Separations 09 00122 v2
Separations 09 00122 v2
Article
Numerical Simulation of Dense Solid-Liquid Mixing in Stirred
Vessel with Improved Dual Axial Impeller
Xia Xiong 1,2 , Zuohua Liu 1,2, *, Changyuan Tao 1,2 , Yundong Wang 3 and Fangqin Cheng 4
1 School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China;
[email protected] (X.X.); [email protected] (C.T.)
2 State Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Disaster Dynamics and Control, Chongqing 400044, China
3 Department of Chemical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; [email protected]
4 Institute of Resources and Environment Engineering, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: Computational fluid dynamics (CFDs) were adopted in order to investigate the solid
suspending process in a dense solid–liquid system (with a solid volume fraction of 30%), agitated
by a traditional dual axial impeller and a modified dual axial impeller, otherwise known as a dual
triple blade impeller (DTBI) and a dual rigid-flexible triple blade impeller (DRFTBI), respectively.
The effects of rotational speed, connection strap length/width, and off-bottom clearance on the solid
distribution were investigated. The results show that the proportion of solid concentration larger
than 0.4 in the DTBI system was 26.56 times of that in the DRFTBI system. This indicates that the
DRFTBI system can strengthen the solid suspension and decrease the solid accumulation in the
bottom of the tank. Furthermore, the velocity and turbulent kinetic energy in the DRFTBI system
were promoted. In addition, for an optimal selection, the optimum length of connection strap was
1.2 H1 , the optimum range of connection strap width was D/7–D/8, and the off-bottom clearance
Citation: Xiong, X.; Liu, Z.; Tao, C.; selected as T/4 was better.
Wang, Y.; Cheng, F. Numerical
Simulation of Dense Solid-Liquid Keywords: solid–liquid suspension; numerical simulation; high solid concentration; modified impeller
Mixing in Stirred Vessel with
Improved Dual Axial Impeller.
Separations 2022, 9, 122. https://
doi.org/10.3390/separations9050122 1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Sohrab Solid suspension in a stirred tank is a common operation in the process industry. It is
Zendehboudi common in the processes of hydrogenation, crystallization, leaching, precipitation, etc. [1].
In general, when the equipment requires a major upgrade, the production capacity of a
Received: 9 April 2022
plant is limited. Therefore, solid loading increasing could maximize the throughput or yield
Accepted: 10 May 2022
Published: 16 May 2022
within the current production capacity. Moreover, it could improve the volume utilization
rate of current tanks besides promoting the throughput. Thus, it has application value in
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral the study of solid suspension in a stirred tank with high solid loading.
with regard to jurisdictional claims in The accumulation of solid in the bottom of the tank is a common phenomenon in a
published maps and institutional affil-
high solid loading stirred tank, making it difficult to achieve good mixing effect. Drewer
iations.
et al. [2] found that with increasing solid concentrations, a point was reached where
suspension is unattainable. Tamburini et al. [3] found that with a solid concentration of
25% wsolid/wliquid, the sufficient suspension speed reaches up to 1100 rpm. This not only
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
consumes high energy, but also places higher demands on the safety and stability of the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
equipment. Thus, studying the actions required to improve solid suspension in the high
This article is an open access article solid loading stirred tanks by process intensification is necessary.
distributed under the terms and Generally speaking, large stirring speed is a common way to improve solid suspension
conditions of the Creative Commons in stirred tanks. However, power consumption will increase sharply following an increase
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// in rotation speed. There are some other methods available to strengthen mixing, such
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ as eccentric stirring [4,5] and unsteady speed stirring [6]. These two methods are not
4.0/). conducive to the safe and stable operation of the equipment. There are some researchers
who intensified the mixing process by improving the structure of the impeller. Xu et al. [7]
found that the logarithmic helicoidal impeller could promote the solid suspension com-
pared with rushton disc turbine impeller at the same power consumption. Zhao et al. [8]
applied an improved Intermig impeller in the solid suspension process, and found that
the improved Intermig impeller could promote the fluid circulation compared with the
standard Intermig impeller. Gu et al. [9,10] designed a kind of rigid-flexible impeller and
found that a longer and wider flexible connection piece is conducive to solid particles in
suspension. Nevertheless, all of these methods were simply employed in concentration
systems with low solidity. So far, only few efforts have been devoted to improving the solid
suspension with a high solid loading. Thus, studies relevant to enhancing the high solid
mixing system need to be carried out.
In order to observe the internal flow field, both experimental methods and numerical
simulation methods could be adopted. Particle image velocimetry (PIV), laser doppler
velocimetry (LDV), radioactive particle tracking (RPT), positron emission particle tracking
(PEPT), and new invasive image velocimetry (NIIV) are some examples of experimental
methods. Furthermore, the upper limit values of solid concentration that the fluid field can
accurately measure are 8% [11], 15% [12], 7% [13], 10.4% [14], and 8.8% [15], respectively.
Thus, the maximum value of the solid volume fraction which can be accurately measured
by the fluid field is 15%. To sum up, there is still no suitable technique to measure the
flow pattern of dense solid–liquid systems. One possible approach to predict suspension
curves has been proposed by Tamburini et al. [16]. This model has reliable predictions
starting from low impeller speed to complete suspension agitation speed. In addition,
Tamburini et al. [17] predicted the minimum impeller speed for complete suspension in
a dense solid–liquid suspension system using CFD simulation. Moreover, the concept
of sufficient suspension was proposed to take the place of complete suspension. This
suggests that the CFD method could effectively reveal the flow field of the dense solid–
liquid suspension system. In summary, CFD simulation is more suitable than experimental
studies for analyzing the flow field structure of the high solid loading system.
In this work, the CFD simulation was used to investigate the solid suspension in the
dense solid concentration mixing system. Both the dual triple blade impeller (DTBI) and
dual rigid-flexible triple blade impeller (DRFTBI) were used in this study. The effects of the
impeller type, impeller speed, length and width of a connect piece, and off-bottom clearance
on the solid–liquid mixing process were studied. The solid dispersion, the velocity profile,
and the degree of uniformity were also analysed. The purpose was to explore an efficient
impeller to strengthen solid suspension in a high solid loading mixing system.
2. System Studied
The mixing tank used in this study was a transparent flat-bottomed vessel with an
inner diameter T = 0.18 m and a height H = 0.3 m. The height of liquid level HL = 0.2 m. A
sketch of the stirred tank is shown in Figure 1. The impellers used in this work include a
dual triple blade impeller (DTBI) and a dual rigid-flexible triple blade impeller (DRFTBI),
shown in Figure 2. The DRFTBI is the improvement of DTBI by connecting strap between
two triple blade impellers. The slant angle of the blade is 45 degrees, the diameter of the
impeller D = 0.07 m, and th e spacing of two impellers HS = 0.1 m. The off-bottom clearance
C is one of the investigated variables which can affect the suspension of solid. A dense
solid–liquid suspension was studied: water and coal ash (dp ≤ 75 µm; ρ = 2400 kg/m3 )
with the solid volume fraction equal to 30%. In order to comprehensively evaluate the
mixing effect, different locations in the mixing tank were selected to analyse the result,
as presented in Figure 3. The coordinate of vertical plane is X = 0; the coordinates of all
horizontal planes are Z1 = 0 HL , Z2 = 0.2 HL , Z3 = 0.4 HL , Z4 = 0.6 HL , and Z5 = 0.8 HL ; and
the coordinates of all the y lines are y1 = 2T/9, y2 = 4T/9, y3 = 6T/9, and y4 = 8T/9.
the solid
the solid volume
the solid volume
fraction
volume equal fraction
to 30%.
fraction equal
equal to 30%.
In order
to 30%.
to InIn order
order to
comprehensively to comprehensively
comprehensively evaluate
evaluate theevaluatemixing the the mixing
mixing
effect,
effect, different
effect, different
locations locations
differentinlocations
the mixing in
in thethe mixing
tankmixing tank
were selected
tank were were selected
to selected
analyse the to analyse
result, as
to analyse the result,
thepre-
result, as as pre-
pre
sented
sented in Figure
sented in
3. in
TheFigure 3. The
coordinate
Figure 3. Theof coordinate
vertical plane
coordinate ofof vertical
vertical
is X =planeplane
0; the isis XX == 0;
0; the
coordinates the coordinates
coordinates
of all horizon- of all
of all horizon-
horizon
Separations 2022, 9, 122
tal planes aretal
tal Zplanes
1 = 0 H
planes are
L, Z
are Z = 0
Z21 == 0.2
1 H
0 HH , Z
L,L,ZZ
L = 0.2
2 3= =0.2
2 0.4HH H , Z
L,L,ZZ
L = 0.4
3 4= =0.4
3 H
0.6HH , Z
L,L,Zand
L 4 = 0.6
4 = 0.6Z5 H H ,
= L0.8
L and
, and Z
HL;Zand5 = 0.8
5 = 0.8
3 H
of 16;
theHL; and
L and the
the
coordinates
coordinatescoordinates of all
of all the y lines
of allaretheyyy1 lines
the =lines
2T/9, are
arey2yy=11 =4T/9,
= 2T/9,
2T/9, y3yy=22 =6T/9,
= 4T/9,
4T/9,andyy33 =y
=46T/9,
6T/9,
= 8T/9. and yy44 == 8T/9.
and 8T/9.
Figure
Figure 1. Sketch
Figure
Figure 1.Sketch
of the
1.1. Sketch
stirred
Sketch of
ofof
thethe
tank. stirred
stirred
the tank.
tank.
stirred tank.
(a) (a)
(a) (b) (b)
(b)
Figureof
Figure 2. Structure
Figure
Figure 2.the
2.
2. Structure
impeller
Structure
Structure ofthe
ofof the
and
the impeller
the tank
impeller
impeller and
used
and the
in
thethe
and tanktank
this used
work.
used
tank in
in this
used in this
(a)this
Dualwork.
work. triple
work. (a)
(a) Dual
blade
(a) Dual Dual triple
impeller;
triple
triple blade impeller; (b)
(b) impeller;
bladeblade
impeller; (b
dual
dual rigid-flexible rigid-flexible
triple
(b) dual
dual rigid-flexible
rigid-flexible triple
blade impeller. blade
tripleblade
triple impeller.
blade impeller.
impeller.
Figure3.3.
Figure 3.Distribution
Figure 3. Distribution
Figure Distribution
of of
ofof
the monitoring
Distribution the
thethe monitoring
monitoring
position in
monitoring position
position
the invessel.
in thein
vessel.
position the vessel.
the vessel.
( " T !#)
→ → → → →→ →→
∂
∂(t)
αs ρs U s + ∇· αs ρs U s U s − (µs + µts ) ∇U s + ∇U s
(5)
→ →
→
= αs ρs g − ∇ P + F s,l
→ → →
µtl
∂
∂t ( α l ρ l ε ) + ∇
αl ρl U l ε − αl µl + ∇ε
σε
(7)
! !
→→ →→
→→
T
ε2
= αl C1 k µtl ∇U l ∇U l + ∇U l
ε
− C2 ρl k
where
k2
µtl = ρl Cµ (8)
ε
Separations 2022, 9, 122 5 of 16
where CD is the inter-phase drag coefficient and was estimated using the Gidaspow drag
model for densely distributed solid particles [14,18]:
( h i
24 0.687
αl Res 1 + 0.15 ( α l Re s ) , Res < 1000
CD = (10)
0.44, Res > 1000
Psum 2πNMa
Pv = = (12)
V V
where Psum is the impeller power draw (W); V is the total volume of solid and liquid (m3 );
N is the impeller rotational speed in revolutions per second (rps); and Ma is the absolute
torque that could be obtained by using the torque transducer, determined according to the
following equation [27]:
Ma = Mm − Mr (13)
where Mm is the torque measured by the experiments, and Mr represents the residual
torque cause of the mechanical friction in the bearing, determined by operating the impeller
without any liquid or solid in the tank. Figure 4a shows that when the rotational speed was
equal to 2 rps and the solid volume fraction was equal to 30%, the power consumption
per unit volume of the experiment and simulation was 22.21 W/m3 and 20.68 W/m3 ,
respectively. The variation of experimental data and the simulation result was 6.9%.
Figure 4b shows the solid distribution between the simulation and the experiment. The
stratification of solid distribution on the DTBI system can be seen as obvious, both in the
simulation and experimental results, while the DRFTBI system significantly improved.
torque cause of the mechanical friction in the bearing, determined by operating the impel-
ler without any liquid or solid in the tank. Figure 4a shows that when the rotational speed
was equal to 2 rps and the solid volume fraction was equal to 30%, the power consumption
per unit volume of the experiment and simulation was 22.21 W/m3 and 20.68 W/m3, re-
spectively. The variation of experimental data and the simulation result was 6.9%. Figure
Separations 2022, 9, 122 4b shows the solid distribution between the simulation and the experiment. The stratifi- 6 of 16
cation of solid distribution on the DTBI system can be seen as obvious, both in the simu-
lation and experimental results, while the DRFTBI system significantly improved. To sum
up,Tothe
sumsimulated results show
up, the simulated a good
results showagreement with thosewith
a good agreement of corresponding experi-
those of corresponding
experiments;
ments; therefore,therefore, the simulated
the simulated results
results were were reliable.
reliable.
(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a)
Figure 4. Comparation of Pv in
(a) Comparation ofthe
PvDRFTBI system between
in the DRFTBI system simulation and experiment;
between simulation (b) com-
and experiment;
paration of solid distribution between the simulation and the experiment. (Rotational speed: 120
(b) comparation of solid distribution between the simulation and the experiment. (Rotational speed:
rpm; solid loading: 30%.)
120 rpm; solid loading: 30%).
4.2.4.2. Strengthening
Strengthening Effects
Effects of the
of the Improved
Improved Impeller
Impeller
4.2.1. Comparison of Solid Particle Distribution
4.2.1. Comparison of Solid Particle Distribution
Figures
Figures 5 and
5 and 6 show
6 show thethe solid
solid distribution
distribution of of
twotwo kinds
kinds of of stirred
stirred systems.
systems. It can
It can be be
observed that the solid sedimentation on the bottom of a tank equipped
observed that the solid sedimentation on the bottom of a tank equipped with DRFTBI was with DRFTBI was
less than a tank equipped with DTBI. Figure 7 shows the histogram of
less than a tank equipped with DTBI. Figure 7 shows the histogram of solid distribution solid distribution
forfor
twotwo mixing
mixing systems.
systems. TheThe maximum
maximum value
value of of
thethe local
local solid
solid concentration
concentration in in
thethe DTBI
DTBI
system
system waswas 0.58
0.58 andthe
and themaximum
maximumvaluevalueofoflocal
localsolid
solid concentration
concentration inin the
the DRFTBI
DRFTBI system
sys-
was 0.49. The solid concentration proportions larger than 0.4 in the DRFTBI system and
tem was 0.49. The solid concentration proportions larger than 0.4 in the DRFTBI system
the DTBI system were 0.64% and 17%, respectively, which indicates that the DRFTBI could
and the DTBI system were 0.64% and 17%, respectively, which indicates that the DRFTBI
promote the solid suspension from the bottom. The solid concentration distribution of
could promote the solid suspension from the bottom. The solid concentration distribution
the DRFTBI system mainly aggregated in the range of 0.2–0.4 was close to the average
of the DRFTBI system mainly aggregated in the range of 0.2–0.4 was close to the average
concentration of 0.3, accounting for 94%. For the DTBI system, the proportion of solid
concentration of 0.3, accounting for 94%. For the DTBI system, the proportion of solid
concentration distribution below 0.2 and over 0.4 accounted for 39.8%, which was much
concentration distribution below 0.2 and over 0.4 accounted for 39.8%, which was much
larger than that in the DRFTBI system. This indicates that the DRFTBI could improve the
ions 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW larger than that in the DRFTBI system. This indicates that the DRFTBI could improve the
uniform distribution. According to Figure 8, the dimensionless axial solid concentrations 7 of 17
uniform distribution. According to Figure 8, the dimensionless axial solid concentrations
of the DRFTBI system at all Y lines were nearer to 1 compared to the DTBI system. This
of the DRFTBI system at all Y lines were nearer to 1 compared to the DTBI system. This
proves that the axial solid distribution was much more homogeneous in the DRFTBI tank.
proves that the axial solid distribution was much more homogeneous in the DRFTBI tank.
(a) (b)
Figure 5.Figure 5. Contour
Contour plots
plots of of solid
solid distribution
distribution for for differentimpeller
different impeller types.
types. (a)
(a)DTBI;
DTBI;(b)(b)
DRFTBI.
DRFTBI.
(Rotational speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection strap
(Rotational speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection strap length: 1.2 length: 1.2 H ; plane: X
S HS; plane:= 0). X = 0.)
(a) (b)
Separations 2022, 9, 122 7 of 16
Figure 5. Contour plots of solid distribution for different (a)
impeller types. (a) DTBI; (b) DRFTBI. (b)
(Rotational speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection strap length: 1.2 H S; plane: X = 0.)
Figure 5. Contour plots of solid distribution for different impeller types. (a) DTBI; (b) DR
(Rotational speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection strap length: 1.2 HS; plane: X
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Contour
Figure 6.plots of solid
Contour distribution
plots for different for
of solid distribution impeller types.
different (a) DTBI;
impeller (b) DRFTBI.
types. (a) DTBI;(Ro-
(b) DRFTBI.
tational speed: 120 rpm; solid120 Figure
loading: 6. Contour
30%; plotsstrap
connection of solid distribution
length: 1.2strapfor different
H; plane: 0 impeller
Z =1.2 H, types. (a) DTBI; (b) DR
(Rotational speed: rpm; solid
tational loading:
speed: 30%;solid
120 rpm; connection
loading: 30%; length:
connection H;Zplane:
strap
= 0.2
length:Z1.2= H;
0 H,
plane: Z = 0
H, Z = 0.4 ZH,=Z0.2
= 0.6 H, and Z = 0.8
H, Z = 0.4 H, Z = H, H.)
0.6ZH,= 0.4
andH,Z Z= =0.8
0.6H).
H, and Z = 0.8 H.)
Figure Figure
Separations 2022, 9, 7.
7. Histogram Histogram
x FORof solid
PEER Figure
of solid
distribution
REVIEW 7.for
Histogram
distribution forof
different solid distribution
different
impeller impeller
types. for different
types.
(Rotational impeller
(Rotational
speed: types.
120speed:
rpm; 120(Rotational
8 ofrpm;
17 speed
solid loading: 30%; solid
connection loading:
strap
solid loading: 30%; connection strap length: 1.2 HS.) 30%;
length:connection
1.2 Hs). strap length: 1.2 H S.)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure Figure
9. Contour plots of velocity
9. Contour plots ofdistribution for different for
velocity distribution impeller types.impeller
different (a) DTBI;types.
(b) DRFTBI.
(a) DTBI; (b)9 ofDRFTBI.
Separations 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17
(Rotational speed: 120 rpm, Solid loading: 30%, Connection strap length: 1.2 HS, Plane: X = 0).
(Rotational speed: 120 rpm, Solid loading: 30%, Connection strap length: 1.2 HS , Plane: X = 0).
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Turbulent kinetic energy profile at different axial location. (a) DTBI; (b) DRFTBI. (Rota-
tional speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection strap length: 1.2 Hs.)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 11. Turbulent 11. Turbulent
kinetic energy kinetic energy
profile atprofile at different
different axialaxial location. (a)
location. (a) DTBI;
DTBI; (b) (b)
DRFTBI. (Rota- (Rota-
DRFTBI.
tional speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection strap length: 1.2 Hs.)
tional speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection strap length: 1.2 Hs).
Separations 2022, 9, 122 9 of 16
Separations 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
connection strap. Furthermore, the solid particle could be distributed in bulk of the stirred
tank during this process.
Figure 14.
Figure 14.Deviation of axial
Deviation ξ Figure
at Figure
of axial different
ξ at14. axial
14. locations.
Deviation
Deviation
different of(Solid
axial axial
of loading:
axialξξ
locations. 30%; connection
at atdifferent axial
different
(Solid loading: strap
axiallocations. (Solid
locations. (Solidloading:
30%; connection strap 30%;
loading: 30%;conn
co
length: 1.2 Hs.) length: 1.21.2
Hs.)
length: 1.2 Hs). length: Hs.)
Figure 15. The schematic diagram of DRFTBI strengthens the solid suspension.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
FigureFigure
16. Contour plots of solid
16. Contour plotsdistribution for DRFTBIfor
of solid distribution at different
DRFTBIrotational speeds.
at different (a) 90 rpm;
rotational speeds. (a) 90 rpm;
(b) 120 rpm. (Rotational Figure120
speed: 16. Contour
rpm; plots
solid of solid30%;
loading: distribution for DRFTBI
connection strap at different
length: 1.2 Hs;rotational speeds. (a) 90 rpm;
plane:12 of
(b) 120 rpm. (Rotational
Separations 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection strap length:
(b) 120 rpm. (Rotational speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection strap length:1.2
18Hs; plane:
1.2 Hs; plane:
X = 0.)
X = 0). X = 0.)
Figure
Figure18.
18.Contour
Contour plots of solid
plots distribution
of solid for DRFTBI
distribution with different
for DRFTBI connection
with different strap lengths.
connection strap lengths.
(a) 1.1
(a) 1.1Hs;
Hs;(b)
(b)1.2
1.2Hs;
Hs;(c)(c)
1.31.3
Hs.Hs.
(Rotational speed:
(Rotational 120 rpm;
speed: 120solid
rpm;loading: 30%; plane:
solid loading: 30%;X =plane:
0). X = 0).
Separations 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18
C
m
(d) (e)
(d) (e)
Figure 20. Contour plots of solid distribution for DRFTBI with different connection strap width.
(a) D/5; (b) D/6; (c) D/7; (d) D/8; and (e) D/9. (Rotational speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%;
connection strap length: 1.2 Hs).
Figure 20. Contour plots of solid distribution for DRFTBI with different connection strap width. (a)
C
D/5; (b) D/6; (c) D/7; (d) D/8; and (e) D/9. (Rotational speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection
strap length: 1.2 Hs.) e
Separations 2022, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17
(d)(d) (e)(e)
Figure 21. Histogram of solid distribution for DRFTBI with different connection strap widths. (a)
Figure
Figure 21. Histogram of ofD/5;
solid
solid distributionfor
distribution forDRFTBI
DRFTBIwith with different
different connection
connection strap
strap widths.
widths. (a)
(a) D/5;
(b) D/6; (c) D/7; (d) D/8; and (e) D/9. (Rotational speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection Co
D/5; (b) D/6; (c) D/7; (d)
(b) D/6; (c) D/7; (d) D/8; D/8; and
strapand (e)
(e)1.2
length: D/9.
D/9. (Rotational
Hs.) (Rotational speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection
120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection
strap
strap length:
length: 1.2
1.2Hs.)
Hs). ex
4.6. Effect of Off-Bottom Clearance
4.6. Effect
4.6. EffectofofOff-Bottom The results of solid distribution for DRFTBI with different off-bottom clearances are
Off-BottomClearance
Clearance Co
shown in Figure 22. Furthermore, the histograms of solid distribution are shown in Figure
The results
The resultsofofsolid
solid
23. Withdistribution
distribution
the increasefor infor DRFTBI
DRFTBI
off-bottom with with different
different
clearance, the off-bottom
off-bottom
accumulation inclearances
clearances
of solid are of
the bottom
are shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 22. decreased,
tank Furthermore,
22. Furthermore, the the
histograms
and the histograms
distribution of solid of
of solid solid
indistribution
the upper distribution
partare tankare
shown
of the inshown
Figure
improved. in
When
Figure
23. With23.
theWith thethe
increase off-bottom
increase
in off-bottom inclearance
off-bottomincreased
clearance, thefrom
clearance, T/5 to
accumulation theT/3,accumulation
the of
proportions
solid inofthe solid
of concentration
solid
bottom in of
the
larger than 0.4 were 23.1%, 0.65%, and 0.96%, respectively, while the proportions of solid
bottom
tank of tankand
decreased, decreased,
the and theofdistribution
distribution solid of solid partinof the upper part of the tank
concentration lower than 0.2in
werethe22.9%,
upper 16.38%, and the tankrespectively.
14.03%, improved. When
For the low
improved. When
the off-bottom clearancethe off-bottom
solidincreased
loading system,clearance
fromwhen T/5 theincreased
to T/3, thewas
impeller from
proportions T/5 to
close to the of T/3, the
solidthe
bottom, proportions
concentration
mixing effect and
of solid
larger concentration
than larger
driving
0.4 were 23.1%, than
force
0.65%, 0.4 0.96%,
for and
solid were 23.1%,
suspension in the0.65%,
lower part
respectively, andof 0.96%,
while the
thetank respectively,
was while
relativelyofbetter
proportions solid than
in the upper part. Unlike the low solid loading system, a mass of solid weight
the proportions
concentration of solid
lower than concentration
0.2 were 22.9%, lower
16.38%, thanand 0.214.03%,
were 22.9%, 16.38%,For
respectively. andthe lowthe
on
14.03%,
Co
blades of the impeller in the high loading system weakened the solid suspension effect
respectively.
solid loading For the low
system, when
and
solidtheloading
resulted inimpeller
system,
was close
an accumulation
when the
of solidtointhe
impeller
bottom,
the bottom
was close
thetank.
of the mixing to effect
the bottom,
and
the mixing effect and driving forceinfor m
driving force for solid suspension thesolid
lower suspension
part of theintank the was
lower part of the
relatively tank
better was
than
relatively
in the upper better than
part. in the
Unlike theupper
low solidpart. loading
Unlike the low solid
system, a mass loading
of solid system,
weighta on masstheof Co
solid weight
blades of the on the blades
impeller in the ofhigh
the impeller
loading in the high
system loadingthe
weakened system
solidweakened
suspensionthe solid
effect
suspension effect and resulted in an accumulation
and resulted in an accumulation of solid in the bottom of the tank. of solid in the bottom of the tank. Co
m
Co
Co
(a) (b) (c)
m
Figure 22. Contour plots of solid distribution for DRFTBI with different off-bottom clearance. (a)
T/3; (b) T/4; and (c) T/5. (Rotational speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection strap length: 1.2
Hs). Co
Co
Separations 2022, 9, 122 14 of 16
Figure 23. Histogram of solid distribution for DRFTBI with different off-bottom clearance. (a) T/3;
(b) T/4; and (c) T/5. (Rotational speed: 120 rpm; solid loading: 30%; connection strap length: 1.2 Hs).
5. Conclusions
This paper studies the intensification of solid suspension and homogeneous distribu-
tion in a high solid loading mixing system using the CFD method. The DTBI and DRFTBI
systems were investigated. The simulated results showed that DRFTBI had better mixing
performance compared to DTBI. Meanwhile, the effects of impeller speed, connection
strap length/width, and off-bottom clearance were investigated. The main conclusions are
listed below.
(1) The local solid concentration of the DRFTBI system was lower than that of the
DTBI system. Meanwhile, the proportion of solid concentration in the range of 0.25–0.3
was increased, meaning that more region with a solid concentration closer to the average
concentration. In conclusion, the DRFTBI system could promote the suspension of solid in
the stirred tank and enhance the homogeneity. This is because the DRFTBI could induce
many vortexes in order to enhance the solid suspension. On the other hand, solid particle
crash with a connection strap could their distribution in bulk of the stirred tank.
(2) Longer strap lengths were not the best. The strengthening effect of increasing the
strap length only worked in a definite range. For the strap width, the promotion of particle
suspension was limited when the strap was too thin. Thus, the strap width was most
effective in the range of D/7–D/8, whereby variation was only small between each width.
(3) For the off-bottom clearance, when the initial solid concentration was the same, a
lower impeller location could accumulate more solid in the impeller blades, thus inhibiting
the rotation of the impeller. Thus, the lower off-bottom clearance did not improve the
mixing in the lower part of the tank, as expected.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Z.L., Y.W. and F.C.; methodology, X.X., Z.L., Y.W. and
C.T.; investigation, X.X.; resources, Z.L. and C.T.; Supervision, Z.L., Y.W. and C.T.; writing—original
draft preparation, X.X. and Z.L.; writing—review and editing, X.X. and Z.L.; supervision, Z.L.;
funding acquisition, Z.L. and Y.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: The study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (22078030,
Z20200804), National Key Research and Development Project (2019YFC1905802), Key Project of Inde-
pendent Research Project of State Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Disaster Dynamics and Control (2011D-
A105287-zd201902), Hubei Three Gorges Laboratory Open/Innovation Fund (SK211009, SK215001).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
1corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments: The study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(22078030 and Z20200804), the National Key Research and Development Project (2019YFC1905802),
the Key Project of Independent Research Project of State Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Disaster Dy-
namics and Control (2011DA105287-zd201902), and the Hubei Three Gorges Laboratory Open/In-
Separations 2022, 9, 122
novation Fund (SK211009 and SK215001). 15 of 16
Nomenclature Nomenclature
C off-bottom clearance (m)
C off-bottom clearance (m)
Ch Ch local solid volume fraction at height of of hh
Cavg Cavg average solid volume fraction
Cε1, Cε2, Cε3, Cμ Cε1 , Cε2 , Cε3 , Cµ ὺparameters
parameters in the standard k-ε model
CD CD coefficient
drag coefficient
D D impeller diameter (m)
dp dp particle diameter (m)
F F interphase momentum transfer term term (N)
(N)
Fdrag Fdrag drag force (N)
g gravitational acceleration (m/s 2
g (m/s2))
H H stirred
stirred vessel
vessel height
height (m)
(m)
HL HL liquid height (m)
liquid height (m)
HS HS interlayer
interlayer spacing
spacing of
of two
two impeller
impeller (m)
(m)
k turbulent kinetic energy (m 2 /s2 )
k turbulent kinetic energy (m2/s 2)
Ma Ma absolute
absolute torque
torque (N.m)
(N.m)
Mm Mm torque
torque measured experimentally
measured experimentally (N.m)
(N.m)
Mr residual torque (N.m)
Mr residual torque (N.m)
N impeller speed (rpm)
N impeller speed (rpm)
n number of sampling points
n number of sampling points
P pressure (Pa)
P pressure (Pa)
Psum power consumption (W)
Psum power consumption (W)
Pv specific power consumption (W/m33 )
Pv specific power consumption (W/m )
r radial coordinate (m)
r radial coordinate (m)
T inner diameter of stirred vessel (m)
T t inner(s)
time diameter of stirred vessel (m)
t Ui time (s)
velocity (m/s)
Ui V velocity
total (m/s)of solid and liquid (m3 )
volume
V Greek Letters total volume of solid and liquid (m3)
Greek Letters ρl liquid density (kg/m3 )
ρl ρs liquiddensity
solid density(kg/m
(kg/m33))
ρs ρ density (kg/m ) 3)
solid density (kg/m
3
ρ α density (kg/m
volume fraction3)
α αl volume fraction
liquid phase volume fraction
αl αs liquidphase
solid phasevolume
volumefraction
fraction
αs ε solid phase
turbulent volume
energy fraction rate
dissipation
ε µ viscosity
turbulent(Pa · s) dissipation rate
energy
μ µl liquid phase
viscosity viscosity (Pa · s)
(Pa⸱s)
μl µt turbulent
liquid phaseviscosity
viscosity · s)
(Pa(Pa⸱s)
μt µtl liquid phase turbulent
turbulent viscosity (Pa⸱s) viscosity (Pa · s)
μtl σk , σ ε k and ε turbulent Prandtl number
liquid phase turbulent viscosity (Pa⸱s)
σk, σε ξ homogeneity
k and ε turbulent Prandtl number
ξ homogeneity
References
ences 1. Carletti, C.; Montante, G.; Westerlund, T.; Paglianti, A. Analysis of solid concentration distribution in dense solid–liquid stirred
tanks by
Carletti, C.; Montante, G.;electrical resistance
Westerlund, tomography.
T.; Paglianti, Chem. of
A. Analysis Eng. Sci.concentration
solid 2014, 119, 53–64. [CrossRef]
distribution in dense solid–liquid stirred
2. Drewer, G.R.; Ahmed, N.; Jameson, G.J. Suspension of
anks by electrical resistance tomography. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2014, 119, 53–64.High Concentration Solids in Mechanically Stirred Vessels. In Institution of
Chemical Engineers Symposium Series; Hemisphere Publishing Corporation: London, UK, 1994; Volume 136, p. 41.
Drewer, G.R.; Ahmed, N.; Jameson, G.J. Suspension of High Concentration Solids in Mechanically Stirred Vessels. In Institution
3. Tamburini, A.; Cipollina, A.; Micale, G.; Brucato, A.; Ciofalo, M. CFD simulations of dense solid–liquid suspensions in baffled
f Chemical Engineers Symposium Series; Hemisphere Publishing Corporation: London, UK, 1994; Volume 136, p. 41.
stirred tanks: Prediction of solid particle distribution. Chem. Eng. J. 2013, 223, 875–890. [CrossRef]
4. Woziwodzki, S.; J˛edrzejczak, A. Effect of eccentricity on laminar mixing in vessel stirred by double turbine impellers. Chem. Eng.
Res. Des. 2011, 89, 2268–2278. [CrossRef]
5. Zhang, M.; Hu, Y.; Wang, W.; Shao, T.; Cheng, Y. Intensification of viscous fluid mixing in eccentric stirred tank systems. Chem.
Eng. Processing Process Intensif. 2013, 66, 36–43. [CrossRef]
6. Nomura, T.; Uchida, T.; Takahashi, K. Enhancement of Mixing by Unsteady Agitation of an Impeller in an Agitated Vessel. J.
Chem. Eng. Jpn. 1997, 30, 875–879. [CrossRef]
Separations 2022, 9, 122 16 of 16
7. Lin, R.; Stuckman, M.; Howard, B.H.; Bank, T.L.; Roth, E.A.; Macala, M.K.; Lopano, C.; Soong, Y.; Granite, E.J. Application of
sequential extraction and hydrothermal treatment for characterization and enrichment of rare earth elements from coal fly ash.
Fuel 2018, 232, 124–133. [CrossRef]
8. Zhao, H.L.; Zhang, Z.M.; Zhang, T.A.; Yan, L.I.U.; Gu, S.Q.; Zhang, C. Experimental and CFD studies of solid-liquid slurry tank
stirred with an improved Intermig impeller. Oral Oncol. 2014, 50, 2650–2659. [CrossRef]
9. Gu, D.; Liu, Z.; Xie, Z.; Li, J.; Tao, C.; Wang, Y. Numerical simulation of solid-liquid suspension in a stirred tank with a dual
punched rigid-flexible impeller. Adv. Powder Technol. 2017, 28, 2723–2734. [CrossRef]
10. Gu, D.; Liu, Z.; Qiu, F.; Li, J.; Tao, C.; Wang, Y. Design of impeller blades for efficient homogeneity of solid-liquid suspension in a
stirred tank reactor. Adv. Powder Technol. 2017, 28, 2514–2523. [CrossRef]
11. Li, G.; Gao, Z.; Li, Z.; Wang, J.; Derksen, J.J. Particle-resolved PIV experiments of solid-liquid mixing in a turbulent stirred tank.
AIChE J. 2018, 64, 389–402. [CrossRef]
12. Kohnen, C.; Bohnet, M. Measurement and Simulation of Fluid Flow in Agitated Solid/Liquid Suspensions. Chem. Eng. Technol.
2001, 24, 639–643. [CrossRef]
13. Guha, D.; Ramachandran, P.A.; Dudukovic, M.P. Flow field of suspended solids in a stirred tank reactor by Lagrangian tracking.
Chem. Eng. Sci. 2007, 62, 6143–6154. [CrossRef]
14. Liu, L.; Barigou, M. Numerical modelling of velocity field and phase distribution in dense monodisperse solid–liquid suspensions
under different regimes of agitation: CFD and PEPT experiments. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2013, 101, 837–850. [CrossRef]
15. Wang, H.; Li, X.; Mao, Z.S.; Yang, C. New invasive image velocimetry applicable to dense multiphase flows and its application in
solid–liquid suspensions. AIChE J. 2019, 65, e16668. [CrossRef]
16. Tamburini, A.; Cipollina, A.; Micale, G.; Brucato, A.; Ciofalo, M. CFD simulations of dense solid–liquid suspensions in baffled
stirred tanks: Prediction of suspension curves. Chem. Eng. J. 2011, 178, 324–341. [CrossRef]
17. Tamburini, A.; Cipollina, A.; Micale, G.; Brucato, A.; Ciofalo, M. CFD simulations of dense solid–liquid suspensions in baffled
stirred tanks: Prediction of the minimum impeller speed for complete suspension. Chem. Eng. J. 2012, 193, 234–255. [CrossRef]
18. Li, X.K. Multiphase Flow and Fluidization, Continuum and Kinetic Theory Descriptions; Gidaspow, D., Ed.; Academic Press: New York,
NY, USA, 1993; p. 467, Price $60.00; ISBN 0-12-282770-9. J. Non-Newton. Fluid Mech. 1994, 55, 207–208.
19. Klenov, O.P.; Noskov, A.S. Solid dispersion in the slurry reactor with multiple impellers. Chem. Eng. J. 2011, 176, 75–82. [CrossRef]
20. Hosseini, S.; Patel, D.; Ein-Mozaffari, F.; Mehrvar, M. Study of Solid−Liquid Mixing in Agitated Tanks through Computational
Fluid Dynamics Modeling. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2010, 49, 4426–4435. [CrossRef]
21. Qi, N.; Zhang, H.; Zhang, K.; Xu, G.; Yang, Y. CFD simulation of particle suspension in a stirred tank. Particuology 2013, 11,
317–326. [CrossRef]
22. Hashemi, N.; Ein-Mozaffari, F.; Upreti, S.R.; Hwang, D.K. Analysis of mixing in an aerated reactor equipped with the coaxial
mixer through electrical resistance tomography and response surface method. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 2016, 109, 734–752. [CrossRef]
23. Hashemi, N.; Ein-Mozaffari, F.; Upreti, S.R.; Hwang, D.K. Analysis of power consumption and gas holdup distribution for an
aerated reactor equipped with a coaxial mixer: Novel correlations for the gas flow number and gassed power. Chem. Eng. Sci.
2016, 151, 25–35. [CrossRef]
24. Jegatheeswaran, S.; Kazemzadeh, A.; Ein-Mozaffari, F. Enhanced aeration efficiency in non-Newtonian fluids using coaxial
mixers: High-solidity ratio central impeller with an anchor. Chem. Eng. J. 2019, 378, 122081. [CrossRef]
25. Hashemi, N.; Ein-Mozaffari, F.; Upreti, S.R.; Hwang, D.K. Experimental investigation of the bubble behavior in an aerated coaxial
mixing vessel through electrical resistance tomography (ERT). Chem. Eng. J. 2016, 289, 402–412. [CrossRef]
26. Jegatheeswaran, S.; Ein-Mozaffari, F. Investigation of the detrimental effect of the rotational speed on gas holdup in non-
Newtonian fluids with Scaba-anchor coaxial mixer: A paradigm shift in gas-liquid mixing. Chem. Eng. J. 2020, 383, 123118.
[CrossRef]
27. Wang, S.; Parthasarathy, R.; Wu, J.; Slatter, P. Optimum Solids Concentration in an Agitated Vessel. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2014, 53,
3959–3973. [CrossRef]