1.

5 The Limit of a Function

Text: Stewart, Calculus, 8th Edition.

Example. Let’s investigate the behavior of the function f defined by f (x) = x2 − x + 2 for values of x near 2. The
following table gives values of f (x) for values of x close to 2 but not equal to 2:

x f (x) x f (x)
1.0 2.000000 3.0 8.000000
1.5 2.750000 2.5 5.750000
1.8 3.440000 2.2 4.640000
1.9 3.710000 2.1 4.310000
1.95 3.852500 2.05 4.152500
1.99 3.970100 2.01 4.030100
1.995 3.985025 2.005 4.015025
1.999 3.997001 2.001 4.003001

From the table and the graph we see that the closer x is to 2 (on either side of 2), the closer f (x) is to 4. In fact, it
appears that we can make the values of f (x) as close as we like to 4 by taking x sufficiently close to 2.
We express this by saying “the limit of the function f (x) = x2 − x + 2 as x approaches 2 is equal to 4.” The notation
for this is
lim (x2 − x + 2) = 4
x→2

In general, we use the following notation.

Definition 0.1. Intuitive Definition of a Limit. 1

Suppose f (x) is defined when x is near the number a. (This means that f is defined on some open interval that
contains a, except possibly at a itself.) Then we write
lim f (x) = L
x→a
and say “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L” if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as
close to L as we like) by restricting x to be sufficiently close to a (on either side of a) but not equal to a.
1A more precise definition will be given in Section 1.7.

Remark. The figure below shows the graphs of three functions. Note that in part (c), f (x) is not defined and in part
(b), f (a) ̸= L. But in each case, regardless of what happens at a, it is true that limx→a f (x) = L.

Example. Evaluate the function f (x) = xx−1 3 −1 at the

given numbers (correct to six decimal places): x f (x) x f (x)

x = 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 0.9, 0.99, 1.8, 1.6, 1.4, 1.2, 1.1, 1.01;
0.2 1.8
Use the results to guess the value of the limit
x−1 0.4 1.6
lim .
x→1 x3 − 1

See how you can find function values with Desmos. 0.6 1.4

0.8 1.2

0.9 1.1

0.99 1.01
3 Answer:
1

1
 Remark. In the previous example, what would have happened if we had taken values even closer to 1? If you evaluate
f (0.99999999999999999) and f (1.0000000000000001) you can see that something strange seems to be happening.
If you try these calculations on your calculator you might get different values, but eventually you will get
"ERR:DIVIDE BY 0" (or "undefined" in Desmos) if you make x sufficiently close to 1.
The problem is that the calculator gave false values because the denominator x3 − 1 is very close to 0 when x is very
close to 1.

Example. Evaluate the function f (x) = sinx x at the

given numbers (correct to six decimal places): x f (x)
x = ±0.5, ±0.4, ±0.3, ±0.2, ±0.1, ±0.05, ±0.01, ±0.005, ±0.001;
±0.5
Use the results to guess the value of the limit
sin x ±0.4
lim .
x→0 x

When using your calculator, remember that sin x means ±0.3

the sine of the angle whose radian measure is x. Don’t
forget to put your calculator in radian mode! ±0.2

±0.1

±0.05

±0.01

±0.005

±0.0001

Answer: 1
π
Example. Investigate lim sin
x→0 x

Answer: The limit does not exist

Remark. The previous example illustrates some of the pitfalls in guessing the value of a limit. It is easy to guess the
wrong value if we use inappropriate values of x and it is difficult to know when to stop calculating values. And, as
we remarked earlier, sometimes calculators and computers give the wrong values. In the next section, however, we
will develop foolproof methods for calculating limits.

2
One-Sided Limits
Definition 0.2. Definition of One-Sided Limits
We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
and say the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a (or the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the
left) is equal to L if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a
with x less than a.
Similarly, if we require that x be greater than a, we get the right-hand limit of f (x) approaches a is equal to L
and we write
lim+ f (x) = L
x→a
Thus the notation x → a+ means that we consider only x greater than a.

lim f (x) = L if and only if lim− f (x) = L and lim+ f (x) = L.

x→a x→a x→a

Example. For the function f whose graph is given, state (a) lim f (x)
x→1
the value of each quantity, if it exists. If it does not exist,
explain why. (b) lim f (x)
x→3−

(c) lim+ f (x)

x→3

(d) lim f (x)

x→3

(e) f (3)

(f) lim f (x)

x→−2−

(g) lim f (x)

x→−2+

(h) lim f (x)

x→−2

(i) f (−2)
(a) 3 (b) 2 (c) -2 (d) DNE (e) 1 (f ) -1 (g) -1 (h) -1 (i) -3
2
Example. Use the graph of the function f (x) = √x +x to state the value of each limit, if it exists. If it does not
x3 +x2
exist, explain why.

(a) lim− f (x)

x→0

(b) lim+ f (x)

x→0

(c) lim f (x)

x→0

(a) -1, (b) 1, (c) Does not exist

3
Infinite Limits
Definition 0.3. Intuitive Definition of an Infinite
Limit
Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except
possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) = ∞
x→a
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily
large (as large as we please) by taking x sufficiently
close to a, but not equal to a.

Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except

possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) = −∞
x→a
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily
large negative by taking x sufficiently close to a but not
equal to a.

Remark. Similar definitions can be given for one-sided infinite limits.

When using the notation lim f (x) = ∞ does not mean that we are regarding ∞ as a number. Nor does it mean
x→a
that the limit exists. It simply expresses the particular way in which the limit does not exist.

Examples. Determine the infinite limit.

1
(a) lim
x→0− x

1
(b) lim+
x→0 x

1
(c) lim
x→0 x

1
(d) lim
x→0 x2

x+1
(e) lim
x→5− x−5

√
x
(f) lim
x→3− (x − 3)5

(a) −∞, (b) ∞, (c) Does not exist (d) ∞ (e) −∞ (f) −∞

4
Vertical Asymptotes
Definition 0.4. Vertical Asymptote.
The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if at least one of the following statements is true:
lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞
x→a x→a− x→a+
lim f (x) = −∞ lim− f (x) = −∞ lim+ f (x) = −∞
x→a x→a x→a

1 1
Example. The line x = 0 (i.e. the y-axis) is a vertical asymptote of the curve y = x2 because lim f (x) = = ∞.
x→0 x2

x2 +1
Example. (a) Find the vertical asymptotes of the function y = 3x−2x2

(b) Confirm your answer to part (a) by graphing the function. See Desmos graph.
x = 0 and x = 1.5

Example. For the function whose graph is shown, state (a) lim f (x)
the following. x→3

(b) lim f (x)

x→7

(c) lim f (x)

x→−4

(d) lim f (x)

x→−9−

(e) lim f (x)

x→−9+

(f) The equations of the vertical asymptotes.

(a) ∞ (b) −∞ (c) −∞ (d) ∞ (e) −∞ (f) x = −9, x = −4, x = 3, x = 7