (Need a presentation from 2 students)

The changing of the phase of 1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠), when the complexe variable 𝑠 perform a closed
contour 𝚶 is equal to ∠𝑝Ο(1 + 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)) = 2𝜋(𝑧𝑐 − 𝑃𝑐 )
where 𝑧𝑐: Number of the zeros inside the contour; 𝑃𝑐 : the number of poles inside the contour.
(𝑧𝑐 − 𝑃𝑐 ): Represents the number of enclosement around the origin.
4.2- Nyquist Theorem
Based on the argument theorem, we will study the stabilty of the closed-loop system
depending on the following contour:

1. Why the closed contour of Nyquist is choosen like that.

Therefore, the Nyquist stability criterion can be stated as follows:
A feedback system is stable if and only if 𝒁 = 𝑵 + 𝑷 = 𝟎
𝒁: The number of closed-loop poles in the right-half s-plane.
𝑷: the number of poles of 𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) in the right-hand s-plane.
𝑵: the number of encirclements of the point (-1,0) and its direction. Clockwise encirclement
is considered positive.
This countour can be changed if we have a poles at the origine or at the imaginary axes (in
the course).

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Continuous control System 3 rd year Automation EEA Department

4.3- The procedure to check the stability using Nyquist Criterion

(step1) Locate open-loop poles on the s-plane
(step2) Draw the closed contour and avoid open-loop poles on the imaginary axis
(step3) Count the number of open-loop poles enclosed in the above contour P
(step4) Plot 𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔) and its reflection on the GH plane and map part of the small semi-
circle detour on the s-plane around poles (if any) on the imaginary axis.
(step5) Once the entire s-plane contour is mapped on to the GH plane, count the number of
encirclements of the point (-1,0) and its direction. Clockwise encirclement is considered
positive, say 𝑵.
(step6) The number of closed-loop poles in the right-half s-plane is given by 𝒁 = 𝑵 + 𝑷. if
𝒁 > 𝟎, the system is unstable.
Example
Using Nyquist criterion, determine the stability of a feedback systems whose open-loop
transfer function is given by
𝑲
𝟏. 𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔) =
(𝟏 + 𝟐𝒔)
𝑲
𝟐. 𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔) =
(𝒔 − 𝟐)

5. Black-Nichols Diagram (Seminar presented from two students for next

Sunday)

DR. Abdelhamid Bounemeur