ENVIRONMENT CLASS 12TH

By AYAZ YOUSUF

Score 95+

No need to study anything else

Unit 01 Air Pollution and Noise Pollution
 Classification of Pollutants
1.Primary Pollutant :
Pollutants that are formed and directly emitted from the particular source.
e.g. oxides of Nitrogen & Sulphur , CO ,CO2 ,DDT , Plastic
2.Secondary Pollutant :
These are formed by interaction among primary Pollutants.
e.g.,
 According to Frequency of release :
1.Chronic Pollutants :
A continuous release of a pollutant at a low concentration resulting in
severe effects on humans and animal body with symptoms developing
slowly.
e.g. passive smoking
2.Acute Pollutants :
Pollutants released suddenly
e.g. oil spilling out of pipe
 According to Pollutants Existence in Nature :
1.Quantitative :
These already occur in nature and become pollutant when there concentration
exceeds a particular limit
e.g. CO2 , NOX

2.Qualitative :
These are man made pollutants.
e.g. DDT , fungicides , pesticides
 According to the Nature of Disposal of Pollutants :

Biodegradable Pollutants :
Pollutants which are degraded by microbial action.
e.g., household wastes, sewage

Non-biodegradable Pollutants :
Pollutants which can't be degraded by microbial action.
e.g. DDT , Radioactive substances

Note : These may result in Biomagnification & Bioaccumulation.

 Bioaccumulation
It is the gradual accumulation of pollutants , chemicals or other substances
in an organism.
It occurs when rate of accumulation of a substance or pollutant is greater
than the rate of loss of pollutant from the body of an organism.
Persistent organic pollutants like DDT are long lasting & therefore the risk
of bioaccumulation is high.

Note :
Bioaccumulation : Big Old fish > Small Young fish
 Biomagnification
It refers to the progressive bioaccumulation at each trophic level with the
passage of time.
Pollutant must be :
long lived , mobile , fat soluble & biologically active.

Example of pollutants :
Heavy metals (Hg, Cu ,Cr ,Cd ,Sn ,Pb ,Zn, Ni) , Cyanides , VOC , PCB

Impacts of Biomagnification :
*DDT can cause thinking of egg shells of birds.
*PCB : weak immune system, decrease fertility , cancer chances increase .

Control :
No use of some heavy metals.
*Cu effects human lungs.
*Ni cause oral problem.
*Cd causes kidney failure, cancer.
*Pb causes anemia , nervous system & reproductive effects. ,
*Hg effects nervous system (infants)
 Point Source and Non-point Source Pollution :

Point Source :
Pollution that comes from a single place.
It is easy to identify
e.g. sewage disposal

Non-point Source :
Pollution that comes from many places.
Harder to identify and harder to address.
e.g., vehicle exhaust.
, Eye irritation.
CO affects heart , lungs.
Asphyxiant:
Is a non-toxic gas or minimally toxic which displaces or reduces the
normal O2 conc. in breathing air.
PM2.5 :
Size < 2.5 micrometres, very harmful.
They pass deep into the lungs and cause breathing & respiratory problems ,
irritation , inflammations and damage to the lungs and even premature
deaths.
7.Lead
Emitted from batteries ,petrol, paints , hair dyes,
Most Hazardous pollutant of automobile exhaust.
Effects children in particular.
Cause anemia , cardiovascular diseases, loss of memory
8.Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) :
These include hydrocarbon fuel vapours and solvents.
e.g., toluene ,benzene
 Secondary Pollutants

1.Ozone
It occurs naturally in stratosphere protecting our earth from UV rays.
However ozone at present at ground levels is a pollutant.
Sources : industries & vehicles.

2.Smog
 Sources of Air Pollution

1.Natural Sources :
Volcanoes(SO2) , forest fire(CO) , dust , storm.

2.Man-made sources or Anthropogenic sources :

I)combustion of fuels (CO2, SO2 ,NO2)
II) Agricultural practices.
III)Thermal power plant (SO2)
IV)Industries.
1.Point Source :

2.Mobile Source :
 Measurement of Air Pollution

Concentration

Size
 Control of Air Pollution

1.Gravity settling chamber

Large sized particles > 50 micrometre

2.Cyclonic separator
Remove 5-50 micrometre particles
 3.Fabric filter :
Remove very small particles 0.1-0.5 micrometres
High efficiency.

4.Electrostatic precipitator :
Most widely used for particulate emmision in thermal power plants(flyash)
,Industries.
Efficiency > 99%
Remove small particle size 0.1-1 micrometres.
 5.Wet scrubbers :
Remove gaseous as well as particulate matter.

i)Venturi Scrubber
ii)Spray tower
iii)Wet cyclone scrubber
 Noise Pollution
Unwanted sound ,loud noise, disturbing sound .

Sources:- Industries , machines , crackers , blasting , Defence equipments ,

Domestic gadgets , public adress system , transport vehicles.

Intensity of sound is measured by Debical units (dB)

Units of measuring frequency = Hertz
1) just audible sound = 10 dB
2) whisper = 20 dB
3 ) normal conversation= 60 dB
4) loudest sound without much discomfort 80 dB
5) hazardous sound > 80 dB

Note :- 120 dB can be heard upto 30 sec .

Effects
Auditory Effects :
Auditory fatigue ; appears in the 90dB range (whistling,buzzing in the ear)
Hearing loss
Temporary loss ,also called as temporary thresh hold shift .
At 140 dB (200 Pa sound / pressure ) a healthy man ear starts experiencing
pain.

At 150 dB or more permanant damage ( reputre of memberane may occur )

Even a prolonged and continuous exposure of even ( 80- 100dB ) can cause
permenant deafness / loss .

Non-auditory effect :
Interface with speech communication ( 300-500 Hz)
Physiological changes ( annoyance)
Physiological changes ( rise in BP ,heart rate , breathing etc )
Area. Daytime. Night time
1) industrial 75. 70

2) commercial. 65. 55

3) Residential. 55. 45

4) silent zone. 50 40
Silent zone :- Area that lie with 100 m around educational institutions , hospitals,
courts .

IS -494:-
Rural zone = 25-35

Sub-urban = 30 - 40

Urban - residential = 35 - 45

Residential - buisness area = 40-50

City area = 45 - 60
 CONTROL
Sound control
Blocking path of noise ( sound absorbs walls like acoustic tiles )
Increasing path length
Protecting recipient
(4 fundamental)

Green vegetation ( thick bushes )

Green mufler
Ear muffs ,ear plugs
Laws and regulations.
When someone can register a complaint ?
When ambient noise standard exceeds 10 dB ie 90 dB
Under Section 15 a person can be penalized if he she violates noise pollution
regulations .
Noise is included as environmental in section (a) of air Act 1981.

Note:-
human ear can hear sound from 20Hz -20000Hz ( audible sound)
But is sensitive to frequency of 500-5000Hz .
Children with age less than 5 years upto 2500 Hz .
8.
9.
10.
11.
The frequency range of audibility of a healthy person is
a)200 to 2000 Hz b)20 to 2000Hz
c)20 to 20000 Hz d)2000 to 20000 Hz (KAS/RRB/SSC)
If a person violates noise pollution regulations, he will be penalised
under which section
a)10 b)15 c)20 d)25

The maximum sound level beyond which it is regarded as a pollutant

is
a)140dB b)60dB c)80dB d)40dB
Unit 02 Water Pollution
 Water pollution
Contamination of water bodies oceans ,seas,lakes,rivers ,aquifers .
Any change in physical , chemical or biological properties of water that badly
effects living beings
 Sources :-
Industrial effulents , domestic wastes, pesticides and insecticides , detergents
fertilizers .
Direct source :
Factories,refiners,waste management facilities .

Indirect sources :
pollutants may enter through soil atmosphere ( acid rain)
 Point Source and Non-point Source Pollution :

Point Source :
Pollution that comes from a single place.
e.g. sewage disposal

Non-point Source :
Pollution that discharges pollutants from large
area
e.h., runoff into surface water.
 Line and Area Source Pollution :

Line Source :
Pollution caused along a narrow belt
e.g., sewage disposal, pollution caused by automobiles.

Area Source :
Pollution caused by whole area taken into account.
e.g., industrial area
 Types of Water Pollutants :

1.Organic Pollutants : dead and decaying plants & animals , pesticides,CCl4

2.Inorganic Pollutants : mineral acids , alkalies , salts, metals,

3.Microbial Pollutants : bacteria , viruses , algae , protozoa

4.Radiactive Pollutants : Radium , Uranium ,Thorium

 Types of Water Pollution
1.Ground water pollution : (below the surface of earth)
*Infiltration of urban & industrial wastes, which are disposed on ground.
*Infiltration of fertilizers & pesticides.
*Leakage of sewer pipes.

2.Surface or Fresh water pollution :(lakes,rivers,ponds)

*Industrial effluents
*Sewage disposal
*Agricultural wastes
Effects or Impacts of water pollution :
Effects on aquatic life
Eutrophication.
Biomagnification.
Destruction of ecosystem
Effects on food chain
Change in pH of water bodies

Effects on humans (Diseases)

1) Bacteria - cholera ,thypoid , tuleurmia
2) virus :-polio , hepatitis , diarrhoea
3) protozoa :- dysentery ,colitis ,enteritus , gastrointestinal order
4) helemenths :- worms , elephantiasis
 Control of Water Pollution

1.Control at source.
2.Less use of pesticides & fertilizers ( use of bio-pesticides & bio-fertilizers
should be preferred)
3.Recyling & proper treatment of wastes.
4.Proper sewage treatment.
5.Removal of pollutants by various methods such as
absorption, ion-exchange, electro-dialysis, reverse osmosis.
6.Say no to radioactive wastes.
7.Strict implementation of laws & acts.
Water Quality Parameters
1) physical 2) Chemical. 3) Biological

A) Physical :- turbidity - muddy appearance

2) colour. 3). Taste and odour 4) Temperature
5) suspended solids
Inorganic - clay ,slit ,glass pieces etc
Organic - plant fibres , alagae ,wood , potato pieces etc
2) chemical parameters :-
1) pH = 6.5 to 8.5
Phenopthalein ( basic indicator )
Methyl orange ( acid indicator )
2) Acidity :- CO2
Causes corrosion in pipes
3) Alkalinity
4) Hardness :- due to Ca2+ & Mg2+
5) Chlorides - Nacl
Industries ( Mai source )

6) Flourides: 1 < ppm ,good for teeth - tooth enamel ( hardest substance in human
body ) becomes stronger.
Greater concentration causes mottling of teeth ,flourisis, ( fragile bones )

7) Nitrogen Content
Free ammonia nitrogen
Organic ammonia
Nitrites ( NO2 Negative ) dangerous
Nitrates ( NO3 two negative ) causes blue baby syndrome / methemoglobemia .
Dissolved gases
CH4- explosive property
H2S - pungent smell or rotten egg smell
CO2 - acidity ( biological activity in water )
NH3 - Fishes can't tolerate .

Metals : toxic ( Pb ,Hg ,As ,Cd, Ba,Ag )

Cd - kidney failure
Na- toxic for plants ( heart and kidney )
Cu- lungs
I - goitre
Pb - Anemia , nervous system reproductive system.
C) Biological properties
We find non pathogenic bacteria
Coliform ( non - pathogenic )
It is bacillus ( structure rod like )
Gram negative ( leaves red stain )
Faecal coliform - E.coli
( Rumen / Animal intestine)

Tests :-
1) std plate count test
2) member filter technique
3 most probable NO ( MPN ) E.coli
Productivity ;
Ability of a lake to support food chain
Algae is base of this food chain
Note :- algal growth increases , productivity increases ,water quality decreases
1) Oligotrophic lake - clear water
Productivity decreases
( algal growth wil become less)

2) Mesotrophic lake -
water quality medium

3) Eutrophic lake - high level of productivity

Algal grwoth increases ( phosphorus and nitrogen )
 Eutrophication
Natural ageing of lake.
Excess discharge of nutrients( P,N)
High algal growth ( algal bloom )
Sunlight gets blocked
Death of different plant's and ànimals. (Fishes)
Decomposition of plant's
Gases gets released
BOD level of water increases
Oxygen depletion
(Dissolved oxygen levels decreases)
Causes :
1.Natural sources : OM from Decomposition of dead animals and plants.
2.Man-made sources: pesticides, fertilizers.

Effects :
1.Reduction in photosynthesis.
2.Death of plants and aquatic organisms. (Fish population reduces)
3.Foul smell conditions.
4.Water cannot be used as source of water supply.
5.Clogging or choking of filters.
Control of Eutrophication :
1.Removing Nutrients like nitrogen & phosphorus before discharging
sewage into water bodies.
2.Using copper sulphate (Blue vitriol) & chlorine on surface water bodies.
3.Elimination of phosphate from detergents.
Note :
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) world's most problematic aquatic
weed.
Also called Terror of Bengal.
Bio indicators of Water Pollution :

Sewage worms , blood worms , sludge worms.

Lichens mainly for SO2 pollution.

Escherichia coli (E-coli) mainly for faecal contamination in water.

 Marine Pollution
Pollution of ocean caused by sewage sludge, industrial effluents, solid
wastes, detergents, agrochemicals & waste heat is called marine pollution.
Sources :
1.Industrial effluents : paper, metals, radiactive wastes etc.
2.Disposing sewage sludge.
3.Solid waste disposal.
4.Land based sources
5.Storm water
6.Oil spillage (accidental leakage or burst of oil pipes, oil tankers etc)
Effects or Impacts of Marine Pollution :
1.It badly effects marine life (e.g., fishes and other organism die)
2.Reduction in photosynthesis rate.
3.Eutrophication phenomenon.
4.Biomagnification ;toxic chemicals like DDT etc.
5.Effects on human health due to many pollutants like Dioxins, Furans ,
PCB's & other radioactive substances.

DDT : Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane.

PCB : Poly Chlorinated Biphenyls.
Control or Prevention of Marine Pollution :
1.The BOD of effluentto be diluted in sea or ocean should be as per
GOI guidliness.
2.Solid wastes should be given proper treatment & disposal method.
3.Oil tankers or products should be handled carefully.
4.Ban on dumping Radioactive substances in water.
 Sewage Treatment
Sewage is waste water that contains many unwanted materials which are
harmful for the environment if disposed or left without treating.
Sewage contains impurity or pollutants in the form of solid,liquid or gases.
Waste water = 99% liquid , 0.1% solids
 Types of Solids
1.Suspended inorganic solid : grit , sand ,silt ,clay ,iron ,glass pieces etc.

2.Suspended organic solid : wood, potato pieces etc.

3.Dissolved inorganic solid : dissolved salts like chlorides,nitrates, phosphates

4.Dissolved organic solid : sugar ,phenol etc

Out of these organic solids are generally harmful.

 Sources of Sewage

1.Domestic Sewage :
Garbage & discarded waste materials like food, paper , wood ,fabric etc.

2.Industrial Sewage :
Non-biodegradable waste products (like plastic , bottles)
Chemicals, fertilizers ,phenols , oils
Sewage Treatment Plant
Gh
 Primary Treatment. Secondary Treatment
Large Suspended Suspended Suspended Dissolved Suspended
inorganic & organic inorganic organic organic organic

Trickling Filter
Screen Grit Chamber Primary Settling tank Activated Slude. Secondary Settling
Tank

Sludge Drying Bed Anaerobic Sludge Digestor

 Operation of Removal

1.Unit Operation :
Physical forces are used to remove impurity.
eg. screening , grit chamber , sedimentation.

2.Unit Process :
Biological or chemical methods are used
eg. trickling filter , oxidation pond.
Primary Treatment :

1.Screening :
Remove large floating inorganic & organic materials.

2.Grit Chamber :
remove settleable inorganic particles like sand , glass

3.Primary Sedimentation Tank :

remove suspended organic particles (60-70%)
Reduces BOD by about 30-35%

Note : Sewage water is treated till the BOD is reduced.

Secondary Treatment

1.Trickling Filter / Activated Slude Process :

Remove dissolved organic
Biological methods.
TF :
attach culture.

ASP :
ASP is treating of sewage & industrial wastes using air & biological floc
composed of bacteria & algae.
suspended culture ,
aerobic heterotrophic microorganisms
 2.Secondary Settling Tank :
remove suspended organic (dead bacteria)

Teritiary Treatment
Not given to sewage in India but given in other countries (sacricity of water)
*Costly.
*Disinfection is done for drinking water
Disinfection :
Killing disease causing bacteria.
Methods : 1.Treatment with iodine & bromine.
2.Treatment with KMnO4
3.Treatment with lime
4.Treatment with UV rays.
5.Treatment with Ozone
6.Treatment with Chlorine , Chloroamines.
 Sludge Digestor :
Recieves sludge from PST & SST sludge.
Works under anaerobic conditions.
Here biogas is produced by anaerobic breakdown or digestion of biomass.
with the help of methanogenic bacteria or methanogens(Methanobacterium)
*Biogas = CH4 ,CO2 ,H2S ,
 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
It is the relative measure of amount of O2 dissolved in water.
Source : I)Reareation (O2 from atmosphere)
II)Algal photosynthesis
In treated sewage there are organic solids which require O2 to get oxidised
, If such sewage (whose BOD is high) is disposed in water body , it will use
dissolved O2 of water body and thus dissolved O2 of water body will fall.

*Minimum DO = 4mg/l or 4ppm is necessary for aquatic life (fishes).

More DO in water body , more clean.

Less DO in water body , less clean.
 BOD
The amount of dissolved oxygen required to oxidise biodegradable organic
matter present in sewage under aerobic conditions by biological means is called
biological oxygen demand (BOD)

BOD is an indicator of pollution in water

If BOD increases , highly polluted by OM
If BOD decreases ,less polluted by OM

Note : BOD of drinking water = 0

DO = 6.5 mg/l

BOD of sewage < 30 mg/l before disposal in natural water.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) :
The amount of oxygen required to carryout the decomposition of both
biodegradable organic matter & non-biodegradable organic matter
present in sewage by strong oxidising agents.

COD > BOD

 Radioactive Pollution
Physical pollution of air water and soil with radioactive materials like
Radium , Uranium ,Thronium.

Natural :-
1) cosmic rays ( reaching earth from outer space )
2) Terrestrial radiation ( from nucleus of radioactive elements present in rocks ,soil
and water )
Eg Radium , Uranium, Thorium ,Radon, Pottasium -40 , carbon-14.

Man made
Mining of rocks radioactive materials , atomic reactor , nucleus .
Important points
Arsenic -74 - detect tumours
Sodium -24 -- detect blood clots
Cobalt -60 -- detect cancer treatment
Iodine 223 - cancer therapy
Uranium 235-- fuel in reactor
Iodine-131-- lung tumour ,skin Cancer , thyroid cancer , sterility , defective
eyesight.
Control :-
Prevents leakage of radioactive elements from nuclear reactors .

Workers' should wear protective garments

Atomic weapons , explosion decreases

Note :- Radioactive pollution must be checked ( as there is no cure for radioactive

damages ).
 Thermal Pollution
Rise in temperature of air and water sometimes
due to large heat produced from various sources like thermal power plant
nuclear power plant etc.

Dumping of wastes directly on soil and water

Effects of thermal pollution

Effect on aquatic life
Heat increased ,DO decreased , BOD increased
Oxygen depletion increases ,fishes die ,some plants death
Disturbs food chain
Other effects - cancer , birth defects
Control :-
1) cooling towers :- long towers are made
where water to be cooled is moved through pipes

2) spray tower's :- water is sprayed through

nozzles into atmosphere

3) cooling ponds:- natural evaporation causes

water cooling.
Unit 06 Global Environmental Issues
 Desertification :
Loss of soil productivity by erosion of top soil ( negative pollution) results
in the formation of deserts.
This destroys the fertile land.
Deserts spread by shifting of sand dunes from one place to another.
Soil erosion & desertification are accelerated by deforestation.
Effects of deforestation :
1.Change in climate.
2.Loss of biodiversity.
3.Global warming.
4.Soil erosion.
5.Flash floods.
6.Cyclones.
7.Siltation.
8.Loss of livelihood of indigenous people.
Gh
 Unit : 03 Soil Degredation

SOIL
Soil is a natural product formed from weathering of rocks by the action of climate
and
loving organisms.

Pedology : ( Ecology): the study of soil

Pedosphere: Earth's body of soil
 Properties of Soil
A. Physical Properties :
1.Texture (sand, silt,clay)
2.Structure of soil
3.Consistancy (soil,hard)
4.Bulk density
5.soil colour
6.soil voids or pore space
7. soil permeability
 Chemical properties
1. Colloidal properties
2.Ion exchange
3.Ion absorption
4. pH of soil
Importance of soil:
Q. Soil is Considered to be one of the most significant ecological factor justify?
Ans. Soil is an important natural resource.
1.it supports growth of plants and crops by giving nutrients.
2.it is the base for agriculture.
3.it provides shelter to micro organisms ( bacteria, Earthworm etc)
Composition of Soil
 Pedogenesis
The process of formation of soil is called pedogenesis
Soil formation includes weathering phenomenon, transportation, deposition and
up healing
Weathering
It is the breakdown of bigger rocks into smaller and fine particles. It may occour in
2 ways.
1.physical disintegration : temperature, pressure, abrasion, glaciation, sand blast
2.Chemical decomposition: hydration oxidation, carbonation, Chelation
 Soil profile
A soil profile is the sequence and nature of layers super imposed one above the
others
The vertical cross sectional view of the soil horizons is called soil profile
 Soil Horizons
Soil horizons are layers running parallel to the soil surface
Each horizon (layer) has different texture, age, characteristics as that of others.
 Factors affecting soil formation
1. Parent material: rocks are parent material
Example northern plains soil :Alluvial fertile soil : fine grain (silt & clay)
Peninsular platue soil, less fertile, Coarse grain ( gravel, sand)

2. Relief : slope of land

Steep slope : soil erosion e.g., Peninsular plataeu
Gente slope : deposition of soil e.g., Northern plains

3.Climate
4.Temperature
5 Natural vegetation
 Soil classification &types
Indian classification
ICAR : Indian Council of Agriculture Research 1929
Soil survey of india 1956
ICAR classified soil into and 08 types
1. Alluvial soil
2.Black soil
3.Red and yellow soil
4.Laterite soil
5.Arid or Desert soil
6.Saline and Alkaline soil
7.Peaty and Marshy soil
8.Forest or Mountain soil.
 1. Alluvial soil
Formation : formed by the deposition of rocks of debris ( sedimentary rocks) in
the rivers velleys, flood plains and deltas.

Distribution : Indo_Gangetic_ Brahmaputra plains except in few places where top

soil is covered by desert sand.
Deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, krishna, Cauvery, ( coastal alluvium)
Narmada, tapi valley and northern plains of gujrat
Note :
Alluvial soil cover about 40% (46%) area of india, i.e., it covers largest
geographical area of India
 Division
Alluvial soil of great plains of india is divided into 2
( Bhanger and khadar)
Bhanger : older Alluvium
Less fertile
Lies above flood plains of rivers
Soil contains calcareous deposit
Khadar : new alluvium
More fertile
renewable almost every year, forms flood plains of river banks
Intense agriculture (soil is fenegrand)

Bhanger and khadar areas are commonly known as Doab regions

 Characteristics of alluvial soil
1.very fertile
2.sandy loam to clay
3.Potassh , Humus , nitrogen,
4.Most ideal for cultivation, of cattle.

Uses:
1.Variety of crops: wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, fruits, and vegetables,
Leguminous crops
2.Kanker: used in white washing of House
 2. Black soil
Also known as Regur soil, tropical chernozems (internationally)

Formation :
Formed due to Solidification of lava spread over large areas during volcanic in
Deccan plates
Thus formed from igneous rocks
Black colour = Tutani _ ferrous magnetic compounds found in blast.

Distribution
MP, Maharashtra, Gujrat, AP, T N
quit deep in cover reaches of Godavari and krishna river and Northern part of
Deccan plateu (peninsular platue)
 Characteristics
1.Clayey, deep, and impermeable
2.When wet these soil swell and when dry these shrink
3 Self ploughing soil, during wet season they retain moisture thus swell and on
drying they shrink (soil develops)
4.Rich in minerals (lime, iras, magnesia, alumina, potash) but lack phosphorus,
nitrogen and OM.
5.Don't require irrigation for agricultural in low rain fall areas ( soil retain moisture
and are also deep)
6. PH=6•8
Use:
Used for cultivation of cotton ( they can retain moisture)
Largest cotton growth state = Gujarat (surat) (Note : It can change)
 3. Red and Yellow soil
Top layer= red, below, yellowish
Red color:feric oxids also called omnibud groups.
Formation :
Formed due to. Weathering of crystalline rocks, metamorphic rocks ( Gneiss)
and igneous rocks (Granite)
Distribution
Found in Eastern and southern part of Deccan platue, dry and humid areas of
peninsular india.
TN, Karnataka, Andra pradesh, Maharashtra, MP, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, jharkhand,
Same eastern states
 Characteristics
1.Less fertile
2.Rich in iron and potash, lack phosphate, lime, magnesia, humus, nitrogen
3. Soil occour in dry and humid areas
Are airy and need irrigation
Uses
Rice, wheat, gram, millets, oil seeds, cashew.
 4. Laterite soil (valvet soil)
Derived from latin word 'later' =Brick, pinkish or reddish
Annual rain fall =200cm

Formation
Due to leaching (oxidation) away of siliceous (lime and silica) of rocks due to dry
and wet conditions which occour in typical monsoon climate.
In area of high temperature and high rainfall.

Distribution :
Higher areas of peninsular platue
Karnataka, karela, TN, MP, hilly areas of Orrisa and Assam.
 Characteristics
1 Rich in Iron and Al as leaching occurs, it is deficient in patassh, lime, nitrogen,
humus, OM,
( Low fertility)
2.Used as a building material soil because hard like a brick ( therefore not suitable
for agriculture)
3.Acidic in nature (leaching)
Uses
Cashew, nut, groundnut
Kartataka ( coffee, rubber, spices)
 5. Arid or Desert soil
Formation
Soil is doposited by wind oction in arid and semi_arid areas.
Soil is formed when significant diurnal temperature changes and mechanically
disintegrates the rocks
Note: Indra Gandhi canal =Rajasthan (thar desert)
Distribution : Rajasthan, south west Punjab, and S W Haryana
Characteristics:
1.Contain coarse brown sounds andand are very porous
2.Moisture ( lacks), Humus, nitrogen, OM
3. Salt content
4.kanker content which restricts the infiltration of water.
Uses:
Bajra, wheat, and groundwater
 6. Saline and Alkaline soil ( kallar)
Formation :
These are formed in the areas of intensive cultivation with excess use of irrigation
water
Excessive irrigation with dry climate conditions promotes capillary action which
results in the deposition of salt at top layers of soil.

Distribution:
Found in arids and semi-arid regions, waterlogged ares, swampy areas,
Wastern gujrat, Deltas of Eastern coast and sundarbans.
 Characteristics
1. These soils are known as usara soil, rich in sodium, potassium and Mg.
2.They are infertile
3.they are saline therfore they contain salt due to poor drainage
4.Texture : sandy and loamy
Uses
Cotton, Sugerbeet
 7. Peaty and Marshy soil
Formation :
These are formed due to water logging and anaerabic conditions i.e, due to
partial decomposition of OM.
Formation is governed by moisture and temperature
Distribution
Found in heavy rainfall and high humidity areas
Bihar, Uttrakhand, and coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa, TN.
 Characteristics
1. Rich in humus and organic matter therefore generally alkaline soil
2.Heavy soil with black colour
3 marshy gas is found CH4, H2S, CO2
Uses:
Jute, spices, blueberries.
 8. Forest and mountain soil
Formation :
Formed due to decomposition of leaves/plants under soil surface.
Formed in areas where there is neither too hot nor too cold.

Distribution:
Himalayan region, Eastern ghats.
 Characteristics
1.Rich in OM, humus but poor in minerals ( K, P, Lime)
2.Texture: loamy ( sand, silt, and clay in mixed form)
3.Fertile
4.Soil erosion is major problem in these areas.

Uses
Shifting agriculture, rubber, bambo.
Note
Area : Alluvial > Red > Black > Laterite

Loamy soil: ( sand, silt, and clay in equal proportion) best for plant growth

Tropical types of soil : Black soil, Red soil, Desert soil

Under ideal conditions 1cm of soil develops.

 Soil erosion
Soil erosion is defined as the movement of soil components such as top soil,
surface litter from one place to another by the action of wind, water, glaciers
It results in the loss of soil fertility (because topsoil is fertile)

Types
1. Normal or Geologic erosion :
Slow process
By nature process
2. Accelerated erosion :
Rote of erosion is much faster than rate of formation of soil.
Man-made activities ( anthropogenic)
Overgrazing, deforestation, mining,
 Causes/Agent:
Caused by climatic factors and biotic factors
A. CLIMATIC FACTORS :
1. Erosion by water :
Heavy rainfall, flood water, melting glaciers and snow romove the top layer of soil
causing erosion.
Erosion caused by water is of following types
a) Gully erosion :
Heavy rainfall, fast running water may result in deeper cavities or grooves, called
gullies which makes the field uncultivable.
Gullies may be V-shaped or U-shaped ( vertical erosion v-shape) (lateral erosion U-
shape)
b) Till erosion :
Heavy rainfall, fast running water produce finger shaped grovees or rills over entire
feild.
 c) Sheet erosion
Heavy runoff rainwater removes uniform thin layer of soil from large area
d) Slip erosion or landslide
Caused by heavy rainfall and it occurs on steep sloppy lands ( mountain, hills)
e) Stream bank erosion
During rainy season, fast running water stream takes turn into any other direction,
cutting the soil and making caves in the banks.
2. Erosion by wind :
Wind erosion mainly occours in arid and semi-arid areas
a) Saltation
In saltation, fine soil particles are lifted into the air by wind. Moving soil particles
can discharge into the air by wind.
Moving soil particles can cause damage to surface and vegetation.
 b) Suspension
Some of the soil particles remain in the air for longer time and thus are
transported to large distance by wind.
c) Surface creep
Heavier soil particles which cann't be lifted by wind are moved along the surface.
B. Biotic soil erosion :
Excessive grazing, deforestation, mining.
Impacts of soil erosion
1.loss of arable land _cultivated_soil fertility.
2.increasing floods _damage to life and property
3.Pollution of water bodies_ public health _fishes
4.Economic loss_ india every, year_1000cr loss
 Soil pollution
Any unfavourable alteration in soil by addition or removal of substance and factors,
which decrease soil fertility is called soil pollution.
Types:
1.Positive soil pollution: Due to addition of undesirable substance in soil e.g
pesticides, inorganic fertililizers, industrial fertilizers etc
2.Negitive soil pollution: Due to erosion of top soil and overuse of land.
3. Landscape pollution:Due to dumping of waste example rubbish, garbage, sludge,
industrial waste
Source
1.Urban waste: it includes both domestic and commercial waste.
The solid urban waste are called refuse.
2.Industrial waste : major source of soil pollution.
They contain organic and inorganic materials along with non biodegradable materials.
3. Agriculture process: The commonly pesticides like insecticide, fungicides,
herbicides etc results in accumulation of chemicals in the soil

4.Open dumping: Open dumping of solid wastes

5. Deforestration.

6. Mining: Surface mining and quarrying removes top soil and therfore destroying
soil fertility.

7. Radioactive materials: Due to Uranium processing

8. Biological agent's: pathogens

 Effect of soil erosion
1.Removal of top soil of land results in low fertility.
2.Crops produced in a polluted land will be of inferior quality.
3.soil floura and fauna gets adversily affected.
4.Use of insecticide and pesticides results in biomagnification
5.Use of ferlizers (N, P) results in eutrophication of lakes
6. It leads to birth defects, cancers, respiratory disease, nervous disease, kidney
disease, methemoglobemenia in humans,
 Control of soil pollution
1.Organic farming: less use of chemicals and lesser production of waste in agriculture
2 solid waste disposal : solid waste shouldn't be dumped on fertile soils but should be
desposed off properly
3.Soil conservation : (Checking soil erosion)
Biological method
Terrace farming:
Planting vegetation in a manner that reduce soil loss
a2.Growing grazing fields where grasses hold the soil tightely and animals excreta
adds organic compounds to soil.
a3. By afforestation and reforestation we can preserve top soil
ad soil mulching, placement of any organic and inorganic material over the top soil
surface to protect it
b) mechanical method
Reducing speed of water flow, to reduce erosion by water bt construction check
dams,
Contour bunding : suitable for sloppy ground
Unit 04
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Solid waste
Solid wastes are discarded materials. ( useless)
Also know as refuse, rubbish, trash, junk or garbage.
It includes:
Garbage, Demolition products, sewage treatment residue, Rubbish, Dead animal's,
Manahare and other discarded materials
Note:
It doesn't include night soil or excreta.
 Classification of solid waste ( Sources)
1 municipal solid waste
2. Industrial solid waste
3. Biomedical waste
4.Hazardous waste.

1.Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) :

i.Residential: food waste, plastics, paper, glass, E - waste
ii.Commercial: office, stores
iii.Institutional: (school, collage, camps)
iv. Construction and Demolition areas: Debris, other material( concrete, steel)
v. Waste from water treatment plant.
2.Industrial solid waste
i. Construction sites, thermal power plants, chemical plant's, fabrication plant's,
Agriculture industry.
ii. Produce food waste, ashes, demolition waste, and other hazardous waste

3.Biomedical waste
i.Hospital wastes generated during diagnosis, treatment, or immunication of
humans and animals
ii. Hazardous chemicals (Formaldehydes, phenol, mercury) etc
iii. Also include disposable bandages, syringes etc

4.Hazardous waste
i.Pesticides, Rubber, Dyes, Hospitals waste
 E-waste
These are electronic waste (discarded electrical or electronic wastes) e. g
irreparable computers, mobile's, tv's, machine's.
 Other terms
1.Garbage: it includes all sort of putrescrible organic waste obtained from kitchens,
hotels, restaurants like waste food articles, vegetables peelings, fruit peelings etc.
P=450-900 kg/m 3

2.Ashes: it includes incombustible waste products from furnace and houses or

industries
P=700-850 kg/m3

3.Rubbish: includes all non putrescrible waste except ashes.

P=50-400kg/m3
 Causes of soil pollution
i. Overpopulation.

ii. Technology.

iii. Affluence ( throwing away out of fashion things)

iv. Lack of knowledge.

 Effects of solid waste pollutants
i.Spread of rodent related diseases such as diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, plague
etc.
ii. Crops and water supplies mag result in large scale epidemics.
iii. Wastes may cheke drains, gully, pits resulting in water logging, which in turn
results in breeding of mosquitoes, thus danger of malaria and dengue.
iv. Spread bad odour gases e. g H2S, NH3
v. Stray animals
 Management of MSW

Note: For management we stress on 3Rs Or 4Rs

Reduce: Reducing demand, less packaging, reduction in use of raw materials.
Reuse: Reuse containers etc
Recycle: Glass bottles, bacterias, cans etc.
Refuse: (Redical choice)

1.Generation
From our homes , hospitals , offices etc.
2. Storage and segregation
Separation or segregation is most time consuming criterion in MSW management
Separate dustibins i. e, store organic and inorganic solid waste in different bins.

White =
Green= paper
Black = non- infected wates example E-waste etc.
Blue = Plastics , needles , syringes , sharp metals
Yellow = Non-recyclable wastes eg., Human & animal waste
Red = Infectious recyclable eg., urine bags , gloves
3.Collection
i. Community stroge units, kerbside collection
ii. Best way of collection is municipal trucks directly froms forms houses

4.Transport
Trucks take solid waste from bins. ( after Compressing etc)
5.Processing and Recycling
i. Processing unit is kept away from residential area ( benefit near, landfill,
less foul smell in residential area)
ii. Recyled solid wastes are separated

6.Disposal of SW: The solid which can't be recycled is disposed off.

 Methods of Disposal of Solid wastes
1. Sanitary land filling:
Factors considered while designing
i. Available land area
ii. Climatic conditions
iii. Soil conditions
iv. Hydrological conditions
v. Environmental protection
vi. Topography
vii. Transportation distance
It may be classified as area or trench or depression method.
The refuse is disposed and compacted in layers untill the thickness of compacted
layer reaches a height varying from 2 to 3 m
i.It is covered with a 0.15 to 0.3m thick soil layer (clay) or plastic form.
The bottom is covered by imperable geosynthetic membrance to prevent
percolation of leachate ( colour toxic liquid) into WT.
ii.During ist phase decomposition is done by aerobic microorganisms but for most
of the phase decomposition is done by anaerobic bacteria producing. biogas (
methane)
iii.Methane is collected through pipes and burnt to produce electricity.
Moisture content= 60%
 Advantages
1.Simple and economical
2 Separation of different kinds of required
3.No by-product or residue is left out
4.Low lying water logging areas and old quarrel pits can be put to use.
 Disadvantages
1.Unavailibity of pits
2.Release of foul gases
3.Covering material may n't be available
 2. Composting
Biological method , ecologically accepted
Done in rural areas
In composting, putrescrible OM present in SW is digested
In composed aerobivally or anaerobivally and converted into humus ( dark brown
or black colored) and other mineral compounds having high fertilizing value (
manaure) ( leachate may also be produced in rainy season)

Biomass (Aerobic condition) --------> CO2 + H2O + organic manure

Biomass (Anaerobic condition) -----> CH4 (biogas)
Moisture content= 55 - 60 temp = 45°-60c°

2 Method used in India

i. Indore method:
Aerobic conditions
Campletes in 4 months

ii. Bangalore method:

Anaerobic conditions
Completes in 4- 5 months
 3. Vermi composting
Decomposition of biodegradable solid waste by earth worms
It is nutrient rich, natural ferlizers
Moisture content = 60% , temp= 25-30°c
 4. Burning
Chemical transportation of solid waste, best for hazardous and hospitals waste
It includes 2 methods
A. Incineration :
Most hygenic method
➡ In India incinerator is used in conjunction with land filling
➡Before incinerator, screening is done to reduce load on furance ( broken glass,
metal pieces etc are separated) ( non_ combustable and inert)
➡ Used for materials having high calorie value.
➡it is controlled combustion ( burning) in presence of oxygen
➡Carried in 2 steps
a)primary process: it includes drying,vegtables combustion of fixed carbon and
solids
b)Secondary process: it includes combustion of vapour,gases and particularly
 Advantages
i. Complete destruction of pathogenic bacteria (therefore best way for hazardous
and hazardous and and hospital waste.
ii. No odour or dust problem
iii. Heat generated (exothermic) can be used to produce electricity.
 Disadvantages
i. Expensive
ii. Only for high colorific valved solid waste
iii. Causes air pollution
iv. Produce diexins, furans.
B. Pyrolysis :
Most organic compounds can be converted into gaseous, liquid and solid fraction
through a combination of thermal cracking and condensation reaction in absence
of oxygen is called pyrolysis.
ii. It is endothermic process required continuous input of heart energy
iii. Done for ‘plastic waste' rubber waste, tyre waste, ( which don't degrate easily)
iv. Most efficient method to conserve energy.
3 types of end products are obtained
i. Gas stream containing __ Hydrogen, Ch4, Co2, CO and other gases
ii. Liquid fraction__Tar, Oil
iii. Solid fraction__Charcoal
 5. Gasification
i.Similar to pyrolysis but done in. Presence of controlled oxygen limits
It produces
Gas like co and H2 ( syn Gas)
ii. Liquid __Oil
iii. Solid__ash
 6. Pulverisation
i. Solid waste ( demolished) is putting in grindind machine ( Crushing and grinding)
ii. Helps to reduce volume of waste and changing its physical properties
iii. Not commonly used in India
 7.Bioremediation
Bioremediation is the use of micro organisms ( bacteria and fungi) to degrade the
environment contamination into less toxic forms.
 Hazardous waste
Hazardous waste are that SW which contain toxis or radioactive material or
industrial efficient produced as a result of industrial, medical or domestic activities.
They are non_biodegradable, highly poisonous even at very low conc,
biodegradable etc.
 Characteristic
1.Corrosive
2.Explosive
3.Flmmable
4.Poisonous or infectious
5.Toxic
6.Radioactive example Uranium
7.Oxidising
 Effects
1. Loss of property and life ( fere, explosion)
2.Environment pollution
3.Bioaccumulation
4.Toxic health disease (e.g Cancer).
 Management of Hazardous Wastes

1.Incineration 3.Plasma Gasification Technology

2.Deep well injection

Deep Well Injection

 3. Plasma torch
Wastes are treated at high temperatures.
Plasma torch or gun or cutter is a device for generating direct flow of plasma.
These use inert gases like Argon, Nitrogen.
Temp = 4000 to 25000°F
The high temperature melts the waste & eventually that gets vaporised..
Unit 07
 Sustainable Development
History or Background :
The concept of sustainable development was set up in 1983 by UN & is
also known as Brundtland Commission.
The Brundtland Report was released in 1987.
The report laid the foundation of Rio Earth Summit 1992, which then
ultimately led to the creation of UN Commission on Sustainable
Development.
Sustainable Development :
It is that process of economic development which aims at raising the
quality of life of both present as well as future generation without
threatening natural environment.
 Advantages of Sustainable Development :
1.It helps in achieving long term economic growth.
2.It helps in ensuring a better life for present and future.
3.It lowers the environmental impact by reducing different pollutions.
 Steps for Sustainable Development (How can we achieve SD) :
1.Using appropriate technology, which eco-friendly & resource efficient.
2.Following 3-R approach (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle).
3.Avoiding excess use of fossil fuels, minerals, fertilizers & pesticides.
4.Protecting natural vegetation, resources, biodiversity etc.
5.Better sanitation, availability of clean water etc.
6.Limit population.
7.Educate, empower & involve common people in decision making at all
levels.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Steps :
 Scope of EIA :
A.Technical Scope :
1.Geology, ground conditions & water.
2.Ecology & nature conservation.
3.Air quality.
4.Noise & vibration
5.Landscape & aesthetics.
6.Traffic & transport.
7.Cultural heritage.
B.Spatial Scope :
The spatial or geographical scope takes into account the physical extent
of proposed works.
C.Temporal Scope :
 Key Elements of EIA :
A. Legal & institutional framework.
1.Basic duties.
2.scope of application.
3.consideration of alternatives.
4.People's participation.
5.quality control & assurance.
B. EIA process.
screening, scoping ,EIA report , Publicity , Monitoring/enforcing
C. EIA practice & outcomes.
It should contain some of the components like
air environment, noise environment, biological environment,
land environment, social & health environment, risk assessment.
Environmental Auditing
Environmental Impact Statement
 1.Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
This act is designed with an objective for preservation & to restore
wholesomeness of water bodies by controlling water pollution.
The act was passed by GOI in 1974.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the State Pollution
Control Board (SPCB) were constituted in order to enforce this act.
The act contains 8 chapters and 64 sections.
Law :
Imprisonment upto 3 months or fine upto RS 10,000

Article-48-A
 2. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
This act was enforced after UN Conference held in Stockholm in 1972.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the State Pollution
Control Board (SPCB) were constituted in order to enforce this act.
The act was enforced in 16 May 1981.
This act contains 7 chapters and 54 sections.
Law :
Imprisonment upto 3 months or fine upto RS 10,000
 3. The Environmental Protection Act 1986
This act was enforced in 1986.
This act contains 4 chapters and 26 sections.
This act is known as Umbrella Act in India.
Aim and Objectives of EPA
1. World wildlife day 03 March
2. World Forest day 21 March
3. World water day 22 March
4. World Earth day 22 April
5. World Biodiversity day 22 May
6. World Environment day. 05 June
7. World Ozone Day 16 September