Study on Substation & its performance

RATHNAGARI SRINITHYA 22RS5A0223

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY,
HYDERABAD

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, RAJANNA

SIRCILLA.

Agraharam, Rajanna Sircilla

PIN:505301

2021-2025
 INDUSTRIAL ORIENTED MINI PROJECT REPORT

ON

Study on Substation and its performance

Submitted In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

BY

RATHNAGARI SRINITHYA 22RS5A0223

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY,
HYDERABAD UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
RAJANNA SIRCILLA.

Agraharam, Rajanna Sircilla PIN:505301

 JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY,
HYDERABAD UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
RAJANNA SIRCILLA.
Agraharam, Rajanna Sircilla PIN:505302

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

CERTIFICATE

Date: / /2024
This is to certify that the mini project entitled as “The GSM-Based Transformer Health
Monitoring System” is a Bonafide work carried out by RATHNAGARI SRINITHYA bearing
roll numbers 22RS5A0223 in

partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING by the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University Hyderabad during the academic year 2024-25.

The results embodied in this report have not been submitted to any other University or
Institution for the award of any degree or diploma.

------------------------- -------------------------

Mr.D.BHASKAR Mr.D.BHASKAR
Assistant Prof. Head of the department
Project Guide

------------------------------ ---------------------
DR.T. VENUGOPAL EXTERNAL EXAMINER
PRINCIPAL
JNTUN UCER
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The success in this project would not have been possible without timely help and guidance
by many people. We wish to express our sincere gratitude to all those who have helped and
guided us for the completion of the project.
It is our pleasure to thank to our Project Guide Mr.D. Bhaskar ASST.PROF in
Department of EEE, and Project Coordinator Mr.D. Bhaskar ASST.PROF in
Department of EEE for their guidance and suggestions throughout the project, without
which we would not have been able to complete this project successfully.

We wish to express our gratitude to Dr. T. Venugopal, Principal, JNTUH UCER.

For his encouragement and providing facilities to accomplish our project successfully.
We would like to thank our classmates, all faculty members and non-teaching staff of EEE
Department, JNTUH UCER for their direct and
indirect help during the project work.
Finally, we wish to thank our family members and our friends for their interest and
assistance that has enabled to complete the project work successfully

RATHNAGARI SRINITHYA 22RS5A0223

 DECLARTION

We hereby declare that the work which is being presented in this mini project entitled Study

on Substation & its performance submitted towards the partial fulfilment of

requirements for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics
Engineering Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad University College of
Engineering Rajanna Sircilla is an authentic record of our own work carried out under the
guidance of guide MR.D.BHASKAR, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering. JNTUH UCER, Rajanna Siricilla, To the best of our knowledge
and belief. This mini project bears no resemblance with any report submitted to JNTUH-
UCER or any other university for the award of any degree or diploma for the academic year
2024-2025.

RATHNAGARI SRINITHYA 22RS5A0223

 ABSTRACT

A Substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission and distribution

system. Substation transforms voltage from high to low or perform any of several
other important functions between the generating station and consumer, electric
power may flow through several at different voltage levels.

Basically, Substation consists of power transformer, circuit breaker,

isolators, earthing switches, current transformer, potential
transformer, capacitor banks etc.

This mini project covers the important equipment and their function in a substation
and also covers the general maintenance of substation
 INDEX
Substation
• Functions of Substation
• Classification of Substation
• Details of Substation
• Single line diagram of substation
Lightning Arrestor
• Types of Lightning Arrestor
• Impulse ratio of Lightning Arrestor
Circuit Breaker
• Classification of Circuit Breaker
• Working principle of Circuit Breaker
• Power Line Carrier Communication
Batteries
• Storage batteries
• Types of Cells
• Chemical reaction
• Effect of Temperature on specific gravity
Transformers
• Working principle of Power Transformer
• Essential parts of Power Transformer
• Classification of Transformer
 • Losses in Transformer
• Type of Protection scheme used for Transformer
• Failure of Transformer main components
• Maintenance schedule of Power Transformer
• Why Transformer rating is in KVA ?
• Tap changing transformer
• Parallel operation of Three phase transformer

Instrument Transformer
• Necessity of Instrument transformer
• Current Transformer
• Precautions while using current transformer
• Potential Transformer
Station Transformer
• Necessity of Station Transformer
Insulator
• Types of Insulator
Conductors
• Requirements of Conducting materials
• Fuses
• Substation Earthing
• Purpose of Substation Earthing
• Types of Substation Earthing
 SUBSTATION

Introduction:

Electric power is generated at generating stations, these stations which are located far
away from different consumers. As we know that, there is no storage device for electric
power, hence the generated power must be conveyed to the consumer premises with
less transmission and distribution losses. In order to fulfill the above conditions, we
need a special apparatus system which changes the characteristics of electric supply
from one to another are called "SUB-STATION"

Definition:

It is defined as an assembly of apparatus which change the characteristics of electric

supply from one form to another form. Ex: From alternating current to direct current or
from one voltage level to another voltage level.

Functions of Substation:

The electrical power substations will perform the following functions, namely

1. To convert A.C into D.C or vice versa, known as "power converting operation".

2. To convert frequency from higher to lower or vice versa, known as "frequency

converting operation".

3. To improve the power factor by installing synchronous condensers at the end of the
line known as "switching operation".

4. To switch ON and OFF the power lines, known as "switching operation".

5. To transform voltage from higher to lower or vice-versa, known as "voltage

transformation operation".

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 Classification of substations:

The substation may be classified into different types according to:

1. Type of service: Static and Converting (AC to DC).

2. Type of function: Distribution, Power factor, Frequency changer, extra high voltage
transmission and Industrial.

3. Type of control: Manual, Automatic and Supervisory or Remote.

4. Type of design/location: Indoor, Outdoor and Underground.

5. Type of equipment: Transformer, Rotary converter, Rectifier, Motor-Generator and

Frequency changer.

6. On the basis of operating voltage: High voltage substations, extra high voltage
substations and Ultra high voltage substations.

Factors to be considered while selecting a site for substation:

1. The site should be as near as load centers as possible.

2. It should be having transport facility.

3. It should be away from the developed area.

4. It should sufficiently away from area where police and military riffle practice held.

5. The site should be such that the structure equipment and building should have
proper accommodation.

6. It should be far away from aerodrome.

7. It should involve minimum capital cost and maintenance.

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Factors governing the layout of a substation:

1. Number of incoming lines/feeders

2. Number of out going lines/feeders.

3. Character of the load.

4. Facilitation of operation and maintenance.

5. Normal weather conditions.

6. Purpose and functions capacity of the substation.

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 DETAILS OF SUBSTATION

1. INCOMING FEEDERS (6)

(a) 132KV LINGAMPET

(b) 132KV MINPOOR

(c) 132KV PADMAJIWADA

(d) 132KV KAMAREDDY-1

(e) 132KV KAMAREDDY-2

2. OUTGOING FEEDERS(10)

(a) 33KV KAMAREDDY-1

(b) 33KV KAMAREDDY-2

(c) 33KV CHINNAMALLAREDDY

(d) 33KV KONDAPUR

(e) 33KV TADWAI

(f) 33KV GANDHARI

(g) 33KV POSANIPET

(h) 33KV SS NAGAR

(i) 33KV ADLOOR

(j) 33KV AMUN SOLAR

3. POWER TRANSFORMERS(2)

(a)31.5 MVA PTR-1(EMCO)

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 (b)50 MVA PTR-2(ABB)

4. STATION TRANSFORMER(100KVA)

(a) HV side: 33KV

(b) LV side: 400V

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 LIGHTNING ARRESTORS

A lightning arrestor is a protective device which conducts the high voltage surge on
the power system network to the ground.

1. During normal operation conditions, the lightning arrestor is OFF the line i.e, it will
not allow any current to earth.

2. During the over voltage occurrence, the air insulation across the gap breaks down
and an arc is formed, providing a low resistance path for the surge to the ground. In this
way excess charge on the line due to the surge is conducted to the ground through the
lightning arrester.

In Substations the lightning arresters are installed on both sides of the transformers
i.e, on H.V, L.V. side.

Scheme of Surge protection by Lightning Arresters:

Lightning arresters are mainly used for protecting the electrical equipment from
lighting or Surge voltages in the electrical power system networks.

Lighting arresters are also known as "Surge diverters". These are mainly connected
between line and earth at the Sub-Station.

The purpose of a surge diverter is to divert the incoming surge or high voltage wave to
the earth to safe guard the equipment from damage

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 Types of Lighting Arresters

The following are the main types of lighting arresters:

i. Rod gap lighting arrester

ii. Sphere gap lighting arrester.

iii. Horn gap lighting arrester.

iv. Valve type lighting arrester.

v. Thyrite type lighting arrester.

vi. Lead oxide lighting arrester.

vii. Explusion type lighting arrester.

viii. Electrolyte type lighting arrester.

ix. Pellet type of lead peroxide arrester.

Selection of lighting arrester (or) characteristics of good lighting arrester:

An ideal lighting or surge diverter should posses the following essential

characteristics.

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 i. It should not draw any current at normal power frequency voltage I.e., during the
normal operation.
ii. It should not break down very quickly when the abnormal
transient voltage above its break down value appears, so that a low-impedance path to
ground can be provided.
iii. When the breakdowns have taken place, it should be capable of carrying the
discharge current without getting damaged itself.

iv. It must be capable of interrupting the power frequency follow-up-current after the
surge is discharge to ground.

Impulse ratio of lighting arrester:

It is defined as the ratio the breakdown impulse voltage of a wave of specified

duration to the breakdown voltage of a power frequency wave.

impulse ratio = breakdown voltage under surge conditions

Break down voltage frequency conditions, The impulse ratio of any lighting arrester is
a function of time duration of the transient wave.

CIRCUIT BREAKER

It is a protective device which can be opened or closed a circuit under all condition i.e,
no-load, full-load and fault conditions and automatically under fault conditions by
manually, remotely and automatically.

These are designed to operate manually at no-load conditions and automatically under
fault conditions.

Classification of circuit breakers based on the medium of arc quenching:

The circuit breakers are mainly classified into following types depending upon the
medium of arc quenching namely.

1. Oil-circuit breakers: In this type, oil is used as medium for quenching the arc. These
are

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 * Bulk oil circuit breakers.

* Minimum oil (or) small oil circuit breakers.

2. Air blast circuit breakers: In this type of circuit breakers a high pressure air-blast is
used for arc extinction.

* Axial-blast type

* Cross-blast type

* Radial-blast type

3. Sulphur Hexa Fluoride(SF6) Circuit breakers: In this type of circuit breaker the SF6
gas is used for arc extinction.

4. Vaccum circuit breakers: In this type, vaccum is used for arc extinction.

SF6 circuit breaker:

SF6 gas circuit breakers are well suited for high voltage system because of its several
advantages properties as compared to other type of arc extinguishing mediums.

* Principle of SF6 circuit breaker:

In case of SF6 circuit breakers, the breaker is filled with SF6 gas at a pressure of about
5 kg/cm2 (for single pressure type). Whenever a fault occurs in the power system
network, the contacts of breaker may begins to separate and the compressed gas
(cylinder) which is attached to the moving contact is get released through the
nozzle on the arc. Consequently, the arc between the contacts is extinguished. In this
method, the SF6 gas is projected on the arc for its extinction, this type of action is
called puffing action. Hence, this type of SF6 circuit breaker is called puffer type SF6
circuit breaker.

SF6 circuit breaker are of basically two types:

1. Single pressure type SF6 circuit breakers.

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 2. Double pressure type SF6 circuit breakers.

In double pressure type SF6 circuit breaker, the gas from high pressure system is
released through the nozzles into low pressure system while interrupting the arc.

*Construction and working of SF6 circuit breaker:

Construction:

It consists of fixed and moving contacts enclosed in a chamber containing SF6 gas. The
fixed contact fitted with an arc horn. The moving contact is also a hallow cylinder with
rectangular holes in the sides to permit the SF6 gas to let out through these holes after
flowing along and across the arc. The tips of the contacts and arcing horn are coated
with copper tungsten arc resistance material. It consists of valve mechanism which
permits a high pressure SF6 gas forms the reservoir to flow towards arc interruption
chamber.

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 WORKING :

At normal position, the contacts remains closed and are surrounded by SF6 gas at a
pressure of about 2.8 kg/cm2. When the breaker operates, the moving contact is pulled
a part and an arc is struck between the contacts. The moving contact is interconnected
with the operating mechanism and valve. Hence when the moving contact begins to
operate simultaneously the valve begins to operate and releases SF6 gas from reservoir
at 14kg/cm2 for the interruption of arc. This high pressure flow of SF6 gas observes the
free electrons in the arc path to form immobile negative ions which are ineffective as
charge carries. The result is that the medium between the contacts quickly builds up
high dielectric strength and causes the extinction of the arc. After the operation of the
circuit breaker, the valve is automatically closed by the action of a set of springs.

Vaccum circuit breaker:

High vacuum has two outstanding properties.

1. Highest insulation strength- In comparison to various other insulating medium in use

in circuit breakers vacuum is a superior dielectric medium. It is better than all other
media except air and SF6 gas which are generally employed at high pressure.

2. When an ac circuit is opened by separating the contacts in a vacuum interruption

occur zero with the dielectric strength across the contacts building up at a rate
of thousands of times higher than that obtained with other circuit breakers. This is
because with the increase in gap due to separation of contacts and movement of
breaker contacts, the breakdown kV peak increases. The breakdown voltage of
vacuum compared with air for one pair of 9.4mm diameter tungsten contacts.

The above two properties obviously make the vacuum circuit breakers more efficient,
less bulky and cheaper in cost. The service life also is much greater than that of
conventional circuit breakers and almost no maintenance is required. Vaccum breakers
are ideally suited for most duties encountered in typically electric utility and

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 industrial applications their voltage and interrupting rating is such that with little
modifications, they can be made to perform specific switching duties on HVAC system.

Construction of vaccum circuit breaker:

As far as construction is concerned vaccum circuit breaker is very simple in comparison

to an air or oil circuit breaker. The outer envelope is normally made of glass due to the
case of joining it to the metallic end caps and also because the glass envelope facilities
the examination of the breaker from outside after the operation. If it becomes milky
white from its original finish of silvery minor then it indicates that
the baffle is losing its vaccum.

A sputter shield, usually made of stainless steel, it is placed between the contacts and
the envelope in order to prevent the vapor reaching the envelope as it reduces the
breakdown strength between the contacts. Inside the sputter shield the breaker as two
contacts one fixed and the other moving contact.

The moving contacts moves through a short distance of 5 to l0mm depending upon the
operating voltage the metallic bellows made of stainless steel is used to move the lower
contact. The design of the bellows is very important because the life of vacuum

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 breaker depends upon the ability of these components to perform repeated operations
satisfactorily. The periphery of the end cap is sealed to the envelope and fixed contact
system is an integral part of one end cap, one of the fixed as well as moving contacts is
brought out of the chamber for external connections.

Operating mechanism:

The lower end of the breaker is fixed to a spring operated or solenoid operated
mechanism so that the metallic bellows inside the chamber are moved upward and
downward during closing and opening operations respectively the contact movement
should be such as to avoid bounce. It is worth nothing that the operating mechanism
should provide sufficient pressure for good connections between the contacts.

The pressure in a vacuum interrupter at the time of sealing off is kept about l0' tore. The
interrupting current is between 250 to l000MA. The normal current carrying capacity
for a single interrupter is 800-3000A, 42KV-7.6KV.

POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION

An electronic filtering device designed to exclude unwanted signal or interference from

a receiver. Carrier communication (PLCC) is mainly used for telecommunication tele-
protection and tele monitoring between electrical substation though at the high voltage,
such as ll0KV,220KV,400KV.

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 In a PLCC system the communication is established through the audio frequency is
carried by a carrier frequency. And the range of carrier frequency is from 50Hz to
500KHz. The modulation generally used in this system is amplitude modulation. The
carrier frequency range is allowed to indicate the audio signal protection and the pilot
frequency. The pilot frequency is a signal in the audio range that is transmitted
continuously for failure detection. The voice signal is converted/compressed from the
300Hz into 400Hz range, and this audio frequency is mixed with the carrier frequency.
The carrier frequency again filtered, amplified and transmitted. The transmitted of these
HF carrier frequency will be in the range of 0 to +32db. This range is set according to
the distance between substations.

PLCC can be used for interconnection PB*S. The electrically board in India has an
internal network PLCC between PB*S.

PROTECTIVE RELAY

Basic thermo-logy:

It is desirable to define some important terms concerned with protective

relaying for the sake of familiar.

* Protective relay: It is an electrical device designed to initial isolation of a part of apart

electrical installation, or to operate an alarm signal, in the event of abnormal condition
or a fault

* Trip circuit: It is a circuit that control the circuit breaker for opening operation and
comprises of trip coil, Relay contacts, auxiliary switch, seal-in-coil battery supply etc

*Pick-up: A relay is said to pick up when it moves from the off position to the on
position or the operation of the relay is called the relay pick-up.

*Reset time: It is given by the time which elapses between the instant when the actuating
quantity becomes less than the reset value to the instant when the relay returns to its
original position.

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 *Breaker time: time interval between closure of trip circuit and final arc extinction in
circuit breaker is called the breaker time.

According to the application relays may be classified as:

i. Over-voltage, over-current and over-power relays: The relays operates when the
voltage, current or power rises above a specified values.

ii. Directional or reverse current relay: The relay operates when the applied current
assumes a specified phase displacement with respect to the applied voltage and the relay
is compensated for all in voltage.

iii. Direction relay: The relay operates when some specified phase or magnitude
difference between two or more electrical quantities occurs.

BATTERIES

Introduction:

Batteries are widely used as sources of direct current electrical energy in automobiles,
boats mines, air-crafts, ships, portable electric/electronic equipment, and lighting
equipment. In some instances they are used as the only source of power, while in other,
they are used as a secondary or standly power source.

A battery consists of a number of cells assembled either in series or in parallel or both

in a common container and connected to function as a source of electrical power.

In the past the number of differential types of cells and batteries has been comparatively
low. Today hundreds of types and sizes of cells and batteries are in use. This is because
of the many electrical and electronic devices invented for the needs of the average man,
science technology, medicine and other fields. Tiny mercury cells are use in hearing aids
comers electric and electronic watches and other devices utilizing miniturized circuit.
Cells are made in variety of electrical loads from heavy duty to low drain and
intermittent service.

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 Storage batteries:

The term storage battery has been used for many years as the name for a battery of
secondary cells and particularly for lead acid batteries.

A cell is a source of EMF in which chemical energy is a converted into electrical energy.

A cell is a D.C source device in which difference of electric potential is established

between the two electrodes as a result of chemical reactions between the electrodes and
following active materials.

1. Positive electrode(plate or rod)

2. Negative electrode(plate or rod)

3. Electrolyte and a container

The EMF of a single cell is generally small(l.5/2v or 50) so that the energy delivered by it to the
external circuit is quite low. Many commercial application require D.C supply. Under
such condition a number of cells are connected electrically usually in series (or
parallel). Such a combination of cells is know as a batteries are playing an important
role in Industrial and commercial applications(E.G) transistor radio Telephone
exchange electrical substation generating stations mines etc.

Accumulation is a term sometimes applied to a Storage battery.

Classification of cells:

There are two main types of cells namely.

i. Primary cells

ii. Secondary cells.

* Primary cells:

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 Cells in which the chemical action is not reversible are called primary cells

a. Voltaic cell

b. Daniel cell

c. Leclanche cell

d. Dry cell

e. Weston standard cell

* Secondary cells:

The cells in which chemical action is reversible called secondary cells.

Secondary cells are of mainly two types,

l. Lead acid cells(also called as acid cells).

2. Alkaline cells

a. Nickel iron cells or Edison cell

b. Nickel cadium cell or junger cell

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 chemical reaction:

i. During discharging:

When the cell is fully charged anode is of lead peroxide (PbSO2) and the cathode is of
lead (Pb). when the cell discharges sulphuric acid molecules again break up into (2H+)
and (SO4) ions .Each hydrogen ion now moves to the anode and its combines with the
oxygen of PbO2 and forms lead sulphate PbSO4.

Each sulphate ion most worst cathode and a combines Pb from PbSO4.

At anode: PbO2+2H +H2SO4 = PbSO4 + 2H2O

At cathode: Pb + SO4 = PbSO4

Points to be noted during charging and discharging:

a. Both anode and cathode become pbso4, whitish in colour.

b. Voltage of the cell decreases.

c. Density of the cell decreases.

d. Chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.

e. Electrical energy is supplied to the external circuit.

ii. During re-charging or charging:

When re-charging (or charging) of the cell the anode and cathode are connected to
positive and negative terminals of the D.C. supply the molecules of the sulphuric acid
(H2SO4 ) solution again break up into (2H+ )and( SO4 -) ions .Hydrogen ions to (2H+ )
are being positively charged move to the cathode and react with cathode forming and
Sulphuric acid.

Sulphate ions (SO4-) being negatively charged move to the anode and react with lead
sulphate and forms lead peroxide and Sulphuric acid.

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 At anode: PbSO4 + 2 H2O + SO4 = PbsO2 + 2 H2SO4

At cathode: PbSO4 + 2H = H2SO4 + Pb

Points to be noted during re-charging:

a. Anode is converted into lead peroxide (PbSO2) chocolate in colour and cathode into
lead into, grey in colour.

b. Voltage of the cell increases.

c. Density of the electrolyte (H2SO4) increases due to consumption of water.

d. Electrical energy is converted into chemical energy.

e. Electrical energy is converted into chemical energy.

f. Electrical energy is received from external source.

Theory of lead acid cell:

Those substance of the cell which take active part in chemical combination and hence
absorb or produce electricity during charging or discharging ,are known as active
materials of the cell.

l. Lead peroxide( PB SO2) for anode or positive plate.

2. Sponge lead (pb) for cathode or negative plate.

3. Dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4)as electrolyte.

l. Lead peroxide: it is a combination of lead and oxygen, is dark chocolate brown in

colour ,and is quite hard but brittle substance. It is made up of one atom of lead
(Pb)and two atoms of oxygen (O2 )and its chemical formula is PbO2 it forms the
anode or positive plate.

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 2. Sponge lead: it is pure lead in soft sponge or porous of condition. Its chemical
formula is Pb and forms the cathode or negative plate.

3. Dilute sulphuric acid: it is approximately three parts water and one part sulphuric
acid. The chemical formula of the acid is H2SO4. The positive and negative plates are
immersed in this solution which is known as electrolyte. The electrolyte is good
conductor of electricity, and is contained in a plastic jar.

a. Container: It is made of hard rubber (ebonite) or vulcanized rubber or glass which

prevents corrosion. The container is Sealed at the top to prevent the spilling of the
electrolyte. Sufficient space is left at the bottom of the container to collect the sediment
if any.

b. Separators: These are sheets of the Porous material placed between the positive and
negative plates in order to prevent the short circuit. A separator must be
sufficiently porous to allow the circulation of electrolyte between the plates. These are
made of especially treated cedar wood, micro-porous plastics (plastic pore, miplate)
and perforated P.V.C. in addition to good porosity, a separate must possess high
electric resistance and mechanical strength.

c. Bottom grooved support blocks: These are raised ribs, either fitted in the bottom of
the container or made with the container itself. Their function is to support the plates
and hold them in position and at the same time protect them from short-circuits that
would otherwise occur as a result of fall of the active material from the plates on to the
bottom of the container.

d. Inter-cell connector: It is made of lead alloys and connects all the cells in series.

e. Vent plugs or vent caps: Openings are provided at the top of the cover for allowing
the electrolyte to be added when required. Each opening is covered with a cap which
has vent allow the escaping of gas produced at the positive electrode during the
operation.

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 f. Terminals: Each cells has two terminal, marked as positive and negative for easy
identification, since the battery supplies large current, therefore terminals are big in size.
There are generally made of lead as it does not corrode due to the electrolyte.

g. Cell cover: It is made the same material as that of container, opening are provided
for terminals and vent caps.

Working principle:

When sulphuric acid is dissolved. Its molecules break up into hydrogen positive ions
(2H+) and sulphate negative ions (SO4-) and move freely. Now if two lead electrodes
are immersed in this solution and connected to d.c supply mains, the hydrogen ions
being positively charged move towards the electric rode connected to the negative
terminal of the supply mains (i.e. cathode). Each positive hydrogen ion(H+) reaching
the cathode gets one electron from it, becomes atom of hydrogen and escapes out as
hydrogen gas in the form of bubbles. Each of the negatively charged sulphate ion
(so4-) reaching the anode gives two electrons to it, reacts with and forms sulphuric
acid and oxygen according to chemical reaction SO4+H2SO4+O. The oxygen
produced attacks the lead anode and forms lead peroxide PbO2 thus during charging
lead cathode remains as lead but lead anode gets converted into lead peroxide (PbO2) is
Chocolate in color. Now if the cell is disconnected from d.c source of supply and
voltmeter is connected between the electrodes it will show potential difference
between them and on connecting these electrodes by a wire current will flow from
positive plate to the negative plate through external circuit i.e. the cell is now capable
of supplying electrical energy.

Effect of temperature on specific gravity:

The specific gravity of the electrolyte is affected by its temperature. Usually the specific
gravity of the electrolyte increases due to absorption of water and the specific gravity
decreases with decrease in temperature. In other words, the electrolyte expands and
becomes less dense when heated and its specific gravity reading is

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 lowered. On the other hand, the electrolyte contracts and becomes denser when cooled
and its specific gravity reading is raised.

Variation in specific gravity during charging and discharging:

The specific gravity of the electrolyte increases to 1.23 during charging due to
absorption of water and during discharging process the specific gravity decreases to
1.18 due to formation of water.

25 DEPARTMENT OF EEE
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 TRANSFORMER:

A transformer is static or stationary piece of apparatus by means which electric power

in one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit
it can raise or lower the voltage in circuit but it is a transformed in the decrease or
increase in current. The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction between two
circuit linked by common magnetic flux.

Working principle of a transformer:

In its simplest form it consists of two

inductive coils which are electrically separated but magnetically linked through path of
low reluctance. The two coils possess high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected
to a source of alternating voltage, alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most
of which it produces mutually induced e.m.f (according to faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction e = -N x di/dt).

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 If the second coil circuit is closed a current flows in it and so electric energy is
transferred entirely magnetically from the first coil to the second coil. The first coil in
which electric energy is drown out is called secondary winding.

In brief a transformer is a device that

l. Transverse electric power from one circuit to another.

2. It does without a change in a frequency.

3. It accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction.

4. Where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of each other.

27 DEPARTMENT OF EEE
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 Construction of transformer:

The simple elements of a transformer consists of two coils having mutual inductance
and a laminated Steel core, other necessary parts are some suitable medium for
insulating the core and its windings from its container suitable bushings (either of
porcelain, oil filled or capacitor type) for insulating and bringing out the terminals of
the windings from the tank. In all types of the Transformer the core is constructed of
Transformer sheet steel lamination assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path
with a minimum of air gap included.

The Steel used is of high Silicon content sometimes heat treated to produce a high
permeability and a low hysteresis loss it the usual operating flux density. The eddy
current loss is minimised by laminating the core. The lamination being insulated from
each other by a thickness of lamination where is from 0.35 mm for a frequency of 50
Hz. to 0.5 mm for a frequency of 25 Hz. The core laminations (in the form of strips) are
joined. It is seen that joints in the alternate layers are staggered in order to avoid the
presence of narrow gaps right through the cross section of the core such joints are said
to be imbricate.

Constructional the transformers are of two types, distinguished from each other merely
by the manner in which the primary and secondary coils are placed around the laminated
core. The two types are known as

i. Core type and

ii. Shell type

Another recent development is spiral core or wound core or wound core type the trade
name being spark core transformer.

As said above in order to avoid high reluctance at the joints where the laminations are
butted against each other the alternate layers are stacked differentially to eliminate these
joints.

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Essential parts of a power transformer :

The following are the essential parts of the power transformer.

l. Core

2. Windings

3. Bushings

4. Cooling (ON, OB, OFB, OW)

5. Conservator

6. Breather

7. Pressure relief device /expansion vent

8. Buchholz relay

9. Temperature indicators (oil & winding)

l0. On load tap changer (OLTC)

11. Cooling fans

Core:

Special alloy steel of high resistance and low hysteresis losses is used on laminated one
another. The laminations are enable spread (after punching) with a mixture of floor
chalk & water and then baked. No burns are allowed as they establish contact between
adjacent places. In building the core high pressure is used to minimize the air gaps
between plates to avoid losses and also to minimise noise during operation.

The core plates are fixed by clamping devices. The core blots are insulated the present
vent is to utilize CRGO steel laminated core.

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*Windings (HV&LV windings):

The LV/HV windings are generally circular and concentrically arranged when transformer
is open the HV coils are seen first. When the HV coils are lifted L.V coils are seen.

The LT coil is normally of copper strip insulated by manila paper. In between the LT
coils and HT coils place concentrically. A separator is used made of leatheroid paper on
a bakelite cylinder. The HV coils are normally of double paper covered or double cotton
covered or enameled copper wire of suitable gauge wound in layers. In between layer
press pan paper or Manila paper is used for insulation 2-16 number of coils in each
HVlimbs are used in which two are trapped coils.

Generally the gauges of wire used in HV coils are as follows

250KVA l4SWG copper

200KVA l6 SWG copper

l00KVA l8 SWG copper

75KVA l9 SWG copper

50KVA 20 SWG copper

25KVA 20 SWG copper

The insulation between HV and LV winding between LV windings and core compresses
of bakelite papers, cylinders etc., the connecting leads between coils to tapping switch
are insulated between sleeves.

* Bushings:
Up to 33kv voltage ordinary porcelain bushings are used . Above this voltage condenser
and oil filled terminal bushings or a combination of both are employed. Terminals of
windings are brought insulated bushings provide sufficient insulating

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 and mechanical support to the conductor passing through the tank. Bushings are
supported on the tank cover.

* Cooling:

The cooling of a transformer is carried out by the following methods.

ON (oil natural): Majority of transformers are oil immersed with natural cooling i.e.,
the heat developed in the cores and coils is passed on the oil and hence to the tank walls
from which it is dissipated. This has an advantage that moisture cannot easily effect
insulation.

OB (oil blast): In this method the cooling of an ON type transformer is improved by air
blast over the outside tank.

OFB (oil forced blast): For large transformers artificial cooling may be used. This
method compressed a forced circulation of oil to a radiator where oil is cooled and again
let into the transformer.

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 OW (oil water):An oil immersed transformer of type is cooled by the circulation of
water in cooling tubes.

*Conservator:

Conservation with the variation of temperature there is corresponding variation in oil

volume. To account for this, an expansion vessel called conservator is added to the
transformer with a connecting pipe to the main tank. In small transformer this vessel is
open to atmosphere through dehydrating breather (to keep the air drive) in large
transformers, an air bag is mounted inside of the bag to atmosphere through the
breathers 7 the outside surface of the bag in contact with the oil surface.

* Pressure relief device/ Expansion vent:

Transformers tank is a pressure vessel as the inside pressure can group steeples
whenever there is a fault in the winding & the surrounding oil is suddenly vaporized
tanks as such are tested for a pressure with stand capacity of 0.35kg/cm^2 to preventing
bursting of the tank & thus catastrophe these tanks are in addition provide with
bakelite/copper/glass at the end. In present day transformers, pressure relief devices are
replacing the expansion vent these are similar to safe vanes on boilers.

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 • Buchholz relay:

This has two floats, one of them with surge catching baffle and gas collecting space at
top. This is mounted in the connecting pipeline between conservator and main tank.
This is most dependable protection for a given transformer. Gas evolution it a slow rate
that is associated with minor faults inside the transformer gives rise to the operation or
top float whose contacts are wired for alarm. There is a glass windows with marking to
read the volume of gas collected in the relay.

Any major fault in the transformer creates a surge element in the relay trips the
transformer size of the relay varies with oil volume in the transformer and the magnitude
also is specified for proper operation of the relay.

• Temperature indicator:

Most of the transformer (small transformer have only temperature indicator) are
provided with indicators that displace oil temperature there are thermometers package
provide in the tank top cover which hold the bulbs in them oil temperature measured is
that of the top oil, where as the winding temperature measured is indirect this is done
by adding the temperature rise due to heat produced in the heater coil known as image
coil. When a current proportional to that flowing in the winding is passed in it to the
top or oil. For proper functioning of OTI/WTI it is essential to keep the thermometers
pocket clean & filled with oil.

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 • On-load tap changer (OLTC):

The main purpose of providing OLTC to power transformer is that the operation should
reduce the bus voltage during off peak hours and increase during the remaining hours.
They are supposed to vary output voltage of PTR without interrupting the loads.

• Cooling fans:

When temperature of windings and oil reaches to certain level then the cooling fans
will be switched on automatically. They provide cooling in normal conditions by
adopting natural cooling.

• Breather:

Both transformer oil and cellulosic paper are highly hydroscopic paper being more than
the mineral oil the moisture, if not excluded from the oil the surface is conservator, thus
will find its way finally into paper insulation and causes reduction in insulation strength
of transformer. To minimise this, the conservator is allowed to breather only through
silica gel, which absorbs the moisture in air before it enters the conservator air surface.

34 DEPARTMENT OF EEE
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 Classifications of Transformers:

There are many ways in which transformers can be classified. The Transformers can
be classified as follows.

(i) Based on number of phases

a. Single phase Transformers

b. Three phase Transformers

(ii) Based on construction or design

a. Core type Transformers

b. Shell type Transformers

(iii) Based on function

a. Power transformer

1. Step Up transformer

2. Step down transformer

b. Distribution transformer

1. Pole mounted transformer

2. Plinth mounted transformer

c. Instrument transformer

1. Current transformer (C.T)

2. Potential transformer (P.T)

(iv). Based on cooling

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 a. Oil filled water-cooled transformer

b. Air-blast type transformer

(v). Based on type of core material

a. Iron core transformer

b. Air core transformer

(vi). Special purpose Transformers

a. Auto transformer

b. Welding Transformer

c. Auto frequency Transformer

d. Pulse Transformer

e. Trigger transformer

• Losses in a transformer:

Transformer is a static device; therefore there are no friction and winding losses. The
various losses occurring in a transformer can be classified as follows:

Total Losses

a. Iron losses or core losses (Hysteresis and eddy current losses)

b. Copper losses

•Iron or core losses (Wi):

These losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core and consists of hysteresis
and eddy current losses.

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 Hysteresis losses, Wh = KhBmax1.6fv watts

Eddy current loss, We=KeBmax2f2t2v

Where Kh and Ke are proportional contacts which depends on volume and material of
the core. F is the frequency of supply in heads the volume of the core in metre cube,
Bmax is the maximum value of flux density in the thickness of core laminations.

The hysteresis loss can be minimized by using steel of high silicon content where has
the eddy current loss can be minimized by making the core within laminations (the
thickness of each laminations ranging from 0.3 to 0.5mm). Hence, iron losses can be
minimized by making core with silicon steel laminations the alternating flux in the core
of a transformer practical remains constant at all loads ( its variations 1 to 3% from no
load to full load).

Iron or core losses, Wi = hysteresis loss + eddy current loss

= constant loss.

• Copper losses (Wcu):

These losses occur in both primary and secondary windings due to their ohmic
resistance.

Total copper losses, Wcu=I12R1+I 22R2

=I12R0

=I12R0 watts

It is clear that copper losses vary as the square of the load current or KVA. If the copper
losses at full load are Wcu then copper losses at One-half or One-fourth of full load will
be (1/2) 2 Wcu or (1/4) 2 Wcu i.e., Wcu/4 or Wcu/16 respectively.

For example if copper losses at full load ( at a current of 10A ) are 400 w, then the
copper losses at one half load (5A) will be (5/10)2×400=100w and at one-fourth load

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 (2.5A) will be (2.5/10)2X400=25 w. The copper losses are the major losses and are
may be 90% of the total losses.

Total losses= Iron or core losses (Wi)+copper losses (Wcu)

=Constant losses + Variable losses

Types of protection for a transformer:

Type of Transformer Type of protection

Small distribution transformers Only LV fuses for protection against earth

faults and phase to phase faults. Over load
protection generally provided for
transformer of about 500 KVA.

Transformers of rating 500KVA and Restricted earth-fault protection, Over-

above current and earth fault protection,
Buchholz relay protection.

Transformers of rating of 2 MVA above Differential protection, restricted earth

fault protection, over-current protection,
buchholz relay protection.

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Failure of transformer main components:

Transformer part Trouble Causes

Windings Turn to turn short circuit Normal ageing or wear of

insulation repeated
overloads, dynamic forces
due to complete short
circuit.

Break down fault, inter Ageing of insulation, high

phase short circuit moisture content of oil
level internal and external
over voltages, deformed
windings due d.
to heavy short circuit
currents

Open circuit Burnt-off leads on

windings due to poor
qualities of brazed /
crimped joints or
electrodynamic forces in
the wakes of a complete
short circuit.

Tap changer No contact, fused contact Maladjustment of tap

surface. changer thermal effect of
short-circuit currents on
control.

Thermal bushings Electrical break-down

Cranks in porcelain shell,
(flash over) to shell
low oil level in transformer
& dirt on internal surface

39 DEPARTMENT OF EEE
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 to porcelain shells

Electrical break-down of Damaged insulation on

insulation on inter phase leads to thermal bushings
connections. or to tap changer

Core Burnt iron Improper insulation

between laminations or
clamping bolts, loose.

Maintenance schedule of EHV power transformer:

S. No. Items of maintenance Periodically Remarks

1. Checking the colour of silica gel

Daily
in the breather & replacement or
reconditioning if colour changes
from blue to pink say about
50% of the total quantity
checking up the oil level of the
oil seal (to be upto the level
marked in the cup )

2. Checking of oil level in Daily

a) Main conservator

b) OLTC conservator

c) Bushings & examining for

40 DEPARTMENT OF EEE
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 leaks of oil

3. Visual check for overheating at Daily each shift

terminal connections &
checking for usual internal
noises

4 Checking for noise & vibration Daily

or any abnormal form oil pumps
& cooling fans

5. Checking up of oil & winding Hourly

temperatures

6 Checking for pressure relief

Daily
expansion vent diaphragm of
cranks.

a)Forced cooling system

checking of leakage of water
into cooler ( forced cooling
system by oil pumps)

7. Cleaning of bushings inspect for Monthly

any cranks or chippings of the
protection

8. Ensuring that oil comes out

Quarterly
when air release valve is opened
( of the main tank)

9 Measuring insulation resistance Quarterly

of winding with appropriate
megger ( role down oil

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 temperature )

a) Checking of winding & oil

temperature buchholz & surge
relay & oil level trips for correct
operation.

b) Checking upto auto starting

of pumps & cooling fans

Quarterly
10. OLTC oil test for BDV ( Break
down voltage ) & moisture
content, ensure oil level in
OLTC

11. Main tank oil testing for BDV Half-yearly

& moisture content

12. a) Checking of buchholz relay Quarterly or during

for any gas collection & testing fault
the gas collected

b) Checking of operation of
Half-yearly or
buchholz relay by injunction
during shut down.
c) Nothing the oil level in the
Monthly of as &
inspection glass or buchholz
when shut down
relay, arresting leaks if any
available

13. Tap changer Quarterly

a) Lubricating/greasing all

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 moving parts

14. Checking of all connection on

Quarterly
the transformer for tightness
such as bushings, tank earth
connections etc

15. Forced cooling system a) Yearly

Megger testing of motors (
pump) lubricating the
mechanical parts & cooling
fans.

b) Checking of water jacket

Quarterly
c) Cleaning of water jacket
circuits of oil pumps & cooling Quarterly
fans for earth leakage over load
trip alarm etc.

d) Checking of inter load for

pumps cooling air blast fans for Quarterly
auto start temperature setting &
for manual operation.

16 Testing of oil for dissolved gas. Half-yearly Other transformer

Analysis for 100MW & above. such as 50MVA,
If the results show abnormality 31.5MVA 10/16
frequency of DGA may be MVA transformer
increased as per the which are in service
recommendations of R&D. for more than 5
years.

43 DEPARTMENT OF EEE
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 17. Checking of motors, pumps & Half-yearly
eliberating pressure gauge etc.

18. Over hauling of pumps & Yearly (or) as and

motors & cooling fans when necessary

19 Bushings testing Yearly

20 Calibration of oil & winding

Yearly
temperature indicator

21 Measuring of excitation current Yearly

at low voltage at normal tap &
extreme taps

22 Measurement of DC winding Yearly

resistance

23 Ratio test at all taps Yearly

24 Checking the bushings CT for Yearly

correct ratio

25 OLTC : Depending upon

the no. of
a) Inspection of contacts in
operations as
diverter
recommended
by the
manufacturer.

b) Driving mechanism visual

check-up, over hauling if Yearly

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 necessary.

26 a) Tap position indicator Yearly

b) Checking for proper working Yearly

of remote tap position indicator,
remote winding test indicator.

27 Operating of buchholz relay for Yearly

alarm & trip by draining of oil
& injection of air with cycle
pump.

28 Oil level in thermometer pocket Yearly

top of it required

29 General over haul Once in year

a) Core heightening

b) De-sledding or washing of
windings

c) Inspection of core &

windings

d) Replacement of all gaskets

e) Check the bolt insulation

30 Filtration of Oil Whenever oil

test results are
below permissible
limits.

45 DEPARTMENT OF EEE
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 Type of protection for a power transformer:

Abnormal condition Type of protection Remarks

Incipient faults below oil Buchholz relay (gas Buchholz relay used for
level resulting in actuated relay) sudden transformers rating
decomposition of oil (fault pressure relay. 500KVA and above
between phase and ground)

Large internal faults 1. Buchholz relay Buchholz relay to show

(phase-phase, phase to less sensitive.
ground) below oil.
Buchholz relay for tap
2. Percentage differential
changer also.
protection.
Protection for transformers
3. High-speed high
of rating 2MVA and
set over-current
above.
relay.

Saturation of magnetic For important generator

1. Over-fluxing protection
circuit.
Transformer & feeder
2. Over voltage
transformer protection.

Earth fault 1. Earth fault relay Instantaneous restricted

earth fault relay.

Time lag earth fault relay.

2. Differential protection.
For transformer rating,

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 2MVA & above.

Over loads 1. Thermal over load Generally temperature

relays. indicators are provided on
the transformer.
2. Temperature relays

Through faults 1. HRC fuse. Small distribution

transformer of rating upto
2. Graded time over
500KVA protection of
current relay.
distribution transformer

High voltage surges 1. Surge arresters In additions to arresters for

incoming lines.
2. RC type surge
Laminations, short circuit
suppressors.
in grounding of the core,
the lead side of the HV and
LV windings.

Tank and fittings. Impairment of welded or

1. Oil leak from plug
flanged joints as a result of
clock
mechanical or temperature
factors.

Poor fit between the plug

2. Oil leak through & the clock body damaged
welded & flanged gasket under its flange.
joints.

47 DEPARTMENT OF EEE
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 • Why Transformer rating in KVA?

As seen copper losses of a transformer depends on current and iron losses on voltage.
Hence, total transformer losses depends on volt ampere (VA) and not on phase angle
between voltage and current i.e. it is independent of load power factor. That is why
rating of transformer is in KVA not in KW.

• Tap changing transformer:

The modern electrical equipment are designed to operate satisfactorily at one fixed
voltage level. Hence, it is important to keep the voltage at consumer's terminals with in
the prescribed the limits. The Transformer output voltage and hence the consumer's
terminal voltage can be controlled by providing taps either on low voltage side or high
voltage side. It is difficulty to tap the low voltage winding, since it is placed over.
Moreover on low voltage side, the tap changing gear would have to handle large
magnitude of current. Hence, In general taps are not provided on low voltage sides.

The high voltage winding is placed outside the low voltage winding and is easily
accessible therefore the taps are provided on high voltage side without any difficulty.

The principle of regulating the secondary output voltage is based on changing the
number of turns in the primary or secondary. By a changing the number of turns on
primary or secondary the transformation ratio (K) can be changed and hence the
secondary voltage changes. Hence, by selecting proper tappings, the consumer's
terminal voltage can be maintained within prescribed limits.

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 The tap changing may be done under off-load condition or on-load condition. If the
tappings are changed with the transformer isolated from the supply i.e. on no load, it is
called Off-load ( No- load) tap changing. If the tappings are changed with the
transformer in the supply i.e., on load it is called tap changing.

• Parallel operation of three phase transformer:

When the load exceeds the capacity of an existing transformer, it may be economical to
install another parallel transformer with it instead of replacing it with a single large unit.
When two transformers can share the load if the load is less then one transformer can
share the load resulting better efficiency of operation. In case of fault in any transformer
can be taken out from the bus bar and load can be transferred to other transformer so
the supply can we maintained continuously. Hence for reliability of service transformers
must be connected in parallel.

• Conditions for parallel operation of three phase transformers:

The following are the conditions to be fulfilled for satisfactory and successful parallel
operation of three phase transformer.

a. The polarities of the transformers should be same.

b. The voltage rating and voltage ratios of the transformers should be the same.

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 c. The percentage (or per unit) impedances of the transformers should be the same in
magnitude and phase angle.

d. The reactance / resistance (X/R) ratios of the transformers should be the same.

e. The Phase sequence of the transformers must be same.

f. The Phase displacement between primary and secondary line voltages of the
transformers should be same.

• INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER

In DC circuits when large current and voltages are to be measured, the ammeter with
shunts and voltmeter with suitable multipliers are used. But in AC circuits the large
currents and voltages cannot be measured by using ammeter and voltmeters with shunts
and multipliers. For this purpose, specially constructed accurate ratio transformers are
used which are called instrument transformers.

• Necessity of Instrument Transformers:

In high power AC circuits, it is very difficult to measure currents and voltages with
ordinary low range ammeters and voltmeters. When it is necessary to measure high
value of currents (above 100A) or voltages (above 750 V ) specially constructed
accurate ratio transformers called instrument transformers are used. To measure high
currents and voltages standard low range ammeter and voltmeters are used in
conjunction with instrument transformers. The instrument transformers are used to
reduce high current and voltage to safe and lower values. In other words instruments
transformers are used to extend the range of AC instruments ( ammeters and voltmeters).

The instrument transformers perform two functions:

a. They act as ratio devices, so that the use of low range instrument is possible.

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 b. They act as insulating device to protect the apparatus and operating personal from
high voltage.

There are two types of instrument transformers namely

i. Current Transformer (C.T.) and

ii. Potential transformer (P.T)

Current transformer is used to measure high currents and potential transformer is used
to measure high voltages.

Current transformer (C.T):

A current transformer is a device which is used to measure high alternating current in a

conductor. Another function of current transformer is to feed a small current to the
operating coil of a relay for the purpose of protection.

The primary winding of C.T consists of few turns of thick wire and is connected in
series with high current line. The secondary winding consist of a large number of turns
of thin wire. Sometimes the primary is just one conductor passing through the core over
which the secondary is wound. Thus a C.T is a step up transformer. An ordinary
ammeter of range 1A or 5A is connected across the secondary of the C.T.

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 When the primary of C.T is connected in series with the line, a current will flow through
the primary, due to the transformer action the secondary current is transferred to a low
value which can be measured by ordinary ammeter.

Secondary current,I2 =N1/N2 x I1

Primary current, I1=N2/N1xI2=KxI2

It should be noted that the secondary winding of C.T should never be open circuited. If
the secondary is open circuited, there will be no secondary m.m.f. since the primary is
carrying a large current, the magnetic flux would become very high which causes very
high eddy current and hysteresis loss. This would increase the temperature of the core,
hence the core and insulation may get damaged. Moreover a high voltage would be
induced in the open circuited secondary and this high voltage may be dangerous to the
equipment and personnel. Hence, the secondary of C.T should always be short circuited
by an ammeter or a thick wire. The secondary of CT should be earthed to avoid the
danger of shock to the operating personnel.

• Precautions while using current transformers:

The current transformer is used to measure high currents, hence the following are the
precautions to be taken in using C.T.

1. The secondary of current transformer never be open-circuited.

2. If the ammeter connected in secondary side, it is to be taken out of the circuit, then
the secondary terminals must be short circuted by a low resistance not exceeding 0.5
Ohm.

3. Current transformer must be filled with a short circuiting switch across the
secondary terminals.

4. As the current transformers are used in high voltage lines, it is necessary to provide
oil cooling.

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 5. The secondary of current transformer should be earthed to avoid the danger of
shock to the operating personnel.

6. They cannot be operated beyond the rated current.

7. The primary winding of current transformer must be made as small as possible.

8. The secondary of current transformer should be designed to carry a current of 5A.

• Potential transformer :

A potential transformer is a device which is used to measure high alternating voltage.

These are also used for energizing relays and other protective devices.

The primary winding consist of large number of turns of thin wire and is connected
across the high voltage supply lines. The secondary winding consist of few number of
turns of the thick wire. Thus a potential transformer is a step down transformer, since
they reduce the voltage to a reasonable operating value.

An ordinary voltmeter of range 110v is connected across the secondary of the potential
transformer. When the primary of potential transformer is connected across high voltage
supply mains of voltage, due to transformer action an e.m.f is induced in

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 the secondary. This e.m.f is measured by voltmeter connected across the secondary
winding.

Secondary voltage,V2=N2/N1xV1

Primary voltage,V1=N1/N2xV2

It should be noted that the secondary winding of potential transformer should never be
short-circuited. If the secondary is short circuited, heavy current will flow through the
secondary winding. This would increase the temperature of the core, hence the core and
insulation may get damaged. Hence, the secondary of potential transformer should
always be connected with high resistance or voltmeter. The secondary of potential
transformer should be earthed to avoid the danger of shock to the operating personnel.

• STATION TRANSFORMER

In primary and secondary substations there are many possibilities of hazards. So it is

necessary to install so many protective devices in the substations such as relays, circuit
breakers etc. The detection of fault and disconnection of faulty section in a power
system, some apparatus can be achieved by using fuses, relays in conjunction with
circuit breakers. For successful operation of these instruments of DC supply is required
after disconnecting the supply system. Sometimes there is a possibility of leakage
current. If we operate the relay on A.C. we cannot achieve good requirements. So,DC
system necessary.

• Necessity of station transformer:

Station transformer provides supply to the following points:

Charging battery:

To operate the relay and circuit breakers require DC supply in the substation there is
bunch of batteries, there is a rectifying and charging unit which charges 24 hours to

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 the batteries. The rectifying and charging units take supply from the station
transformer. So it is essential requirement in primary and secondary substations.

Substation lighting and application:

In substation good illumination is necessary for doing operation. It is achieved in

incandescent Lamps and fluid light for application like single phase motors, calling
bells, fans refrigerators and AC supply.

In case where computer control is required there is necessary of temperature control

which provided by AC supply for air conditioning.

Communication purpose:

It is also necessary to communicate with a generating station and neighbour substations

about power awareness.

Charging capacitor for improvement of power factor:

Most of the loads are in inductive nature and have low lagging power factor. The largest
current is required due to low power factor results in following disadvantages :

1. Large KVA ratio of equipment.

2. Great conductor size.

3. Large copper loss.

4. Poor voltage regulation.

5. Reduction in handling capacity of system

In order to improve the power factor the capacitor banks and synchronous condensers
are installed in the substation. Hence station transformer is required.

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 • Essential requirement of low voltage DC source in a substation for the following
purpose:

1. Protective relaying.

2. Remote position control.

3. Remote indication.

4. Signalling.

5. Operating mechanism.

6. Telemetering and communication.

7. Emergency lighting system.

8. Uninterrupted power supply.

INSULATORS

In overhead lines, the conductors should be supported on the poles (or) towers in such
a way that the currents shouldn't flow from the lines to the earth through the supports.
It can be achieved with the help of insulators. Hence, an insulator is a device which
prevents (or) avoids the flow of current from conductors to the earth. Insulator also
provide necessary insulation between the line conductors and supports.

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 • Requirements of the insulators:

The insulators used in the overhead transmission lines should have the following
properties, namely

a. High mechanical strength in order to withstand the conductor from wind, loads etc

b. High insulation resistance in order to avoid leakage current

c. It should be free from internal impurities and cracks etc.

d. It should be a non-porous material (i.e. It should absorb any moisture (or) water
particles).

e. It should be able to withstand for large variations of temperature.

f. It should be free from gases, fluids in the atmosphere.

g. It should have high ratio of rupture strength to flash over voltage.

h. It should have high relative permittivity in order to have high dielectric strength.

i. It should have good appearance (economic in design )

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 j. It should have long life.

• Types of insulators:

i. Pin type insulators

ii. Suspension type insulator

iii. Strain insulators

iv. Shackle insulators

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 CONDUCTORS

The material which allows the current to pass freely through them are called
conducting materials or conductors. Ex: copper, silver, aluminium, etc.

These are classified into two categories. They are

a. Low resistive materials and

b. High resistive materials

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 • Requirement of conducting materials:

The following are the main requirements of connecting materials, namely:

a. High electric conductivity in order to minimize the loss.

b. High tensile strength in order to withstand high mechanical stresses.

c. Low specific gravity or resistance in order to give low weight per unit volume.

d. Economic cost and long life in order to use for long transmission lines.

e. It should not be brittle.

f. It should have smooth surface to reduce corona losses.

g. It should be free from oxides.

h. It should with stand high pressure.

• Types of transmission line conductors:

The following conductors are used for transmission lines, namely

1. Solid conductors.

2. Stranded conductors.

3. Hollow conductors.

4. Bundle conductors.

The conductors are identified by their code names assigned by the different
manufactures usually names of some animals, birds (or) flowers are used.

a. AAC (All Aluminium Conductors):

Names used are rose, pansy, ant, aster, iris, gnat etc.

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 b. ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced):

Names used are squirrel, tiger, panther, lion, wolf, zebra, moose etc.

FUSES

• Fuse:

Fuse is a interrupting device which breaks or opens the circuit ( in which it is interested)
by fusing the element when the current in the circuit exceeds a certain value. The action
of a fuse is based upon the heating effect of the electric current.

• Fuse element or fuse wire:

It is the part of the fuse circuit which actually melts when an excessive current flows
in the circuit and this isolates faulty device from the supply circuit.

• The function of Fuse wire:

To carry the normal working current safely without heating and to break the circuit
when the current exceeds the limiting current.

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 SUBSTATION EARTHING

• Earthing:

Earthing means the direct connection of the non current carrying parts of electrical
equipment such as metallic framework, electric motor body, metallic covering of cables,
earth terminals of socket outlet, transmission tower etc to earth is known as "earthing or
grounding".

The earthing is done by connecting the body of the appliance to earth by employing
some good conductor known as earth wire. The rod,wire, pipe or plate embedded in
earth for the purpose of making an effective connection with earth is known as earth
electrode.

• Purpose/necessity of earthing:

The main purpose of earthing is

1. To save human life from electric shock.

2. To avoid risk of fire due to earth leakage current through unwanted path.

3. To maintain the line voltage constant (since neutral of every alternator, transformer
is earthed).

4. To ensure that no current rises to potential w.r.t earth than its desired insulation.

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 Types of earthing:

The various methods of earthing in common use are

1. Rod earthing

2. Wire earthing

3. Pipe earthing

4. Plate earthing

1. Rod Earthing:

In this system of earthing solid rod of 12.5 mm dia of copper or 16 mm dia of solid GI
or steel rod of length not less than 2.5m is driven vertically downwards into the earth
either by manually or by hammer. Sometimes it is required to drive more than one rod
to reduce the earth resistance to desired value. This system is cheap and is suitable in
areas where soil is loose or sandy.

2. Strip or Wire Earthing:

This system is employed in places, where the soil is rocky, because in rocky areas the
soil excavation work is difficult. In this system a wire or strip of cross section 25 mm

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 into 1.6 mm of copper or 25 mm*4 mm of GI or steel is buried in the ground in
horizontal trenches of minimum depth of 1/2meter (11/2 feet). The length of the wire or
strip depends on the requirement of earth resistance, but the length should not be less
than 15meters. In order to achieve required resistance, sometimes more than one wire
or strip is laid in parallel to each other.

3. Pipe Earthing:

It is a common system of earthing in which a square pit of sides 40 cm each is dug about
4 to 5 meters deep. A GI pipe of 38 mm dia and 2.5m long is placed vertically in a pit
to work has electrode. The depth at which the pipe is placed depends upon the moisture
of the ground, but the pipe is placed at minimum depth of 3.75m. The pipe is provided
with a tapered casting at the lower end in order to facilitate the driving. The pipe in the
pit is surrounded by pieces of coke or charcoal and salt in alternate layers for a distance
of about 15cm to increase the dampness and moisture around the pipe. The pipe has
1.2mm dia holes, so that water poured from top is made to spread in charcoal and salt
layers through the holes to decrease the earth resistance. Another pipe of 19 mm dia and
minimum length of 1.25 m is connected to this pipe through a 38X19 mm reducing
socket.

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 Working :
At the top, a cement concrete work is made for the protection of pipe from mechanical
damage and is provided with a funnel with wire mesh to pour water. The Funnel is
connected to 19 mm dia pipe by means of bolts and nuts. In summer season the
moisture in the soil which causes increase in the earth resistance, hence 3 to 4 buckets
of water are put for every few days. Another pipe of 13mm dia is connected to 19mm
pipe near the wire mesh through which earth wire is carried at the depth of 60mm
from the surface of the ground. The cement concrete work at the top is covered with
an iron plate for periodic opening and checking.
4. Plate Earthing:
In this type of earthing a copper plate of dimension 60cmX60cmX3mm or a GI plate of
dimension 60cmX60cmX60cm is used as earth electrode. A pit is dug about 3m deep
from ground level and earth plate is buried with its face vertical. The space around the
earth plate is filled with coke or charcoal and salt in alternate layers for a distance of
about 15cm around the plate to increase the dampness and moisture around the plate.

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 A GI pipe of 12mm dia is connected to the plate by means of bolt, nuts and
washer for carrying GI wire for connections to earth plate. The bolt, nuts and
washers are made up of same material as that of earth plate. Another pipe of
19 mm dia is connected to the plate for carrying water and is connected with
funnel with wire mesh to pour water. The water is poured for increasing
dampness and moisture which is in turn to reduce the earth resistance. At the
top, cement concrete is made to protect the plate from mechanical damage. The
concrete work is providing with the cast iron cover for carrying periodical
opening and inspection.

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