EXPERIMENT–1

Aim: To determine resistivity of two/three wire by plotting a graph of potential

difference versus current

Apparatus: A resistance wire (of different material such as copper, iron, constantan, etc.,)
a voltmeter (0-3)V and an ammeter(0-3)A of appropriate range, a battery(battery
eliminator), a rheostat, a meter scale, one-way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand
paper

Formula: The resistivity (𝜌) of the given wire is given by

𝜋𝐷2 𝑅
𝜌= ohm − meter
4𝐿
Where, π = 3.14
D = Diameter of the wire (meter)
R = Resistance of the conductor (ohm)
L = Length of the wire (meter)
Circuit Diagram:

Observations:
1. Length
Length of the resistance wire l =40 cm
2. Range
Range of the given ammeter = 0-5mA
Range of the given voltmeter = 0-5V
3. Least count
Least count of ammeter =Nil
Least count of voltmeter =Nil
4. Zero error
Zero error in ammeter, e1 = 40mA
Zero error in voltmeter, e2 =75mV
5. Zero correction
Zero correction for ammeter, C1 = - e1 = -40mA
Zero correction for ammeter, C2 = - e2 = -75mV

Procedure:
1. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wire with sand paper to remove the insulations,
if any.
3. Make neat, clean and tight connection according to the circuit diagram. While
making connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of voltmeter and ammeter
are joined towards the +ve terminal of the battery.
4. Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero error,
if any.
5. Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see the ammeter and voltmeter are
working properly.
6. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable current passes
through the resistance coil or the resistance wire.
7. Note down the value of potential difference V from voltmeter and current I from
ammeter.
8. Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both ammeter and voltmeter show full
divisions readings and not in fraction.
9. Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter.
10. Take a least three sets of independent observations.
11. Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals stretch it and
find its length by the meter scale.
12. Record your observations.
 13. Next repeat the above steps by taking other wires.

Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings:

S.No Ammeter Reading I(m A) Voltmeter Reading, V (m V) 𝑽

Observed Corrected Observed Corrected 𝑹= 𝑰
𝑰𝟎 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑽𝟎 𝑽 = 𝑽𝟎 + 𝑪𝟏 (ohm)

1 90 50 185 110 2.20

2 100 60 205 130 2.16
3 110 70 225 150 2.14
4 120 80 245 170 2.13
5 130 90 265 190 2.11
6 140 100 285 210 2.10
Mean(R) =2.14𝛀(ohm)

Model Graph:

𝐴𝐵 ∆𝐼
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = =
𝐶𝐵 ∆𝑉
𝐶𝐵 ∆𝑉
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 = =
𝐴𝐵 ∆𝐼

∆𝑉 170
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 = 𝑅 = = = 2.13 Ω
∆𝐼 80
Calculation:
π = 3.14
D = 0.85 × 10−3 (meter)
R= 2.14 (ohm)
L = 40 × 10−2 (meter)
𝜋𝐷 2𝑅
𝜌=
4𝐿
3.14 × (0.85 × 10−3 )2 × 2.14
𝜌=
4 × 40 × 10−2
𝝆 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟑𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔Ohm meter

By Graphical method
π = 3.14
D = 0.85 × 10−3 (meter)
R = 2.13 (ohm)
L = 40 × 10−2 (meter)
𝜋𝐷 2𝑅
𝜌=
4𝐿
3.14 × (0.85 × 10−3 )2 × 2.13
𝜌=
4 × 40 × 10−2
𝝆 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 Ohm meter

Result:
(i) Resistivity of the wire is 𝝆 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟑𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 Ohm meter.
(ii) The graph between V and I is a straight line.
 EXPERIMENT–2

Aim: To find resistance of a given wire using meter bridge.

Apparatus: A meter bridge, leclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two
resistances wires, set square, sand paper and connecting wires.

Formula:
The unknown resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by
(100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
𝑟= 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑙
Where, R –known resistance from the resistance box in the left gap(𝑜ℎ𝑚)
L – Length of the meter bridge wire from zero ends up to balance point. (Meter)
Observations:

Table for length (l) and unknown resistance (r)

Resistance from Length Resistance Mean

Length AB (100 − 𝑙)𝑅
Resistance resistance box, BC=100–l Resistance
= l(cm) 𝑟=
Coil S.No. R (ohm) (cm) 𝑙 (ohm)
(ohm)

1 2 41 59 2.87

2 4 60 40 2.66 r= 2.685
r only (ohm)
3 6 69 31 2.69

4 8 76 24 2.52

Calculations:
(100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
𝑟= 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑙
(100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
𝑟1 =
𝑙
(100 − 59) 𝑥 2
𝑟1 =
41
𝑟1 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟕(𝒐𝒉𝒎)
Mea
𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐 +𝒓𝟑 +𝒓𝟒
𝒓= =𝟐.𝟖𝟕+𝟐.𝟔𝟔+𝟐.𝟔𝟗+𝟐.𝟓𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟖𝟓 (𝐨𝐡𝐦)
𝟒 𝟒

Procedure:
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined I the right gap
between C and B. Take care that no parts of the forms a loop.
3. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B.
4. Make all the other connections a shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohms) from the resistance box, plug the key K.
6. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.
7. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections
in the opposite directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side
only, then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher
 and rectify the fault.
8. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer
gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null
point D.
9. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no
deflection in the galvanometer =when the jockey is nearly in the middle fo the
wire (i.e between 45 to 55 cm)
10. Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know balancing length,
AD = l.
11. Take at least four sets of observations in the same by changing the value of R in
steps.
12. Record your observations.

Result:
The value of unknown resistance r = 2.685 (ohm)
 EXPERIMENT–3

Aim: To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using meter bridge

Apparatus: A meter bridge, leclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two
resistances wires, set square, sand paper and connecting wires.

Formula:
(i) The resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by
(100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
𝑟= 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑙
Where, R – resistance from the resistance box in the left gap
L – Length of the meter bridge wire from zero end up to balance point.

(ii) When two resistances r1 and r2 are connected in series, then their combined
resistance,
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑜ℎ𝑚

Where, R – known resistance (ohm)

r1&r2 – unknown resistance of the coils in series (ohm)
l – Length of the meter bridge wire from zero end up to balance point (cm)
Observations:

Table for length (l) and unknown resistance (r)

Resistance from Length Resistance Mean

Length AB (𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍)𝑹
Resistance resistance box, BC=100–l Resistance
= l(cm) 𝒓=
Coil S.No. R (ohm) (cm) 𝒍 (ohm)
(ohm)

1 1 60 40 0.66

2 3 67 33 1.47
𝒓𝟏 1.36
3 5 72 28 1.94

1 1 57 43 0.75

2 3 65 35 1.61
1.19
𝒓𝟐
3 5 70 30 2.14

1 1 19.5 80.5 4.12

2 3 30.5 69.5 6.83

𝒓𝟏&𝒓𝟐 2.67
𝑺𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔
3 5 39.5 60.5 7.65

Procedure:
For Resistance
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined I the right gap
between C and B. Take care that no parts of the forms a loop.
3. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand ga between A and B.
4. Make all the other connections a shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohms) from the resistance box, plug the key K.
6. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.
7. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. F the galvanometer shows deflections
in the opposite directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side
only, then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher
and rectify the fault.
 8. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer
gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null
point D.
9. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no
deflection in the galvanometer =when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the
wire (i.e between 45 to 55 cm)
10. Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know balancing length,
AD = l.
11. Take at least four sets of observations in the same by changing the value of R in
steps and Record your observations for each resistances.
12. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2
13. To find r1 and r2 proceed same way as above mentioned method.
14. Connect the two coils r1 and r2in series as shown in figure in the right gap of
Meter Bridge and find the resistance of this combination. Take at least three sets
of observations.
15. Record your observations as follows.

Calculations:
(100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
𝑟= 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑙
(100 − 60) 𝑥 1
𝑟1 =
40
𝑟1 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔 (𝒐𝒉𝒎)
Resistance in series
(100 − 80.5) 𝑥 1
𝑟𝑠 =
19.5
𝑟𝑠 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟐 (𝒐𝒉𝒎)
(By experimental)
𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐 +𝒓𝟑
𝑟𝑠 = 𝟑
=𝟒.𝟏𝟐+𝟔.𝟖𝟑+𝟕.𝟔𝟓
𝟑
= 𝟐. 𝟔𝟕(𝐨𝐡𝐦)

Mean Resistance in series

𝑅𝑠 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑹𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔 + 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟒 𝒐𝒉𝒎 (Bytheoretical)
Result:
Experimental and theoretical values of Rsare nearest value. Hence law of resistances in
series is verified.
 EXPERIMENT–4

Aim: To verify the laws of combination (Parallel) of resistances using meter

bridge

Apparatus: A meter bridge, leclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a

jockey, two resistances wires, set square, sand paper and connecting wires.

Formula:
(i) The resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by
(100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
𝑟= 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑙
Where, R – resistance from the resistance box in the left gap
L – Length of the meter bridge wire from zero ends up to balance point.

(ii) When two resistances r1 and r2 are connected in parallel, then their combined
resistance
1 1
𝑅𝑝 = + 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑟1 𝑟2

Where, R – known resistance (ohm)

r1&r2 – unknown resistance of the coils in Parallel (ohm)
l – length of the meter bridge wire from zero end up to balance point (cm)
Observations:

Table for length (l) and unknown resistance (r)

Resistance from Length Resistance Mean

Length AB (100 − 𝑙)𝑅
Resistance resistance box, BC=100–l Resistance
= l(cm) 𝑟=
Coil S.No. R (ohm) (cm) 𝑙 (ohm)
(ohm)

1 1 60 40 0.66

2 3 67 33 1.47
r1 only 1.36
3 5 72 28 1.94

1 1 57 43 0.75

2 3 65 35 1.61
1.19
r2 only
3 5 70 30 2.14

1 1 70 30 0.428

2 3 77 23 0.896
r1 and r2 0.81
(parallel)
3 5 82.5 18.5 1.12

Calculations:
(100 − 𝑙 )𝑅
𝑟= 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑙
(100 − 60) 𝑥 1
𝑟 = 𝑟1 =
40
𝑟1 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔 (𝒐𝒉𝒎)
(100 − 57) 𝑥 1
𝑟2 =
43
𝑟1 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓(𝒐𝒉𝒎)

1 1 1
= + 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑅𝑝 𝑟1 𝑟2
1 1 1
= + 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑅𝑝 1.36 1.19
𝑹𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟑 𝒐𝒉𝒎 (𝑩𝒚 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)

Resistance in series
(100 − 70) 𝑥 1
𝑟𝑝 =
30
𝑟𝑝 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟖 (𝒐𝒉𝒎)

(By experimental)
𝒓𝟏 +𝒓𝟐 +𝒓𝟑 𝟎.𝟒𝟐𝟖 + 𝟎.𝟖𝟗𝟔+ 𝟏.𝟏𝟐
𝑟𝑠 = 𝟑
= 𝟑
= 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏(𝐨𝐡𝐦)

Procedure:
1. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2
2. To find r1 and r2. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
3. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined I the right gap
between C and B. Take care that no parts of the forms a loop.
4. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B.
5. Connect the two coils r1 and r2 in parallel as shown in figure in the right gap of
meter Bridge and find the resistance of this combination.
6. Make all the other connections a shown in the circuit diagram.
7. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohms) from the resistance box, plug the key K.
8. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.
9. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections
in the opposite directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side
only, then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher
and rectify the fault.
10. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer
gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null
point D.
11. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no
deflection in the galvanometer =when the jockey is nearly in the middle fo the
wire (i.e between 45 to 55 cm)
12. Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know balancing length,
AD = l.
13. Take at least four sets of observations in the same by changing the value of R in
 steps and Record your observations.
14. Mark the two resistance coils as r1 and r2
15. To find r1 and r2 proceed same way as above mentioned method.
16. Connect the two coils r1 and r2 in Parallel as shown in figure in the right gap of
Meter Bridge and find the resistance of this combination. Take at least three sets
of observations.
17. Record your observations as follows.

Result:
Experimental and theoretical vales of Rpare same. Hence law of resistances in parallel is
verified.
 EXPERIMENT–5

Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method & to

find its figure of merit.

Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, a rheostat, two

resistance boxes (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω), two one-way keys, a screw gauge, a meter scale,
connecting wires and a piece of sandpaper

Circuit Diagram

Formula:

1. The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method is

given by

𝑹×𝑺
𝑮 = 𝑹−𝑺 (ohm)
Where, R – resistance connected in series with the galvanometer
S – Shunt resistance

2. The figure of merit is given by

𝑬
𝑲 = (𝑹+𝑮)𝜽 (A/div)

Where, E –emf of the cell

θ – Deflection produced with resistance R (division)

(i) Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half-deflection method

Galvanometer
Resistance R Deflection in the Shunt Half
resistance
S.No (𝛀) Galvanometer resistance deflection 𝑹×𝑺
𝜽 𝑮 = 𝑹−𝑺 (ohm)
(θ) S (𝛀) 𝟐

1 5500 24 90 12 91.49
2 6000 20 90 10 91.37
3 6500 18 90 9 91.26
4 7000 16 90 8 91.17
5 7500 14 90 7 91.09

Mean 𝐆 = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟐𝟕 (𝒐𝒉𝒎)

(ii) Table for figure of merit

S.No Number of Emf of the cell Resistance Deflection
cells (battery E(volts) or from R.B. θ (div) Figure of merit
eliminator) reading of the R(ohm) 𝑬
𝑲 = (𝑹+𝑮)𝜽
battery
eliminator (A/div)

1 1 3 5500 24 2.23X10-5
2 1 3 6000 20 2.46 X10-5
3 1 3 6500 18 2.53X10-5
4 1 3 7000 16 2.64 X10-5

𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒌 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓(A/div)

Calculations

(i)Resistance of Galvanometer:

𝑹×𝑺 𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗𝟎 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑮= = = = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟒𝟗 (ohm)
𝑹−𝑺 𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟎−𝟗𝟎 𝟓𝟒𝟏𝟎

𝑹×𝑺 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗𝟎 𝟓𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑮 = = = = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟑𝟕(ohm)
𝑹−𝑺 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎−𝟗𝟎 𝟓𝟗𝟏𝟎

𝑹×𝑺 𝟔𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗𝟎 𝟓𝟖𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑮 = = = = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 (ohm)
𝑹−𝑺 𝟔𝟓𝟎𝟎−𝟗𝟎 𝟔𝟒𝟏𝟎

𝑹×𝑺 𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗𝟎 𝟔𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑮 = = = = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟏𝟕 (ohm)
𝑹−𝑺 𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎−𝟗𝟎 𝟔𝟗𝟏𝟎
 𝑹×𝑺 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗𝟎 𝟔𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮 = = = = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟎𝟗 (ohm)
𝑹−𝑺 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎−𝟗𝟎 𝟕𝟒𝟏𝟎

𝟗𝟏. 𝟒𝟗 + 𝟗𝟏. 𝟑𝟕 + 𝟗𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 + 𝟗𝟏. 𝟏𝟕 + 𝟗𝟏. 𝟎𝟗

𝑮 =
𝟓

𝑮 = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟐𝟕 (𝛀 𝒐𝒉𝒎)

(B) Figure of merit of the galvanometer:

𝑬 𝟑 𝟑
(i) 𝑲 = (𝑹+𝑮)𝜽 = (𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟎+𝟗𝟏.𝟐𝟕)𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏𝟑𝟒𝟏𝟗𝟎.𝟒𝟖 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑨/𝑫𝒊𝒗

𝑬 𝟑 𝟑
(ii) 𝑲 = = (𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎+𝟗𝟏.𝟐𝟕)𝟐𝟎 = = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑨/𝑫𝒊𝒗
(𝑹+𝑮)𝜽 𝟏𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟓.𝟒𝟎

𝑬 𝟑 𝟑
(iii) 𝑲 = (𝑹+𝑮)𝜽 = (𝟔𝟓𝟎𝟎+𝟗𝟏.𝟐𝟕)𝟏𝟖 = 𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟐.𝟖𝟔 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑨/𝑫𝒊𝒗

𝑬 𝟑 𝟑
(iv) 𝑲 = (𝑹+𝑮)𝜽 = (𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎+𝟗𝟏.𝟐𝟕)𝟏𝟔 = 𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟒𝟔𝟎.𝟑𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑨/𝑫𝒊𝒗

𝟐. 𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 + 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 + 𝟐. 𝟓𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 + 𝟐. 𝟔𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓

𝑲 =
𝟒

𝑲 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑨𝒎𝒑/𝒅𝒊𝒗

Procedure:

(a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method:

1. Make the connections accordingly as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight
3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000 ohm) from the resistance box R and insert
the key K1 only
4. Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within
the scale.
5. Note the deflection. Let it be θ
6. Insert the key K2 also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S,
such that deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained
in step 5 i.e., θ/2.
7. Note the value of resistance S
 8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R and adjusting S
every time.
(b) Figure of merit
9. Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its E.M.F by a voltmeter
by connecting +ve of the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and –ve of voltmeter with
–ve of the cell. Let it be E.
10. Make connections as in circuit diagram.
11. Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection θ (say 30 divisions) when the
circuit is closed.
12. Note the values of resistance R and deflection θ.
13. Now change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again.
14. Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with difference voltages like
2,4,6,8 volts from battery eliminator.
15. Find the figure of merit k using the formula.

Result:

(i) Resistance of given galvanometer = 91.27 (ohm)

(ii) Figure of merit of given galvanometer = 2.46 ×10-5 𝑨/𝑫𝒊𝒗
 EXPERIMENT–6

Aim: To determine the refractive index of a glass using travelling microscope

Apparatus: Travelling microscope, glass slab, chalk powder, marker, white paper sheet, etc.,

Diagram:

The arrangement of the travelling microscope with slab &lycopodium powder

Formula:

Refractive index of glass slab is given by

𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉
𝝁=
𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉

𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏
𝝁= (No unit)
𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐

Where, Real depth = 𝑅3 − 𝑅1

Apparent depth = 𝑅3 − 𝑅2
Observations:

 Least count of travelling microscope = 0.001cm or 0.001 × 10−2 𝑚

 Range of main scale = 15cm
 Total no. of division in main scale = 300
15
 Minimum reading of main scale = 300 = 0.05cm

 Total no. of division in vernier scale = 50

Table: Reading of Microscope focused on:

Apparen
Reading on the microscope Real
Position t Refractive
thicknes
S. of cross thicknes Index
VSR= s 𝑅3 − 𝑅1
No. mark and MSR VSC TR (R3-R1)
s
𝜇=
slab VSC×L (R3-R2) 𝑅3 − 𝑅2
(cm) (cm) (cm) cm
C (cm) cm
6.6 7 0.07 6.607 2.141 1.342 1.59
Cross-mark
1 without slab 6.8 2 0.02 6.802 2.056 1.302 1.57
(R1)
6.7 4 0.04 6.704 2.049 1.295 1.59
7.4 6 0.06 7.406
Cross-mark
2 with slab 7.55 6 0.06 7.556
(R2)
7.45 8 0.08 7.458
Cross-mark
8.7 48 0.48 8.748
with slab and
3 lycopodium 8.85 8 0.08 8.858
powder (R3)
8.75 3 0.03 8.753
Mean 𝝁 = 1.58 (no unit)
Calculations:

(i) Real depth = (R3-R1) = 8.748-6.607 = 2.141

Apparent depth = (R3-R2) =8.748-7.406 = 1.342

𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 𝟐.𝟏𝟒𝟏
Refractive index, 𝝁 = = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗 (𝒏𝒐 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕)
𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐 𝟏.𝟑𝟒𝟐

(ii) Real depth = (R3-R1) = 8.858-6.802 = 2.056

Apparent depth = (R3-R2) =8.858-7.556 = 1.302

𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 𝟐.𝟎𝟓𝟔
Refractive index, 𝝁 = = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕 (𝒏𝒐 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕)
𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐 𝟏.𝟑𝟎𝟐

(iii) Real depth = (R3-R1) = 8.753-6.704 = 2.049

 Apparent depth = (R3-R2) =8.753-7.406 = 1.295

𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 𝟐.𝟎𝟒𝟗
Refractive index, 𝝁 = = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗 (𝒏𝒐 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕)
𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐 𝟏.𝟐𝟗𝟓
𝟏.𝟓𝟗+𝟏.𝟓𝟕+𝟏.𝟓𝟗
Refractive index, 𝝁 = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟖(𝒏𝒐 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕)
𝟑

Procedure:
Adjustment of travelling microscope
1. Place the travelling microscope (M) on the table near a window so that sufficient light
falls on it.
2. Adjust the leveling screws so that the base of the microscope becomes horizontal
3. Make microscope horizontal. Adjust the position of the eye piece so that the cross-wires
are clearly visible.
4. Determine the vernier constant of the vertical scale of the microscope.
Other steps
5. Make a black-ink cross-mark on the base of the microscope. The mark will serve as
point P.
6. Make the microscope vertical and focus it on the cross at P, so that there is no parallax
between the cross-wires and the image of the mark P.
7. Note the main scale and the vernier scale readings (R1) on the vertical scale.
8. Place the glass slab of least thickness over the mark P.
9. Raise the microscope upwards and focus it on the image P1 of the cross – mark.
10. Note the reading (R2) on the vertical scale as before (step 7).
11. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the surface of the slab
12. Raise the microscope further upward and focus it on the particle near S
13. Note the reading (R3) on the vertical scale again (Steps 7)
14. Repeat above steps with other glass slab of more thicknesses.
15. Record observations in tabular form as given below.

Result:

𝑅3 − 𝑅1
(i) The ratio is constant.
𝑅3 − 𝑅2

(ii) The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is determined
as 𝝁 = 1.58 (no unit)
 EXPERIMENT–7

Aim: To find the refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror
Apparatus: A convex lens, a plane mirror, clean transparent liquid in a beaker, an
optical needle, an iron stand with base and clamp arrangement, plum line, plane glass
slab, a spherometer, half meter scale etc.,

Formula:
(i) The focal length F of the combination of lens is given by
1 1 1
= + 𝑓 cm
𝐹 𝑓1 2

Where, f1 – focal length of the glass convex lens

f2 – focal length of the liquid lens
Liquid lens formed is a Plano concave lens with R 1 = R (radius of
curvature of convex lens surface) R2=∞

(ii) Lens maker’s formula,

1 1 1
= (𝑛 − 1) [𝑅 − 𝑅 ] cm
𝑓2 1 2

1 (𝑛−1)
=
𝑓2 𝑅1

𝑅
𝑛 = 1 + 𝑓 cm
2

Where, n = refractive index of the lens

Diagram

Refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror

Table : For distance of needle tip from lens and mirror:

Distance of needle tip

S.No. Arrange Mean Focal length
From the lens From the lens
𝒙 +𝒙
ment surface surface 𝒙= 𝟏 𝟐 𝒙 (cm)
𝟐
𝒙𝟏 (cm) 𝒙𝟐 (cm) (cm)
Without 10.1 10.9 10.5
1 f1 = 10.4
liquid 10.0 10.8 10.4
With 15.3 16.1 15.7
2 F = 15.55
liquid 15.0 15.8 15.4

Rough focal length of convex lens f = 10.2 cm

Radius of curvature R = 2f
R = 20.4 cm
Calculations:
1 1 1
= −
𝑓2 𝐹 𝑓1
1 1 1
= −
𝑓2 15.55 10.4

1
= 0.0643 − 0.0962 = −0.0319
𝑓2
𝑅
𝑛 = 1 + 𝑓 cm
2

𝑛 = 1 + (−20.4)(−0.0319) cm
𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓 𝒄𝒎

Procedure

(a) For focal length of convex lens

1. Take any one convex lens and find its rough focal length
2. Take a plane mirror and place it on the horizontal base of the iron stand
3. Place the convex lens on the mirror
4. Screw tight the optical needle in the clamp of the stand and hold it horizontally
above the lens at distance equal to tits rough focal length.
 5. Bring the tip of the needle at the vertical principle axis of the lens, so the tip of the
needle appears touching tip of its rough of its image.
6. Move the needle up and down and remove the parallax between tips of the needle
and its image.
7. Measure the distance between tip and upper surface of the lens by using a plumb
line and half meter scale.
8. Also measure the distance between tip and the surface of its plane mirror.
(b) For focal length of the combination
9. Take a few drops of transparent liquid on the plane mirror and put the convex lens
over it with its same face above as before (A plano concave lens is formed
between plane mirror and convex lens)
10. Repeat steps 6, 7 and 8.
11. Record your observation as below.
(c) For radius of curvature of convex lens surface.

Result
The refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror n = 1.65 cm