1.

Overview of Nepal's Geology

 Nepal is mostly covered by the Himalayas, which are young, active mountains still rising due to
the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.

 This movement causes earthquakes, landslides, and rock formations.

2. Geological Divisions of Nepal

Nepal is divided into five zones from south to north:

1. Terai (Indo-Gangetic Plain) – Flat land with fertile soil, formed by rivers. Faces floods and
riverbank erosion.

2. Siwalik (Sub-Himalayas/Churia Hills) – Small hills made of soft rocks, causing landslides and soil
erosion.

3. Lesser Himalayas – Medium-sized mountains with hard and soft rocks. Landslides, debris flows,
and earthquakes happen here.

4. Higher Himalayas – The highest peaks (Everest, Annapurna) made of very strong rocks.
Contains glaciers and snow.

5. Tibetan-Tethys Himalayas – Dry, rocky area in the north with fossils (remains of ancient sea life).

3. Major Rock and Soil Types

 Terai – Soft alluvial soil (sand, silt, clay, gravel).

 Siwaliks – Weak sandstone, mudstone, and siltstone.

 Lesser Himalayas – Hard quartzite, shale, limestone.

 Higher Himalayas – Very strong gneiss, schist, quartzite.

 Tibetan-Tethys – Fossil-rich limestone, sandstone, shale.

4. Engineering Geological Problems

Terai Problems:

 Floods and river erosion due to heavy rainfall and river movement.

 Solution: Build embankments, drainage systems, and flood control structures.

Siwalik Problems:

 Landslides and soil erosion due to weak rocks and steep slopes.
  Solution: Use retaining walls, tree planting (bioengineering), and proper land use.

Lesser Himalaya Problems:

 Landslides and rockfalls due to weak rocks and earthquakes.

 Solution: Build retaining walls, drainage systems, and stabilize slopes.

Higher Himalaya Problems:

 Glacier Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) – Sudden floods from breaking glacial lakes.

 Solution: Monitor glacial lakes, lower water levels, and build protective barriers.

Tibetan-Tethys Problems:

 Soil erosion is less, but rockfalls and debris flows from snow-fed rivers occur.

 Solution: Stabilize riverbanks and control debris flow.

5. Important Geological Structures

 Faults and Thrusts (Himalayan Frontal Fault, MBT, MCT) – Large cracks in Earth’s crust that cause
earthquakes.

 Folds, Joints, and Fractures – Bending and breaking of rocks over time.

6. How to Reduce Geology-Related Problems?

 Use civil engineering solutions like embankments, retaining walls, and drainage systems.

 Apply bioengineering techniques (tree planting) to prevent landslides.

 Conduct detailed geological studies before building roads, bridges, and houses.

The major thrusts (fault lines) separating the geological divisions of Nepal are:

1. Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) – Separates Terai (Indo-Gangetic Plain) and Siwaliks (Sub-
Himalayas).

2. Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) – Separates Siwaliks (Sub-Himalayas) and Lesser Himalayas.

3. Main Central Thrust (MCT) – Separates Lesser Himalayas and Higher Himalayas.

4. South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS) – Separates Higher Himalayas and Tibetan-Tethys
Himalayas.
Agents of Landform Formation

1. River (Fluvial Process)

A river is a flowing body of water that erodes, transports, and deposits sediments, shaping the land.

2. Groundwater (Karst Process)

Groundwater is water present beneath the Earth's surface, which dissolves soluble rocks like limestone,
creating caves and sinkholes.

3. Glacier (Glacial Process)

A glacier is a slow-moving mass of ice that scrapes and carves the land beneath it, forming valleys and
hills.

4. Wind (Aeolian Process)

Wind carries sand and dust, shaping deserts and coastal regions through erosion and deposition.

5. Sea Water (Coastal Process)

Sea waves continuously erode coastal rocks and deposit sediments, forming beaches, cliffs, and islands.

Landforms Created by Each Agent

1. River Landforms (Fluvial Landforms)

Erosional Landforms (Carved by River Erosion):

 V-Shaped Valley – A deep, narrow valley with steep sides, created by fast-flowing rivers.

 Waterfall – Water falling from a high place due to a sudden change in rock height.

 Gorge – A deep, narrow valley with steep sides, like a canyon.

 River Cliff – A steep slope formed when a river erodes one side of its bank.

Depositional Landforms (Formed by River Sediment Deposits):

 Floodplain – A flat area near a river that gets flooded and covered with sediment.

 Delta – A triangular-shaped landform at the river’s mouth, where the river meets the sea or a
lake.

 Meander – A winding curve or bend in a river.

 Oxbow Lake – A U-shaped lake formed when a meander gets cut off from the main river.

 Levee – A natural or artificial raised bank along a river.

2. Groundwater Landforms (Karst Landforms)

Erosional Landforms (Carved by Groundwater):

 Cave / Cavern – A large underground hollow formed by water dissolving limestone.

 Stalactites – Icicle-like mineral deposits hanging from cave ceilings.

 Stalagmites – Mineral deposits growing upwards from the cave floor.

 Sinkhole – A hole in the ground caused by the collapse of a cave’s roof.

Depositional Landforms (Formed by Mineral Deposits):

 Travertine Terrace – A layered formation created by mineral-rich hot springs.

 Geyser Cone – A mineral buildup around a geyser due to repeated eruptions of hot water.

3. Glacier Landforms (Glacial Landforms)

Erosional Landforms (Carved by Glaciers):

 U-Shaped Valley – A wide, deep valley with steep sides, created by glaciers.

 Cirque – A bowl-shaped depression at the head of a glacier.

 Arête – A sharp mountain ridge formed between two glaciers.

 Horn – A sharp, pyramid-shaped peak (e.g., the Matterhorn).

 Hanging Valley – A smaller valley left "hanging" above the main valley, often with a waterfall.

Depositional Landforms (Formed by Glacier Deposits):

 Moraine – Hills of rock and debris left by melting glaciers.

 Drumlin – A smooth, oval-shaped hill formed by glacial movement.

 Esker – A winding ridge of sediment left behind by melting glacier water.

 Outwash Plain – A flat area covered by sediments deposited by meltwater from glaciers.

4. Wind Landforms (Aeolian Landforms)

Erosional Landforms (Formed by Wind Erosion):

 Mushroom Rock – A rock shaped like a mushroom, where wind erodes the lower part more than
the top.

 Yardang – A long, narrow rock ridge shaped by wind erosion.

 Deflation Hollow – A shallow depression formed by wind removing loose sand.

Depositional Landforms (Formed by Wind-Deposited Sand):

  Sand Dune – A hill of loose sand shaped by wind.

 Barchan Dune – A crescent-shaped sand dune with horns pointing downwind.

 Loess – A fine, powdery sediment deposited by the wind, making fertile soil.

5. Sea Water Landforms (Coastal Landforms)

Erosional Landforms (Formed by Wave Erosion):

 Sea Cliff – A steep rock face along a coast.

 Sea Cave – A hollow opening formed in a cliff by waves.

 Sea Arch – A rock bridge formed when waves cut through a headland.

 Sea Stack – A tall, isolated rock in the sea, formed when a sea arch collapses.

Depositional Landforms (Formed by Wave Deposits):

 Beach – A deposit of sand, pebbles, or shells along a shoreline.

 Spit – A long, narrow landform extending from the coast into the sea.

 Barrier Island – A long, narrow island parallel to the coast, protecting the mainland from waves.

 Tombolo – A sandbar connecting an island to the mainland.

1. Definition of Volcanism

Volcanism refers to the processes associated with the movement of molten rock (magma), gases, and
ash from inside the Earth to the surface. This can lead to the formation of volcanoes, lava flows, geysers,
and hot springs.

2. Causes of Volcanism

Volcanism occurs due to the movement of tectonic plates and the presence of magma beneath the
Earth’s crust. The main causes include:

1. Tectonic Plate Movements

o Divergent Boundaries: Plates move apart, allowing magma to rise (e.g., Mid-Atlantic
Ridge).

o Convergent Boundaries: Plates collide, forcing magma upward (e.g., Pacific Ring of Fire).

2. Hotspots

o Some volcanoes form over hotspots where magma rises through weak spots in the crust
(e.g., Hawaiian Islands).
 3. High Pressure and Heat Inside the Earth

o Heat from the Earth’s core melts rocks, creating magma. When pressure builds up,
magma forces its way to the surface, causing eruptions.

3. Effects of Volcanism

A. Positive Effects
✅ Fertile Soil – Volcanic ash adds nutrients to the soil, making land fertile for farming.
✅ Geothermal Energy – Heat from volcanoes can be used to generate electricity.
✅ New Land Formation – Volcanic eruptions create new islands (e.g., Iceland, Hawaii).
✅ Tourism – Volcanoes attract tourists, boosting local economies.

B. Negative Effects
❌ Loss of Life and Property – Lava, ash, and gases can destroy homes and kill people.
❌ Climate Change – Large eruptions release ash and gases (like sulfur dioxide), which can block sunlight
and cool the Earth temporarily.
❌ Air Pollution – Volcanic ash can harm human health and disrupt air travel.
❌ Tsunamis – Underwater eruptions can trigger powerful tsunamis (e.g., Krakatoa eruption in 1883).

1. What is a Geological Plane?

A geological plane is a flat or slightly curved surface within the Earth's crust. These planes include
bedding planes, fault planes, and joints, which help geologists understand the structure of rocks.

2. Types of Geological Planes

 Bedding Plane – A surface between layers of sedimentary rock.

 Fault Plane – A surface where two rock blocks have moved past each other.

 Joint Plane – A crack in a rock where there has been no movement.

3. Orientation of Geological Planes

To describe the position of a geological plane, two main measurements are used:

1. Strike – The direction of a horizontal line on the plane, measured in degrees from north (0° to
360°).

2. Dip – The angle of tilt of the plane from the horizontal surface, measured in degrees (0° = flat,
90° = vertical).

📌 Example: If a rock layer has a strike of 120° and a dip of 30°, it means:

 The layer is tilted 30° from the horizontal.

 Its highest edge is oriented 120° from North.

1. What is Dip Amount?

The dip amount (or dip angle) is the angle at which a geological plane (such as a rock layer, fault, or
bedding plane) is tilted from the horizontal. It is measured in degrees (°) from 0° (horizontal) to 90°
(vertical).

1. Primary Geological Structures

Definition:

 Primary structures are formed during the original deposition or formation of rocks.

 They develop when sediments settle, magma cools, or lava flows.

Types & Field Identification:

Primary Structure Field Identification

Seen as parallel, horizontal layers in rock

Bedding Planes – Layers in sedimentary rocks
formations.

Found in sandstone dunes and river

Cross-Bedding – Inclined layers within a rock bed
deposits.

Graded Bedding – Layers with coarse material at the bottom Seen in river and deep-sea deposits.
Primary Structure Field Identification

and finer material at the top

Found in beaches, rivers, and shallow

Ripple Marks – Wavy patterns on rock surfaces
sea beds.

Identified by smooth (pahoehoe) or

Lava Flow Structures – Patterns in solidified lava
rough (aa) textures.

2. Secondary Geological Structures

Definition:

 Secondary structures are formed after rock formation due to tectonic forces, like folding,
faulting, and jointing.

 These result from earthquakes, mountain-building, and crustal deformation.

Types & Field Identification:

Secondary Structure Field Identification

Look for curved layers in mountains (anticlines &

Folds – Bends in rock layers
synclines).

Faults – Breaks in rock with movement Found as sharp displacement in rock beds.

Joints – Cracks in rocks without movement Seen as straight, vertical cracks in rock masses.

Unconformities – Missing layers in rock

Identified as a gap between old and new rock layers.
sequences

3. Importance in Civil Engineering

Geological Structure Importance in Civil Engineering

Bedding Planes & Folds Affects slope stability and foundation strength.

Faults & Joints Increase risk of earthquakes and landslides.

Unconformities Indicate past erosion, affecting construction safety.

Lava Flows & Igneous Rocks Used for road construction and strong building materials.

Conclusion
Understanding primary and secondary geological structures helps civil engineers:
✅ Choose safe building sites
✅ Design stable foundations
✅ Prevent landslides and earthquake damage

1. Primary Geological Structures

Definition: Formed during rock formation through sediment deposition, lava cooling, or crystallization.

Examples & Identification:

 Bedding Planes – Horizontal layers in sedimentary rocks.

 Cross-Bedding – Slanted layers in sandstone and river deposits.

 Ripple Marks – Wavy patterns on rock surfaces from water or wind.

Importance in Civil Engineering:

 Helps in foundation design and tunnel stability.

 Determines rock strength for construction materials.

2. Secondary Geological Structures

Definition: Formed after rock formation due to tectonic forces like folding, faulting, and jointing.

Examples & Identification:

 Folds – Curved rock layers (e.g., anticlines, synclines).

 Faults – Cracks in rocks where movement has occurred.

 Joints – Vertical cracks in rock without movement.

Importance in Civil Engineering:

 Faults & Joints can cause earthquakes and landslides.

 Folds affect slope stability, crucial for dams and roads.