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© Copyright Simon Monk 2023
All rights Reserved.
Second Edition

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form

or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or by any other information storage and retrieval system,
without written permission from the publisher.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and
author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make
no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or com-
pleteness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any
implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular pur-
pose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representa-
tives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained
herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult
with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor au-
thor shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial
damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequen-
tial, or other damages.

ISBN: 978-1-7394874-3-0

i
 Programming the Pico
Learn Coding and Electronics with the Raspberry Pi Pico

Simon Monk
 Preface to the Second Edition
The Raspberry Pi Foundation has achieved enormous success with
its range of single board computers. Since the release of the original
Raspberry Pi in 2014, the Raspberry Pi has evolved into a machine
that makes a perfectly respectable replacement for a more traditional
desktop computer. Added to that, the Raspberry Pi versions Zero to
5 and the Pi 400 have always provided access to GPIO pins to allow
sensors, displays and all sorts of electronics to be interfaced directly
with the Raspberry Pi.
The Raspberry Pi Pico and its stable mate the Pico W are a radi-
cal departure from all previous versions of the Raspberry Pi. Unlike
other Raspberry Pis, the Pico and Pico W have no operating sys-
tem and no built-in interfaces for keyboard, mouse and monitor –
rather, they are aimed squarely at electronics enthusiasts and edu-
cators wishing to learn about physical computing.
The Raspberry Pi Pico and Pico W (let’s just call them a Pico) are
not regular computers, but rather a microcontroller. That is, it is
not intended for general purpose computing, but rather it is designed
to help you make electronic projects – to, if you like, be the brain of
such projects. For example, a Pico might be pressed into service to
make a robot, control motors and a loudspeaker to make sounds, or
it might be used to display temperature or other sensor readings on
a small LCD screen.
The Raspberry Pi Pico W works just like a Raspberry Pi Pico, but
adds the ability to use WiFi making it a great board for connected
Internet of Things projects.
The gold standard microcontroller board, widely used in education
and by hobbyists, is the Arduino Uno R3. The Pico is firmly in
the same territory as the Uno, but is a much more up-to-date and
powerful design. What’s more, it is priced extremely competitively,
even finding its way onto the cover of Hackspace magazine as a give-
away. While an Arduino is programmed in the lean and efficient
programming language C++ (which you can also use on the Pico),
the Pico’s dual-core ARM processor is capable of running the more
memory-hungry Python language, that is the most popular program-
ming language in the world and widely used by educators. Most peo-
ple find it easier to get started programming with Python than they
do C++, and the official implementation of Python recommended by
the Raspberry Pi Foundation (MicroPython) is perfectly fast enough
for most projects.

ii
This book teaches you Python at the same time as learning how to
make use of the Pico. No prior programming or electronics knowledge
is assumed or required to learn Python and get your Pico doing some
pretty cool stuff. When it comes to exploring the hardware side of
things, you are going to need a side-order of electronic bits and bobs
to make the most of your Pico.
Buying the parts you need can be tricky if you are new to electronics
and so, in this book, we use the MonkMakes Breadboard Kit for
Raspberry Pi Pico. This kit was designed specifically for this book
and includes a good range of basic components to get you started.
If you prefer not to get too involved in the electronics, then you can
just use the Pico as a vehicle for learning Python using the Pico’s
built-in LED and a small length of wire will be enough to try out a
whole range of projects.
The first edition of this book concentrated on the Pico. In this second
edition the major change is a new Chapter that explains how to use
the WiFi capabilities of the Pico W.

How to Use This Book

Learning to program, like any skill, requires practice and simple
straight-forward examples that you can follow. In this book, you will
be led step-by-step through example programs, intermingled with ex-
planations and background.
The first chapter is an introduction to the Pico, providing a guided
tour of the Pico and Pico W boards and explaining a bit more about
their features and just what you can use them for. This should leave
you itching to use your Pico for real, and so Chapter 2 is a guide to
getting started – you will upload your first program onto your Pico,
and carry out a few experiments, just to get used to using the device.
Chapters 3 to 6 are all about Python, and are illustrated with an
extensive Morse code example using the Pico’s built-in LED to flash
out messages. By using the built-in LED, there is no need to use
any other components, and the example gradually gets more sophis-
ticated as your Python knowledge grows.
Chapters 7 to 10 show you how to use MicroPython to use electronics
sensors and buttons and how to interface with servomotors.
Chapter 12 deals with the WiFi capability of the Pico W and shows

iii
you how to connect to the Internet and host web pages.
This book is centred around the officially recommended MicroPy-
thon; however, MicroPython has a competitor in the shape of Adafruit’s
CircuitPython. In Chapter 13, you will learn about the differences
between MicroPython and CircuitPython, as well as learning where
to go for more CircuitPython resources.
Having used this book to learn Python, you will not find it hard
should you wish to try the CircuitPython alternative. This chapter
also provides a brief introduction to programming your Pico in C++,
using the Arduino software, should you want to try it out.

Code Download
All the code examples for this project are available for download from
GitHub at:
https://github.com/simonmonk/prog_pico_ed2
The simplest way to get the example files onto your computer is to
download the ZIP file at:
https://github.com/simonmonk/prog_pico_ed2/archive/main.zip
and then extract the contents into a convenient location.

Electronics Hardware
You can find information on the MonkMakes Breadboard Kit for
Raspberry Pi Pico at https://www.monkmakes.com/pico_kit1 where
you will find a list of suppliers world-wide from whom you can buy
the kit.

The book’s website

For errata, and further information on the book see the book’s web
page at:
http://simonmonk.org/pico_book_2

iv
 Acknowledgements
Many thanks to Ian Huntley and Mike Basset for their helpful tech-
nical review and copy editing of the first edition. Thanks also to
David Whale, Dave Sanderson and Brett (@Brett0123456) for tak-
ing the time to tell me about errata from the first edition, that have
now been fixed.
The breadboard layouts for this book were created using the excellent
Fritzing Software (fritzing.org). Other diagrams were drawn using
Inkscape (inkscape.org). Thank you also to the creators of Thonny
for making such a great beginners code editor for Python.

v
 Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 Getting Started 9

3 MicroPython Basics 19

4 Functions 33

5 Lists and Dictionaries 41

6 Modules, Classes and Files 55

7 Inputs and Outputs 69

8 Electronics 81

9 Advanced Input Output 97

10 Sensors 105

11 Displays 113

12 Wireless with the Pico W 125

13 Other Programming Languages 139

A Pico and Pico W Pinout 147

vii
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

In this chapter, you will learn about the Pico and Pico W’s places in
the world of electronics, their features and what you can use them
for.
Their processor chip (the RP2040) is also finding its way onto a
number of other educational and hobbyist boards, so in learning how
to use the Pico you will also be learning how to use these boards.

Microcontrollers
The term microcontroller really refers to the chip at the centre of
the Pico — most of the rest of the Pico is concerned with providing
power, and making the connections to that chip accessible. So, it
seems reasonable to refer to both the chip and the whole circuit
board as a microcontroller.
A microcontroller is a computer, in the sense that it has a processor
and memory and runs a program that does things – perhaps read a
sensor, do some calculations and then show information on a display,
or switch something on and off.
One of the differences between a microcontroller and a single board
computer is that a microcontroller can usually only run one program
at a time. Thus a second (normal) computer is required to write pro-
grams and upload them onto the microcontroller to be run, whereas
a single board computer (like the Raspberry Pi 4 or 5) has its own
operating system and does not need a second computer to program
it.

1
1. Introduction

This process of writing code for a microcontroller using a second

computer and code-editing software and then embedding the pro-
grammed Pico as an independent brain or controller for the project
is why the whole field of microcontrollers is often referred to as em-
bedded computing. Once the code for the project is complete, it can
be detached from your main computer and work independently. If
course, if your goal is just to learn programming or electronics, you
may just choose to take it all apart and make the next project.

A Tour of the Pico

Figure 1.1 shows the Pico, highlighting items of interest on the board.

Figure 1.1. The Raspberry Pi Pico.

The micro USB connector is used to attach your Pico to your com-
puter. This serves the dual purpose of supplying power to the Pico
and acting as a data interface between your computer and the Pico,
so that you can transfer programs onto the Pico and interact with it
in other ways.
Moving clockwise around the board, you can see an area marked as
the Voltage Regulator. This takes the 5V supplied by the USB con-
nector and converts it to the 3.3V used by the Pico’s microcontroller.
This 3.3V supply is also available for you to use as a power source

2
in your projects, and can supply up to 300mA.

The IC (integrated circuit) in the center of the board is the actual

microprocessor. This is a processor (the RP2040) designed by the
Raspberry Pi organisation that has two processing cores and plenty
of memory, yet can operate in a low current mode if required, making
it very suitable for battery-powered projects.

The GPIO (General Purpose Input Output) pins along the two long
sides of the Pico allow you to attach components like LEDs, servo-
motors, displays, and sensors to the Pico.

Continuing around the board, we have a separate 2MB flash memory

chip. 2MB may not sound like very much, but is actually a lot more
than most microcontrollers have, and does open up the possibility of
storing low resolution images or sound files to use in your projects.

The Pico has one built-in LED that you can control from your pro-
grams.

Finally, the Boot Select button is rarely used but, if pressed while
the Pico powers up, it puts the Pico into a special mode that allows
you to reinstall MicroPython, or indeed, install other firmware (such
as Adafruit’s CircuitPython that you will meet in Chapter 13).

Unusually for a microcontroller board, the Pico has no reset button.

Some people don’t like this, but unplugging it and plugging it back
in again will cause a reset. If you do need to reset your Pico in this
way, I recommend pulling the larger full-size end of the USB lead out
of your computer, because this is a lot more robust than the micro
USB connector on the Pico.

The Pico W
The Pico W (Figure 1.2) looks very much like the original Pico, but
adds a WiFi and Bluetooth module to the Pico. The module is the
metal box right about where the Raspberry Pi logo sits on a Pico.

Any program written for the Pico should run just fine on a Pico W,
but obviously anything written for the Pico W that uses WiFi will
not work on the Pico. So, most of the time, when I write Pico you
can take this as meaning Pico or Pico W.

3
1. Introduction

Figure 1.2. The Raspberry Pi Pico W.

Input Output Pins

We will not get to use the GPIO (General Purpose Input Output)
pins until later chapters, but if you are familiar with other micro-
controllers and are interested in the electronics side of things then
prepare to be wowed by the features available on the Pico.
Figure 1.3 shows a map of the GPIO pins of the Pico (its pinout) and,
as you can see, there are multiple features available on many of the
pins. Apart from the power and control pins, all the rest of the pins
can be used as digital inputs or outputs. They can also all be used
to generate PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) signals for controlling
the brightness of LEDs, or providing control pulses to servomotors.
Both the Pico and Pico W have the same pinout.

Power and Control Pins

The Pico and Pico W share a flexible and well designed power supply.
When connected to USB, the USB 5V pin comes directly from the
USB of the computer or power supply you are connected to. This
can be useful if you want to attach devices that require 5V to your
Pico. However, USB is not the only option for powering the Pico
— once you are finished programming it and are ready to power it

4
 Figure 1.3. The Raspberry Pi Pico Pinout.

from a battery pack, you can use any voltage supply of between 1.8V
and 5.5V connected to VSYS. Even if this voltage is under 3.3V, the
buck-boost voltage regulator of the Pico will generate a reliable 3.3V
for the Pico to use. This 3.3V supply is also available for use in your
electronics projects on the pin labelled 3V3 (a short-hand for 3.3V).
The 3V3 EN pin has the strange function of turning off the voltage
regulator (and so the whole Pico) when connected to GND. This
can be useful, in specialised very low current projects, and allows an
external circuit to put the Pico into standby mode.
The RUN pin is somewhat confusingly named, because it’s really a
reset pin that, when connected to GND, will reset the Pico.

Data Busses
Although you can turn LEDs on and off, use push switches and so on
with normal digital inputs and outputs, many peripherals that you
may want to connect to your Pico such as displays, accelerometers,
and other advanced sensors use a bus interface —- a standard proto-
col for making the connections. As is often the case with standards,

5
1. Introduction

there are several different standards of buses that you can use, and
the Pico handles any that you are likely to want.
The first of these, UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Trans-
mitter), isn’t really strictly speaking a bus, but it is a fairly common
way of connecting peripherals such as GPS receivers, Smartcard and
barcode readers. By default UART can be used on pins GP0 and
GP1. However, there is a second UART that you can optionally use,
and associate with pins GP4 and GP5 or GP8 and GP9.
Similarly, the very common I2C bus is available on pins GP4 and
GP5, with a second bus optionally available on various other pin
combinations.
A single SPI bus which is commonly used by some small LCD and
OLED displays is available on GP16, 17, 18 and 19.
The important point about all these advanced options is that they
only tie up a pin if you decide to use them. If not, then these pins
can just be used as digital inputs and outputs. This flexibility of pin
use means that you should be able to use your Pico to connect to a
wide range of external devices at the same time, satisfying the needs
of the most complex of projects.

Programming
Programming, or coding if you prefer, is the process of writing a pro-
gram that tells a computer, or in this case the Pico’s microcontroller,
what to do. You can think of a program as a list of instructions to
be carried out. For example, to make an LED blink on and off, the
instructions might (in English) be as follows.
(If it helps, imagine someone being the processor and standing by
a light switch with one hand on the switch and the other holding
a watch -— your job is to provide instructions that are clear and
unambiguous.)
1. Turn the LED on
2. Wait for half a second
3. Turn the LED off
4. Wait for another half second
5. Go back to step 1

6
Following these instructions, you can see that, as well as simply per-
forming commands like turning the LED on and off, we also need
control command like step 5 that allow commands to be repeated.
When we write a program for the Pico, we type the text for the
program into an editor using a programming language. In this case,
the programming language is a version of the Python programming
language called MicroPython.
Having written the program, we save it as a file. If we put this file
onto the Pico, then the Pico will run it for us.

Summary
Now that we have found out a bit more about the Raspberry Pi Pico
and some of its features, we can build on this in the next chapter,
installing the software that we need onto our computer and running
our first program on the Pico.

7
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Trichopipo, II. 502.
Tridactylia, II. 509, 528.
arctica, II. 530.
dorsalis, II. 532.
undulata, II. 532.
Triorchis, III. 182, 297.
Trochilidæ, II. 437, 466.
Trochilinæ, II. 438.
Trochilus, II. 438, 439, 447.
alexandri, II. 450.
anna, II. 454.
aureigaster, II. 448.
calliope, II. 445.
colubris, II. 448.
icterocephalus, II. 454.
leucotis, II. 466.
maculatus, II. 468.
mango, II. 440.
melanotus, II. 466.
platycercus, II. 462.
rufus, II. 458.
tobaci, II. 468.
 tobagensis, II. 468.
tobago, II. 468.
Troglodytes, I. 131, 148.
ædon, I. 146, 148, 149, 162.
alascensis, I. 149, 157.
americanus, I. 136, 149, 151, 153.
arundinaceus, I. 141, 142.
aztecus, I. 148.
bewickii, I. 144, 145, 147.
brevirostris, I. 159.
fulvus, I. 149.
hyemalis, I. 149, 155, 158; III. 508.
latisfasciatus, I. 135.
leucogaster, I. 147.
ludovicianus, I. 142, 146.
mexicanus, I. 138.
obsoletus, I. 134, 135.
pacificus, I. 149, 155, 158.
palustris, I. 161.
parkmanni, I. 148, 153, 162.
spilurus, I. 147.
stellaris, I. 158, 159.
sylvestris, I. 153.
Troglodytidæ, I. 130, 431.
Trupialis, II. 148.
Tryphæna heloisa, II. 465.
Turdidæ, I. 1, 2, 59, 69, 130, 431.
Turdinæ, I. 2, 3, 31.
Turdus (subgenus), I. 2, 4, 22, 59.
aliciæ, I. 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 16.
aonalaschkæ, I. 20.
ater, II. 182, 190.
auduboni, I. 5, 7, 15, 16, 21; III. 504.
aurocapillus, I. 280, 286.
carolinensis, I. 52.
confinis, I. 24, 27.
coronatus, I. 280.
densus, I. 8.
fuscescens, I. 4, 6, 9, 15–21.
guttatus, I. 18.
hudsonius, II. 203.
iliacus, I. 22, 23.
jamaicensis, I. 24.
jugularis, II. 182, 190.
labradorius, II. 203.
ludovicianus, II. 287.
melodus, I. 8.
merula, I. 27.
migratorius, I. 13, 23–25, 27, 28, 30, 48.
minimus, I. 14.
minor, I. 3, 14, 18.
montanus, I. 32.
motacilla, II. 287.
musicus, I. 30.
mustelinus, I. 1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 15, 19.
nævius, I. 28, 29.
nanus, I. 5, 7, 16, 20, 21; III. 504.
noveboracensis, II. 203.
No. 22, II. 203.
olivaceus, I. 14.
pallasi, II. 4–7, 11, 12, 14–16, 18, 282.
pilaris, I. 23.
polyglottus, I. 48, 49.
rufus, I. 37, 144.
silens, I. 9, 21.
swainsoni, I. 4, 5, 7, 11–13, 14, 16–18, 282.
trichas, I. 297.
ustulatus, I. 5, 7, 13, 15, 16, 20, 46.
variegatus, I. 131.
virens, I. 306, 307.
viscivorus, I. 3, 22.
wilsonii, I. 9.
Turtur carolinensis, III. 383.
leucopterus, III. 376.
Tyranni, II. 307.
Tyrannidæ, II. 306.
Tyrannula acadica, II. 374.
caribæa, II. 351.
cinerascens, II. 337.
coronata, II. 387.
crinita, II. 334.
flaviventris, II. 378.
fusca, II. 343.
hammondi, II. 383.
minima, II. 372.
nigricans, II. 340.
obscura, II. 381.
pallida, II. 347.
phœbe, II. 360.
pusilla, II. 362, 366, 378.
richardsoni, II. 360.
saya, II. 347.
Tyrannula trailli, II. 369.
virens, II. 357.
Tyrannuli, II. 307.
Tyrannus, II. 307, 314.
acadicus, II. 374.
antillarum, II. 332.
atriceps, II. 360.
borealis, II. 353.
carolinensis, II. 315, 316.
cassini, II. 327.
cooperi, II. 353.
couchi, II. 315, 329.
crinitus, II. 334.
dominicensis, II. 315, 319.
forticatus, II. 311.
fuscus, II. 343.
 griseus, II. 319.
intrepidus, II. 316.
leucogaster, II. 316.
ludovicianus, II. 334.
matutinus, II. 319.
melancholicus, II. 315, 329.
mexicanus, II. 311.
nigricans, II. 340, 353.
phœbe, II. 332, 360.
pipiri, II. 316.
pusillus, II. 366.
savana, II. 309.
sayus, II. 347.
trailli, II. 369.
verticalis, II. 315, 324.
virens, II. 357.
vociferans, II. 315, 327; III. 521.
Ulula brachyotus, III. 22.
cunicularia, III. 90.
flammea, III. 13.
nebulosa, III. 34.
otus, III. 17, 18.
passerina, III. 43.
virginiana, III. 62.
Uraspiza, III. 220, 222.
Uroaëtus, III. 312.
Urospiza, III. 220, 222.
Urospizia, III. 220, 222.
Urubitinga unicincta, III. 249.
Vermivora bachmani, I. 194.
celata, I. 202.
fulvicapilla, I. 187.
nigrescens, I. 258.
pennsylvanica, I. 187.
 peregrina, I. 205.
protonotaria, I. 184.
rubricapilla, I. 196.
solitaria, I. 195.
swainsoni, I. 190.
Vermivoreæ, I. 178, 183.
Vireo, I. 357, 358, 382.
atricapillus, I. 358, 382, 383.
belli, I. 81, 358, 383, 389.
bogotensis, I. 363.
carmioli, I. 383.
cassini, I. 376.
flavifrons, I. 357, 379.
flavoviridis, I. 366.
gilvus, I. 368.
huttoni, I. 358, 383, 387.
musicus, I. 385.
noveboracensis, I. 357, 358, 383, 385.
olivaceus, I. 357, 363.
philadelphicus, I. 359, 367.
pusillus, I. 358, 383, 391; III. 512.
solitarius, I. 357.
swainsoni, I. 371.
vicinior, I. 358, 383, 393.
vigorsii, I. 268.
virescens, I. 363.
Vireonella, I. 382.
gundlachi, I. 382.
Vireonidæ, I. 70, 306, 356, 357.
Vireosylvia, I. 357, 358.
agilis, I. 359.
altiloqua, I. 360.
barbadense, I. 359.
barbatula, I. 357, 359, 360.
calidras, I. 358, 359.
chivi, I. 359.
 cobanensis, I. 367.
flavifrons, I. 379.
flavoviridis, I. 357, 359, 366.
gilva, I. 359, 360, 368, 371.
gilvus, I. 357.
josephæ, I. 360.
magister, I. 359.
olivacea, I. 357, 359, 363; III. 512.
philadelphica, I. 357, 367.
plumbea, I. 377.
propinquua, I. 373.
solitaria, I. 373.
swainsoni, I. 360, 371.
Vultur albicilla, III. 324, 327.
atratus, III. 350, 351.
audax, III. 312.
aura, III. 343, 344, 351.
aura niger, β, III. 351.
californianus, III. 338.
gryphus, III. 337.
iota, III. 345, 351.
papa, III. 337.
urubu, III. 351.
Vulturinæ, III. 335.
Wilsonia, I. 313.
minuta, I. 316.
pusilla, I. 317.
Xanthocephalus, II. 148, 167.
icterocephalus, II. 167.
perspicillatus, II. 167.
Xanthornus, I. 179, 182.
abeillei, II. 184.
bullocki, II. 199.
gubernator, II. 163.
 melanocephalus, II. 186.
parisorum, II. 188.
phœniceus, II. 159.
Xanthoura, II. 264, 294.
guatemalensis, II. 295.
incas, II. 295.
luxuosa, II. 295.
Xenocraugus, III. 526.
albolarvatus, II. 526.
Xenopicus, II. 502, 526.
albolarvatus, II. 526.
Yunginæ, II. 491.
Yphantes, II. 179, 183.
Zebrapicus, II. 553.
kaupii, II. 558.
Zenaida, III. 375, 378.
amabilis, III. 379.
aurita, III. 379.
hypoleuca, III. 379.
leucoptera, III. 376.
maculata, III. 379.
martinicana, III. 379.
montana, III. 393.
Zenaideæ, III. 375.
Zenaidinæ, III. 357, 374.
Zenaidura, III. 375, 381.
carolinensis, III. 382, 383.
graysoni, III. 382.
marginella, III. 383.
yucatensis, III. 382.
Zonotrichia, I. 530, 565.
albicollis, II. 186, 574.
aurocapilla, I. 573.
belli, I. 593.
 boucardi, II. 38.
cassini, II. 42.
chlorura, II. 131.
comata, I. 577.
coronata, I. 573.
fallax, II. 22.
fasciata, II. 22.
gambeli, I. 566, 569; III. 516.
graminea, I. 545.
leucophrys, I. 566.
melodia, II. 19.
monticola, II. 3.
pennsylvanica, I. 574.
plebeja, II. 47.
querula, I. 577.
Zygodactyli, II. 469.
 INDEX TO PLATES OF LAND BIRDS.

Ægiothus brewsteri, I. 501, pl. 22, fig. 6

exilipes, ♂ I. 498, pl. 22, fig. 2
fuscescens, ♂ I. 493, pl. 22, fig. 3
fuscescens, I. 493, pl. 22, fig. 5
Agelaius gubernator (shoulder), ♂ II. pl. 33, fig. 4
gubernator, ♀ II. 163, pl. 33, fig. 8
phœniceus, ♂ II. 159, pl. 33, fig. 1
phœniceus, ♀ II. 159, pl. 33, fig. 2
phœniceus (shoulder), ♂ II. 159, pl. 33, fig. 3
tricolor (shoulder), ♂ II. 165, pl. 33, fig. 5
tricolor, ♂ II. 165, pl. 33, fig. 6
tricolor, ♀ II. 165, pl. 33, fig. 7
Alauda arvensis, II. 136, pl. 32, fig. 3
Ammodromus caudacutus, I. 557, pl. 25, fig. 7
maritimus, I. 560, pl. 25, fig. 8
Ampelis cedrorum, ♂ I. 401, pl. 18, fig. 2
garrulus, ♂ I. 396, pl. 18, fig. 1
Antenor unicinctus, III. 250.
Anthus ludovicianus, I. 171, pl. 10, fig. 3
pratensis, I. 173, pl. 10, fig. 4
Antrostomus carolinensis, ♂ II. 410, pl. 46, fig. 1
nuttalli, ♂ II. 417, pl. 46, fig. 3
vociferus, ♂ II. 413, pl. 46, fig. 2
Aquila canadensis, III. 314.
Archibuteo ferrugineus, III. 300.
sancti-johannis, III. 304.
Astur atricapillus, III. 237.
Asturina plagiata, III. 246.
Atthis heloisa, ♂ II. 465, pl. 47, fig. 6
Auriparus flaviceps, I. pl. 7, fig. 11
Bonasa sabinei, III. 454.
umbelloides, III. 453, pl. 61, fig. 10
umbellus, III. 448, pl. 61, fig. 3
umbellus, III. 448, pl. 61, fig. 9
Bubo arcticus, III. 64.
pacificus, III. 65.
virginianus, III. 62.
Budytes flava, I. 167, pl. 10, fig. 2
Buteo borealis, III. 281.
calurus, III. 286.
cooperi, III. 295.
elegans, III. 277.
harlani, III. 292.
krideri, III. 284.
lineatus, III. 275.
lucasanus, III. 285.
oxypterus, III. 266.
pennsylvanicus, III. 259.
swainsoni, III. 263.
zonocercus, III. 272.
Calamospiza bicolor, ♂ II. 61, pl. 29, fig. 2
bicolor, ♀ II. 61, pl. 29, fig. 3
Callipepla squamata, ♂ III. 487, pl. 63, fig. 6
Calypte anna, ♂ II. 454, pl. 47, fig. 7
costæ, ♂ II. 457, pl. 47, fig. 8
Campephilus principalis, ♂ II. 496, pl. 49, fig. 1
principalis, ♀ II. 496, pl. 49, fig. 2
Campylorhynchus affinis, I. 133, pl. 8, fig. 6
brunneicapillus, I. 132, pl. 8, fig. 5
Canace canadensis, III. 416, pl. 61, fig. 5
canadensis, ♀ III. 416, pl. 59, fig. 6
canadensis, ♂ III. 416, pl. 59, fig. 5
 franklini, ♂ III. 419, pl. 59, fig. 3
fuliginosus, III. 495.
obscurus, ♂ III. 422, pl. 59, fig. 1
obscurus, ♀ III. 422, pl. 59, fig. 2
richardsoni, ♂ III. 427, pl. 59, fig. 4
Cardinalis coccineus, ♂ II. pl. 30, fig. 8
igneus, ♂ II. 103, pl. 30, fig. 0
phœniceus, II. 103, pl. 30, fig. 9
virginianus, ♀ II. 100, pl. 30, fig. 6
virginianus, ♂ II. 100, pl. 30, fig. 7
Carpodacus californicus, ♂ I. 465, pl. 21, fig. 10
californicus, ♀ I. 465, pl. 21, fig. 11
cassini, ♂ I. 460, pl. 21, fig. 4
cassini, ♀ I. 460, pl. 21, fig. 5
frontalis, ♂ I. 465, pl. 21, fig. 3
frontalis, ♀ I. 465, pl. 21, fig. 6
hæmorrhous, ♂ I. 465, pl. 21, fig. 12
rhodocolpus, ♂ I. 468, pl. 21, fig. 9
purpureus, ♂ I. 462, pl. 21, fig. 7
purpureus, ♀ I. 462, pl. 21, fig. 8
Catharista atrata, III. 351.
Catherpes mexicanus, I. 139, pl. 8, fig. 4
Centrocercus urophasianus, ♂ III. pl. 60, fig. 2
urophasianus, ♂ III. pl. 60, fig. 4
urophasianus, III. 429, pl. 61, fig. 6
Centronyx bairdi, I. 531, pl. 25, fig. 3
Centurus aurifrons, ♂ II. 557, pl. 52, fig. 3
aurifrons, ♀ II. 557, pl. 52, fig. 6
carolinus, ♂ II. 554, pl. 52, fig. 1
carolinus, ♀ II. 554, pl. 52, fig. 4
uropygialis, ♂ II. 558, pl. 52, fig. 2
uropygialis, ♀ II. 558, pl. 52, fig. 5
Certhia americana, I. 125, pl. 8, fig. 11
 mexicana, I. 128.
Certhiola bahamensis, ♂ I. 428, pl. 19, fig. 5
Ceryle alcyon, ♂ II. 392, pl. 45, fig. 6
cabanisi, ♂ II. 396, pl. 45, fig. 9
Chætura pelagica, ♂ II. 432, pl. 45, fig. 7
vauxi, ♀ II. 435, pl. 45, fig. 8
Chamæa fasciata, I. 84, pl. 6, fig. 8
Chamæpelia passerina, ♂ III. 389, pl. 58, fig. 6
Chondestes grammaca, ♂ II. 562, pl. 31, fig. 1
Chordeiles henryi, ♂ II. 404, pl. 46, fig. 4
popetue, II. 407.
texensis, ♂ II. 406, pl. 46, fig. 5
Chrysomitris lawrenci, ♂ I. 478, pl. 22, fig. 14
lawrenci, ♀ I. 478, pl. 22, fig. 15
arizonæ, ♂ I. 476, pl. 22, fig. 11
mexicana, I. pl. 22, fig. 12
mexicana, ♀ I. pl. 22, fig. 13
pinus, ♂ I. 480, pl. 22, fig. 16
psaltria, ♂ I. 474, pl. 22, fig. 9
psaltria, ♀ I. 474, pl. 22, fig. 10
tristis (summer), ♂ I. 471, pl. 22, fig. 7
tristis (winter), ♂ I. 471, pl. 22, fig. 8
Cinclus mexicanus, I. 56, pl. 5, fig. 1
Circus hudsonius, III. 214.
Cistothorus palustris, I. 161, pl. 9, fig. 6
stellaris, I. 161, pl. 9, fig. 7
Coccygus americanus, ♂ II. 477, pl. 48, fig. 3
erythrophthalmus, II. 484, pl. 48, fig. 5
minor, II. 482, pl. 48, fig. 4
Colaptes auratus, ♂ II. 575, pl. 55, fig. 1
auratus, ♀ II. 575, pl. 55, fig. 2
chrysoides, ♂ II. 583, pl. 54, fig. 1
chrysoides, ♀ II. 583, pl. 54, fig. 2
 hybridus, ♂ II. 582, pl. 54, fig. 3
mexicanus, ♂ II. 578, pl. 55, fig. 3
mexicanus, ♀ II. 578, pl. 55, fig. 4
Collurio borealis, ♂ I. 415, pl. 19, fig. 1
borealis (Juv.) I. 415, pl. 19, fig. 2
excubitoroides, ♂ I. 421, pl. 19, fig. 3
ludovicianus, ♂ I. 418, pl. 19, fig. 4
robustus, I. 420.
Columba fasciata, ♂ III. 360, pl. 57, fig. 2
flavirostris, ♂ III. 366, pl. 57, fig. 3
leucocephala, ♂ III. 363, pl. 57, fig. 4
Contopus borealis, ♂ II. 353, pl. 44, fig. 1
pertinax, ♂ II. 356, pl. 44, fig. 2
richardsonii, ♂ II. 360, pl. 44, fig. 4
virens, ♂ II. 357, pl. 44, fig. 3
Conurus carolinensis, (Ad.) II. 587, pl. 56, fig. 1
carolinensis, (Juv.) II. 587, pl. 56, fig. 2
Corvus americanus, ♂ II. 243, pl. 37, fig. 5
carnivorus, ♀ II. 234, pl. 37, fig. 6
caurinus, ♂ II. 248, pl. 37, fig. 3
cryptoleucus, II. 242, pl. 37, fig. 8
floridanus, II. 247, pl. 37, fig. 9
mexicanus, ♂ II. 233, pl. 37, fig. 4
ossifragus, II. 251, pl. 37, fig. 7
Coturniculus henslowi, ♀ I. 553, pl. 25, fig. 5
leconti, ♀ I. 552, pl. 25, fig. 6
ochrocephalus, II. pl. 46, fig. 6
passerinus, I. 553, pl. 25, fig. 4
perpallidus, I. 556.
Cotyle riparia, ♂ I. 353, pl. 16, fig. 14
Crotophaga ani, ♀ II. 488, pl. 48, fig. 2
Cupidonia cupido, III. 440, pl. 61, fig. 1
cupido, III. 440, pl. 61, fig. 7
 pallidicincta, III. 446.
Cyanocitta arizonæ, II. 292, pl. 41, fig. 2
californica, ♂ II. 288, pl. 40, fig. 1
couchi, II. 293.
floridana, ♂ II. 285, pl. 40, fig. 4
sordida, II. 292, pl. 41, fig. 1
sumichrasti, ♂ II. pl. 40, fig. 2
woodhousei, ♂ II. 291, pl. 40, fig. 3
Cyanospiza amœna, ♂ II. 84, pl. 29, fig. 11
amœna, ♀ II. 84, pl. 29, fig. 12
ciris, ♂ II. 87, pl. 29, fig. 7
ciris, ♀ II. 87, pl. 29, fig. 8
cyanea, ♂ II. 82, pl. 29, fig. 13
cyanea, ♀ II. 82, pl. 29, fig. 14
parellina, ♂ II. pl. 29, fig. 6
versicolor, ♂ II. 86, pl. 29, fig. 9
versicolor, ♀ II. 86, pl. 29, fig. 10
Cyanura coronata, ♂ II. pl. 39, fig. 4
cristata, ♂ II. 273, pl. 42, fig. 3
frontalis, ♂ II. 279, pl. 39, fig. 2
macrolopha, ♂ II. 281, pl. 39, fig. 3
stelleri, ♂ II. 277, pl. 39, fig. 1
Cyrtonyx massena, III. 492, pl. 61, fig. 2
massena, ♂ III. 492, pl. 64, fig. 3
massena, ♀ III. 492, pl. 64, fig. 6
Dendroica æstiva, I. 222, pl. 14, fig. 1
albilora, ♂ I. 240, pl. 14, fig. 7
auduboni, I. 229, pl. 13, fig. 1
blackburniæ, ♂ I. 237, pl. 13, fig. 2
blackburniæ, ♀ I. 237, pl. 13, fig. 3
cærulea, ♂ I. 235, pl. 13, fig. 10
cærulea, ♀ I. 237, pl. 13, fig. 11
cærulescens, ♂ I. 254, pl. 12, fig. 10
 cærulescens, ♀ I. 254, pl. 12, fig. 11
castanea, ♂ I. 251, pl. 13, fig. 4
castanea, ♀ I. 251, pl. 13, fig. 5
chrysopareia, ♂ I. 260, pl. 12, fig. 6
coronata, ♂ I. 227, pl. 12, fig. 9
coronata, ♀ I. 227, pl. 12, fig. 12
discolor, ♂ I. 276, pl. 14, fig. 9
dominica, ♂ I. 240, pl. 14, fig. 5
graciæ, ♂ I. 243, pl. 14, fig. 10
kirtlandi, ♂ I. 272, pl. 14, fig. 5
maculosa, ♂ I. 232, pl. 14, fig. 2
montana, I. 271, pl. 14, fig. 3
nigrescens, ♂ I. 258, pl. 12, fig. 8
occidentalis, ♂ I. 266, pl. 12, fig. 5
olivacea, ♂ I. pl. 14, fig. 4
palmarum, ♂ I. 273, pl. 14, fig. 8
pennsylvanica, ♂ I. 245, pl. 13, fig. 7
pennsylvanica, (Juv.) ♂ I. 245, pl. 13, fig. 8
pinus, ♂ I. 268, pl. 13, fig. 6
striata, ♂ I. 248, pl. 13, fig. 9
striata, ♀ I. 248, pl. 13, fig. 12
townsendi, ♂ I. 265, pl. 12, fig. 7
virens, ♂ I. 261, pl. 12, fig. 4
Dolichonyx orizyvorus, ♂ II. 149, pl. 32, fig. 4
orizyvorus, ♀ II. 149, pl. 32, fig. 5
Ectopistes migratoria, ♂ III. 368, pl. 57, fig. 5
Elanus leucurus, III. 198.
Embernagra rufivirgata, II. 47, pl. 28, fig. 3
Empidonax acadicus, ♂ II. 374, pl. 44, fig. 11
difficilis, II. 380.
flaviventris, ♂ II. 378, pl. 44, fig. 12
hammondii, ♂ II. 383, pl. 44, fig. 7
minimus, ♂ II. 372, pl. 44, fig. 10
 obscurus, ♂ II. 381, pl. 44, fig. 6
pusillus, ♂ II. 366, pl. 44, fig. 9
traillii, ♂ II. 369, pl. 44, fig. 8
Eremophila cornuta, ♂ II. 141, pl. 32, fig. 1
cornuta, (Juv.) II. 141, pl. 32, fig. 2
Euspiza americana, ♂ II. 65, pl. 28, fig. 11
americana, ♀ II. 65, pl. 28, fig. 12
townsendi, ♀ II. 68, pl. 28, fig. 13
Falco anatum, III. 132.
candicans, III. 111.
columbarius, III. 144.
femoralis, III. 155.
isabellinus, III. 171.
islandicus, III. 113.
labradora, III. 117.
pealei, III. 137.
polyagrus, III. 123.
richardsoni, III. 148.
sacer, III. 115.
sparverius, III. 169.
suckleyi, III. 147.
Galeoscoptes carolinensis, I. 52, pl. 3, fig. 5
Geococcyx californianus, ♂ II. 492, pl. 48, fig. 1
Geothlypis macgillivrayi, ♂ I. 303, pl. 15, fig. 4
macgillivrayi, ♀ I. 303, pl. 15, fig. 5
philadelphia, ♂ I. 301, pl. 15, fig. 6
philadelphia, ♀ I. 301, pl. 15, fig. 9
trichas, ♂ I. 297, pl. 15, fig. 7
trichas, ♀ I. 297, pl. 15, fig. 8
Glaucidium californicum, III. 81.
ferrugineum, III. 85.
Guiraca cærulea, ♂ II. 77, pl. 29, fig. 4
cærulea, ♀ II. 77, pl. 29, fig. 5
Gymnokitta cyanocephala, ♂ II. 260, pl. 38, fig. 2
Haliaëtus albicilla, III. 324.
leucocephalus, III. 326.
Harporhynchus cinereus, I. 40, pl. 4, fig. 2
crissalis, I. 47, pl. 4, fig. 1
curvirostris, I. 41, pl. 3, fig. 3
lecontei, I. 44, pl. 4, fig. 3
longirostris, I. 39, pl. 3, fig. 2
palmeri, I. 43.
redivivus, I. 45, pl. 4, fig. 4
rufus, I. 37, pl. 3, fig. 1
Hedymeles ludovicianus, ♂ II. 70, pl. 30, fig. 4
ludovicianus, ♀ II. 70, pl. 30, fig. 5
melanocephalus, ♂ II. 73, pl. 30, fig. 1
melanocephalus, ♀ II. 73, pl. 30, fig. 2
Heliopædica xantusi, ♂ II. 467, pl. 47, fig. 3
Helminthophaga bachmani, ♂ I. 194, pl. 11, fig. 3
celata (var. Cape Lucas), I. 204, pl. 11, fig. 4
celata (var. Florida), I. pl. 11, fig. 6
celata (var. Rocky Mts.), I. 202, pl. 11, fig. 5
chrysoptera, ♂ I. 192, pl. 11, fig. 2
luciæ, I. 200, pl. 11, fig. 9
peregrina (in spring), I. 205, pl. 11, fig. 10
peregrina (in autumn), I. 205, pl. 11, fig. 11
pinus, ♂ I. 195, pl. 11, fig. 1
ruficapilla, I. 196, pl. 11, fig. 7
ruficapilla (var. Calif.), I. pl. 11, fig. 8
virginiæ, I. 199, pl. 11, fig. 12
Helmitherus swainsoni, I. 190, pl. 10, fig. 9
vermivorus, I. 187, pl. 10, fig. 10
Hesperiphona montana, I. 449, pl. 22, fig. 4
vespertina, ♂ I. 449, pl. 22, fig. 1
Hirundo horreorum, ♂ I. 339, pl. 16, fig. 9
Hylotomus pileatus, ♀ II. 550, pl. 56, fig. 4
pileatus, ♂ II. 550, pl. 56, fig. 5
Icteria longicauda, I. 309.
virens, ♂ I. 307, pl. 15, fig. 12
Icterus auduboni, ♂ II. 186, pl. 35, fig. 1
baltimore, ♂ II. 195, pl. 35, fig. 5
bullocki, ♂ II. 199, pl. 34, fig. 3
bullocki, ♀ II. 199, pl. 34, fig. 7
cucullatus, ♂ II. 193, pl. 35, fig. 6
parisorum, ♂ II. 188, pl. 35, fig. 7
spurius, ♂ II. 190, pl. 34, fig. 4
spurius (Juv.), ♂ II. 190, pl. 34, fig. 5
spurius, ♀ II. 190, pl. 34, fig. 6
wagleri, ♂ II. pl. 35, fig. 2
Ictinia mississippiensis, III. 203.
Junco aikeni, ♂ I. 584, pl. 26, fig. 6
caniceps, ♂ I. 587, pl. 26, fig. 3
hyemalis, ♂ I. 580, pl. 26, fig. 5
oregonus, ♂ I. 584, pl. 26, fig. 2
Lagopus albus, III. 457, pl. 61, fig. 8
albus (summer), ♂ III. 457, pl. 62, fig. 1
albus (winter), ♂ III. 457, pl. 62, fig. 3
albus (summer), ♀ III. 457, pl. 62, fig. 2
leucurus (summer), ♂ III. 464, pl. 62, fig. 6
rupestris (winter), ♂ III. 462, pl. 62, fig. 4
rupestris (summer), ♀ III. 462, pl. 62, fig. 5
Lanivireo cassini, ♂ I. 376, pl. 17, fig. 9
flavifrons, ♂ I. 379, pl. 17, fig. 5
plumbea, ♂ I. 377, pl. 17, fig. 10
solitaria, ♂ I. 373, pl. 17, fig. 8
Leucosticte arctous, I. pl. 23, fig. 10
australis, I. pl. 23, fig. 9
campestris, I. 507, pl. 23, fig. 7
 griseinucha, ♂ I. 508, pl. 23, fig. 5
littoralis, I. 507, pl. 23, fig. 6
tephrocotis, I. 504, pl. 23, fig. 8
Lophophanes atricristatus, I. 90, pl. 6, fig. 2
bicolor, I. 87, pl. 6, fig. 1
inornatus, I. 91, pl. 6, fig. 3
wollweberi, I. 93, pl. 6, fig. 4
Lophortyx californicus, III. 479, pl. 61, fig. 4
californicus, ♂ III. 479, pl. 64, fig. 1
californicus, ♀ III. 479, pl. 64, fig. 2
gambeli, ♂ III. 482, pl. 64, fig. 4
gambeli, ♀ III. 482, pl. 64, fig. 5
Loxia americana, ♂ I. 484, pl. 23, fig. 1
americana, ♀ I. 484, pl. 23, fig. 4
leucoptera, ♂ I. 488, pl. 23, fig. 2
leucoptera, ♀ I. 488, pl. 23, fig. 3
mexicana, I. 488,
Melanerpes angustifrons, ♂ II. 573, pl. 53, fig. 3
angustifrons, ♀ II. 573, pl. 53, fig. 4
erythrocephalus, ♂ II. 564, pl. 54, fig. 4
formicivorus, ♂ II. 566, pl. 53, fig. 1
formicivorus, ♀ II. 566, pl. 53, fig. 2
torquatus, ♂ II. 561, pl. 54, fig. 5
Meleagris gallopavo, III. 404.
mexicana, III. 410.
Melopeleia leucoptera, ♂ III. 376, pl. 58, fig. 4
Melospiza fallax, ♀ II. 22, pl. 27, fig. 10
guttata, II. 27, pl. 27, fig. 12
heermanni, ♂ II. 24, pl. 27, fig. 9
insignis, II. 30, pl. 27, fig. 8
lincolni, II. 31, pl. 27, fig. 13
melodia, II. 19, pl. 27, fig. 6
palustris, ♂ II. 34, pl. 28, fig. 1
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