TOPIC 1

CULTURE AND RELATED TERMS

1. What is culture, and how does it shape human interaction?

Culture is a shared system of meanings expressed through traditions, values, beliefs, norms,
and symbols. It shapes how people interpret the world, interact, and adapt. Culture is learned
and passed through generations, helping members adapt to their environments. It is a frame of
reference used by communities to guide behaviour and communication.4

2. What does the cultural iceberg model reveal about cultural understanding?
The cultural iceberg shows that only a small portion of culture (e.g., dress, food, language) is
visible. The vast majority, such as values, beliefs, thought patterns, and attitudes, lies beneath
the surface. Misunderstanding arises when we interpret behaviour without considering
deeper cultural layers. Awareness of this model promotes deeper intercultural sensitivity.

3. What are values, and how do they relate to culture?

Values are core principles that guide what is considered right or wrong, as well as what is
important or unimportant. They are culturally conditioned and learned through socialisation.
Values influence individual behaviour and collective norms. Culture encompasses shared
values that define acceptable conduct, and understanding these is key to working across cultural
boundaries.

4. What is culture shock, and what are its psychological and emotional effects?
Culture shock is a transitional emotional experience of anxiety and disorientation in a new
cultural environment. Symptoms include identity confusion, low self-esteem, communication
struggles, and loneliness. It can lead to either negative outcomes (e.g., depression, poor
adaptation) or positive ones (e.g., increased flexibility, empathy, and intercultural competence).

5. What are the seven stages of the adjustment process in intercultural adaptation?
1. Honeymoon: Experiencing excitement and fascination with a new culture.
2. Hostility: Frustration, criticism, and identity confusion.
3. Humorous: Laughing at one's cultural mistakes.
4. In-sync: Feeling cognitively and affectively in line with the host culture.
5. Ambivalence: Mixed feelings before returning home.
 6. Re-entry shock: The reverse of culture shock that occurs upon returning.
7. Resocialisation: Readjustment—resisters, alienators, or transformers.
Each stage reflects emotional shifts in identity, perception, and behaviour during cultural
immersion and return.

6. How is identity formed, and what are its primary domains?

Identity is shaped through socialisation and interaction. The four main domains are:
1. Cultural identity: Belonging to a cultural group.
2. Ethnic identity: Based on ancestry and heritage.
3. Gender identity: The cultural interpretation of roles distinct from biological sex.
4. Personal identity: One’s unique traits, self-image, goals, and values.
Each domain influences how individuals perceive themselves and are perceived in intercultural
interactions.

7. What are the four situational identity domains, and why are they dynamic?
1. Role identity: Expected behaviour in social roles (e.g., teacher, parent).
2. Relational identity: Roles learned in relationships (e.g., sibling norms).
3. Facework identity: Communication to protect one's social image.
4. Symbolic interaction identity: A self-image formed through verbal and nonverbal
communication.
These identities shift depending on the context, making intercultural encounters complex and
situationally influenced.

8. What are the affective and cognitive filters in intercultural communication?

They are emotional and perceptual lenses that shape how we interpret others. Affective filters
refer to emotional reactions (e.g., fear, suspicion), whereas cognitive filters encompass mental
beliefs and stereotypes. These filters influence how in-group and out-group members are
perceived and treated.

9. What is ethnocentrism, and how does it manifest in communication?

Ethnocentrism is the belief in the superiority of one’s own culture. It can manifest as:
• Indifference (low): Mild insensitivity, e.g., speaking slowly to foreigners.
• Avoidance (moderate): Deliberate exclusion or group bias.
• Disparagement (high): Racism, mockery, and violence.
Ethnocentrism leads to misjudgment and poor intercultural relationships. Ethnorelativism, by
contrast, promotes understanding from others' cultural perspectives.

10. What is the Intercultural Development Continuum (IDC), and how does it work?
The IDC maps the process of intercultural sensitivity and competence:
• Denial: Inability to perceive cultural differences.
• Polarization: Us versus. them mentality.
• Minimization: Overemphasis on similarities, neglecting real differences.
• Acceptance: Recognition and appreciation of differences.
• Adaptation/integration: Ability to shift perspective and behave appropriately in other
cultures.

11. What are stereotypes, and how can they be used mindfully?
Stereotypes are generalisations about a group’s traits. There are:
• Autostereotypes: A group’s self-perception.
• Heterostereotypes: One group's view of another.

12. How is prejudice learned, and what are the four primary theories that explain its
origin?
Prejudice is a learned, negative attitude toward others based on faulty generalisations. Four
theories:
1. Exploitation: Prejudice helps maintain power and status.
2. Scapegoat: Blaming others for personal or group problems.
3. Authoritarian personality: Rooted in rigid upbringing and obedience.
4. Structural: Social norms and institutions either promote or reduce prejudice.
Understanding its origins helps address prejudice at individual and systemic levels.

13. What is discrimination?

Discrimination is the behavioural expression of prejudice.
 TOPIC 2
Geert Hofstede’s six value dimensions

1. What are Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, and why are they important in intercultural
communication?
Hofstede’s dimensions are frameworks used to understand how values in the workplace are
influenced by culture. They include:
1. Individualism versus Collectivism
2. Power Distance
3. Uncertainty Avoidance
4. Masculinity versus Femininity
5. Long-Term versus Short-Term Orientation
6. Indulgence versus Restraint

2. What is the difference between individualistic and collectivistic cultures?

Individualistic cultures (e.g., USA, UK, Canada) prioritise personal goals, independence, and
individual rights. A person is encouraged to speak up, pursue personal achievements, and
prioritise self-fulfilment. For example, a U.S. employee might feel comfortable challenging a
manager’s idea in a meeting.
Collectivistic cultures (e.g., China, Mexico, and India) emphasise group harmony, loyalty, and
shared goals. Individuals are expected to consider the needs of their family, team, or nation
above their own. In Japan, for example, it’s common to avoid open disagreement in group
discussions to maintain harmony.

3. What is power distance, and how does it vary across cultures?

Power distance refers to the way societies manage inequalities in power and authority.
• Low power distance cultures (e.g., Denmark, Austria) tend to prefer flatter hierarchies,
informal communication with superiors, and participatory decision-making. For
instance, Dutch employees often address their managers by first name.
• High power distance cultures (e.g., India, Nigeria, Mexico) typically accept
hierarchical structures, expect obedience to authority, and maintain a formal tone. In
Arab countries, students are unlikely to challenge a professor during a lecture, even if
they disagree.
 4. What is uncertainty avoidance, and how does it influence decision-making?
Uncertainty avoidance refers to how comfortable a society is with ambiguity, risk, and change.
• Strong uncertainty avoidance cultures (e.g., Japan, France, Greece) value planning,
regulations, and security. In Japan, detailed agendas are prepared for every meeting, and
protocol governs every process.
• Weak uncertainty avoidance cultures (e.g., USA, Denmark, Singapore) tolerate
ambiguity, welcome innovation, and adapt quickly. American startups often embrace
risk and “pivot” rapidly when strategies fail.

5. What is the masculinity-femininity dimension, and how does it define gender roles?
Masculine cultures (e.g., Japan, Italy, and Mexico) stress achievement, assertiveness, and
material success. Gender roles are distinct—men are expected to be ambitious, women
nurturing. For example, Japanese companies expect male workers to prioritise work over
family.
Feminine cultures (e.g., Sweden, Norway, Netherlands) value quality of life, care for others,
and work-life balance. Roles are fluid. In Sweden, paternity leave is widely available and well-
supported.

6. What is long-term versus short-term orientation?

This dimension reflects a society’s focus on future rewards vs. respect for tradition and
immediate results.
• Long-term orientation (e.g., China, South Korea): emphasises perseverance, thrift,
planning, and long-range goals. Education and delayed gratification are highly valued.
Chinese parents often invest heavily in their children’s education for long-term success.
• Short-term orientation (e.g., USA, UK, Philippines): values personal stability,
traditions, and quick results. U.S. companies often prioritise quarterly profits over long-
term investments.

7. What is the indulgence versus restraint dimension?

Indulgence cultures (e.g., the USA, Australia, Mexico) allow for the free gratification of desires
and emphasise leisure, personal happiness, and freedom of expression. Celebrations, holidays,
and spontaneous behaviour are common.
Restraint cultures (e.g., Russia, China, Pakistan) regulate gratification through strict social
norms, stress duty over pleasure, and frown upon indulgence. Expressing emotions may be
viewed as inappropriate.
 TOPIC 3
Erin Meyer’s eight cultural scales from The Culture Map

1. What is the difference between low-context and high-context communication?

This scale describes how much communicators rely on explicit language versus contextual
cues to convey meaning.
• Low-context cultures (e.g., the USA, Germany, Netherlands): Messages are explicit,
detailed, and precise. Little is left to interpretation, and clarity is the responsibility of
the speaker. An American will say exactly what they mean.
• High-context cultures (e.g., Japan, China, India): Messages are implicit and layered.
Meaning is often derived from tone, body language, shared history, or what is not
said. Responsibility is shared between the speaker and listener. In Japan, a yes may
mean I understand rather than an actual agreement.

2. How do cultures differ in giving negative feedback: direct vs. indirect?

This scale looks at how straightforward cultures are when giving critical or corrective
feedback.
• Direct negative feedback cultures (e.g., Netherlands, Germany, Russia): Feedback is
delivered bluntly and honestly, often in public, with the aim of improvement, not
offence. Words like completely or totally unacceptable may be used.
• Indirect negative feedback cultures (e.g., Japan, Indonesia, UK): Criticism is
softened with euphemisms, positive framing, or delivered privately. Downgraders like
a little bit or perhaps are common. The British may say That’s quite interesting to
suggest they disagree.

3. What is the difference between principles-first and applications-first persuasion?

This scale refers to how people structure arguments and reasoning.
• Principles-first cultures (e.g., France, Italy, Germany): Rely on theoretical
frameworks and logical reasoning before moving to specific examples. A German
engineer might ask about your methodology before accepting your conclusion.
• Applications-first cultures (e.g., USA, Canada, Australia): Emphasise practical
examples and results. Abstract theory is less critical unless needed. An American
consultant starts with key recommendations first, followed by data if asked.
 4. How do egalitarian and hierarchical cultures differ in leadership?
This scale is about how power and authority are distributed and expressed.
• Egalitarian cultures (e.g., Sweden, Denmark, Australia): Leaders are approachable
facilitators. Status symbols (titles, offices) are downplayed. A Swedish manager might
be on a first-name basis with interns.
• Hierarchical cultures (e.g., China, Japan, Nigeria): Leaders are respected authority
figures. Formality and titles are important, and decisions often flow top-down. In India,
subordinates may hesitate to challenge or question a superior, even when appropriate.

5. How do consensual and top-down cultures approach decision-making?

This scale focuses on how decisions are made—collaboratively or by a leader.
• Consensual cultures (e.g., Japan, Sweden, Germany): Decisions are made with broad
input, even if the process takes time. Once made, the decision is final and implemented
quickly.
• Top-down cultures (e.g., USA, China, France): A leader makes decisions quickly. The
decision may be revised later, as flexibility is allowed. In Japan, a decision might take
weeks but is rarely revisited. In the USA, a CEO might decide in a meeting and change
direction next week.

6. What is the difference between task-based and relationship-based trust?

This scale explains how people build trust in professional settings.
• Task-based cultures (e.g., USA, Germany, UK): Trust is built through reliability,
competence, and performance. You can trust someone after working with them.
Americans may trust a contractor based on a solid LinkedIn profile and results.
• Relationship-based cultures (e.g., Brazil, China, Saudi Arabia): Trust is developed
over time, meals, and personal interactions. Business comes after relationships. In
China, introductions through a shared network (guanxi) are crucial for building trust.

7. How do confrontational and non-confrontational cultures handle disagreement?

This scale looks at comfort levels with open disagreement.
• Confrontational cultures (e.g., France, Israel, Germany): Disagreement is seen as
productive and doesn’t damage relationships. It's part of healthy debate.
 • Avoids-confrontation cultures (e.g., Japan, Thailand, Indonesia): Disagreement is
seen as rude or embarrassing. People avoid direct conflict, especially in public. In
Japan, silence may signal disagreement rather than saying “no.”

8. What is the difference between linear-time and flexible-time scheduling?

This scale deals with how cultures perceive time and manage schedules.
• Linear-time cultures (e.g., Germany, Switzerland, the USA). Value punctuality,
planning, and deadlines. Tasks are completed in sequence, and meetings start on time.
• Flexible-time cultures (e.g., India, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia): View time as fluid. Plans
adjust based on changing priorities. Multitasking is common. In India, it’s common to
take calls or arrive late during a meeting, which is not seen as disrespectful.
 TOPIC 4
DAVID LIVERMOORE

1. What is Cultural Intelligence (CQ), and why does it matter in today’s world?
Cultural Intelligence (CQ) is the ability to work and relate effectively across cultures. It goes
beyond basic cultural awareness—CQ equips individuals with skills to interpret, plan, and
act appropriately in any cultural setting. In a globalised world, CQ is vital for success in
business, education, diplomacy, and leadership.

2. What is CQ Drive, and what are its key components?

CQ Drive is the motivational aspect—your interest, persistence, and confidence in working
across cultures. It has three parts:
• Intrinsic motivation (personal enjoyment in cultural diversity),
• Extrinsic motivation (external rewards like career or pay) and
• Self-efficacy (the belief in one's ability to succeed in unfamiliar contexts).

3. What is CQ Knowledge, and how does it help in intercultural situations?

CQ Knowledge is the cognitive component, encompassing understanding how cultures differ
in areas such as values, norms, religion, politics, and communication. It includes:
• Cultural systems (legal, educational, religious),
• Cultural values (e.g., individualism, power distance).

4. What is CQ Strategy, and what are its three sub-skills?

CQ Strategy is the metacognitive component—the ability to plan, monitor, and adjust your
cultural behaviour. It includes:
• Awareness (noticing cultural dynamics),
• Planning (preparing for interactions), and
• Checking (reflecting and adapting).

5. What is CQ Action, and what does it involve?

CQ Action is the behavioural component—your ability to adapt communication and
conduct to fit different cultural contexts. It includes:
 • Verbal behaviour (tone, formality),
• Non-verbal behaviour (gestures, posture), and
• Speech acts (how to apologise, request, etc.).

6. What are global cultural clusters, and why are they helpful in developing CQ?
Cultural clusters are groups of countries that share common values and behavioural patterns
based on geography, history, religion, and language. Understanding clusters helps avoid
overgeneralising and provides a framework to compare cultural tendencies.
David Livermore’s ten clusters include: Anglo, Nordic, Germanic, Eastern European, Latin
European, Latin American, Confucian Asia, Southern Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Arab.

7. What are the seven cultural value dimensions used to compare these clusters?
Livermore uses seven dimensions to describe cultural tendencies:
1. Individualism vs. Collectivism
2. Low vs. High Power Distance
3. Low vs. High Uncertainty Avoidance
4. Cooperative vs. Competitive Orientation
5. Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation
6. Low vs. High Context Communication
7. Being vs. Doing Orientation

8. What defines the Nordic cluster, and what is the Law of Jante?
Countries: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland
Values: Low power distance, high cooperation, modest individualism, long-term focus.
Law of Jante: A cultural principle emphasising humility and equality—“Don’t think you’re
better than anyone else.” It discourages personal bragging and promotes team success.
 TOPIC 5
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

1. What is nonverbal communication, and why is it more powerful than

words alone?
Nonverbal communication encompasses a range of behaviours, including body movements,
facial expressions, posture, tone of voice, eye contact, gestures, touch, and personal space.
It often reveals emotions and intentions more accurately than words.
According to Mehrabian’s 7-38-55 rule, when conveying emotion:
• 7% of meaning comes from words,
• 38% from tone of voice,
• 55% from body language.
Richard Nixon’s “I am not a crook” speech employed clear language, but his strained tone and
anxious body language (facial expressions, lip biting) made him appear untrustworthy. The
public trusted his body language more than his denial.

2. What are the 5 C’s of body language, and why must they be used in
conjunction with each other?
The 5 C’s provide a framework for analysing nonverbal behaviour accurately:
1. Context – The situation affects the meaning of body language.
Crossed arms may indicate coldness, rather than defensiveness, in a chilly room.
2. Clusters – Multiple nonverbal cues together give the full message.
Eye contact alone isn't enough—pair it with posture and tone.
3. Congruence – Verbal and nonverbal cues must align.
Saying "I'm fine" while frowning and avoiding eye contact causes doubt.
4. Consistency – Repeating similar nonverbal cues builds trust.
Angela Merkel's diamond hand gesture became her signature of leadership.
5. Culture – Gestures, eye contact, and personal space vary widely.
A thumbs-up is generally considered acceptable in the US, but it may be perceived as
offensive in certain parts of the Middle East.
Relying on a single gesture without these five principles leads to misinterpretation.
 3. What are clusters in nonverbal communication, and why are they
crucial?
Clusters are groups of nonverbal cues—facial expressions, gestures, posture, tone—that work
together. A single cue may mislead, but a cluster gives reliable meaning.

If a job candidate avoids eye contact, that alone could mean shyness or cultural differences. But
if they also fidget, slump, and mumble, the cluster suggests anxiety or low confidence.
In contrast, Vladimir Putin’s body language—steady eye contact, steepling fingers, slow
movements—forms a cluster of control and dominance.

4. What does congruence mean, and how does it affect public trust in
leaders?
Congruence refers to the alignment between verbal messages and nonverbal cues, such as body
language. When they mismatch, people tend to trust the nonverbal cues more than the spoken
word.
Jeff Bezos speaks about long-term thinking, and his deliberate speech, calm posture, and
steepled hands reinforce that message—congruence builds credibility.

5. How does consistency in body language influence leadership image?

Consistency in gestures and tone builds a reliable personal brand, and fosters trust.
Inconsistent body language raises suspicion.

Angela Merkel’s repeated use of the “Merkel Diamond” hand gesture signalled calm control
over time.
In contrast, Donald Trump’s switch from energetic rally gestures to defensive crossed arms in
press briefings signals emotional shifts and possible discomfort.
People remember repeated behaviours—consistency strengthens the impact of a message.

6. Why is cultural awareness essential when interpreting body language?

Nonverbal cues vary across cultures—what is considered polite in one place may be perceived
as rude or confusing in another.
 • Eye contact:
US and Germany: confidence
Japan and Korea: disrespect or aggression
• Hand gestures:
The “OK” sign is okay in the US but considered offensive in Brazil.
Bowing is a respectful gesture in Japan; shaking hands is more common in the West.

When Donald Trump offered a firm handshake to Japanese Emperor Naruhito, it may have
appeared dominant to Japanese audiences used to bowing.

7. How do leaders use gestures strategically to convey power and

confidence?
Powerful leaders use gestures like:
• Steepling – confidence and authority (used by Bezos, Merkel).
• Open palms – honesty and transparency.
• Deliberate movement – control and calmness.
Macron used a tight handshake and intense eye contact with Trump to counter his usual
dominance—turning a power play into a diplomatic statement.
Trump’s typical gestures —pointing, chest-out posture, and long handshakes—project
dominance and confidence.

8. How do tone of voice and vocal cues influence the perception of

credibility?
Tone includes pitch, volume, pace, and rhythm. It makes up 38% of emotional messaging.
• Calm and steady tone = confidence and control
• High-pitched or shaky tone = stress, fear, or doubt
Margaret Thatcher’s line, “The lady’s not for turning,” was delivered with calm, firm
conviction—her tone solidified her “Iron Lady” image.
If she had hesitated or whispered, the impact would have been lost.

9. What can political blunders teach us about the power of nonverbal

communication?
Seemingly small nonverbal actions can carry huge symbolic weight.
George H.W. Bush glanced at his watch during a debate, and audiences perceived him as
bored and disconnected. Clinton, by contrast, leaned in and made eye contact.
Putin's “power move” (2007) – bringing a dog to a meeting with Merkel, knowing she was
afraid of dogs. Merkel’s stiff posture showed discomfort, while Putin looked relaxed. The body
language imbalance became global headlines.
These moments demonstrate that nonverbal cues often have a greater impact on shaping public
opinion than speeches.