SUBJECT – RESEARCH PROJECT

(ZOOLOGY)
TOPIC – Comparative Study of
Gastrulation and Embryonic Development
in Chick and Other Vertebrates"

SUBMITTED TO:-
Dr. MONU BALA

(ZOOLOGY RESEARCH PROJECT)

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Table of Contents
Introduction: ..................................................................................................................................................3
Scientific Classification Of Chick: ...................................................................................................................4
What Is Gastrulation? (Definition And Significance) .....................................................................................5

2. Key Events of Gastrulation (गैस्ट्रोल की प्रम घटलाएँ) ..................................................................... 6

3. Cell Movements During Gastrulation (गैस्ट्रोल कर दौराल कटशोकाओं की गशियाँ) ..............................7

4. Formation of Germ Layers During Gastrulation (गैस्ट्रोल कर दौराल भ्रूय परिो का शल्ामर) ..........8

5. Gastrulation in Chick Embryo (च्जर कर भ्र ्े गैस्ट्रोल की प्रया) ................................................ 10

6. Comparative Study of Gastrulation in Chick and Other Organisms (e.g., Frog and Mammals) ............. 13
7. Comparative Formation of Germ Layers in Different Species ................................................................ 18
8. Conclusion: Significance of Gastrulation in Development ...................................................................... 22

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Introduction To Gastrulation And
Embryonic Development

Introduction:
Gastrulation is a pivotal event in the early stages of embryonic
development, marking the transition from a simple, single-
layered structure, the blastula, to a more complex, multilayered
structure known as the gastrula. This transition is fundamental
because it forms the three primary germ layers – the ectoderm,
mesoderm, and endoderm – which will later differentiate into all
the organs and tissues of the body.

The process of gastrulation is not uniform across all species. It varies significantly
depending on factors such as the amount and distribution of yolk within the egg, and the
specific reproductive strategies of the organism. The chick embryo (Gallus gallus) has
served as a model organism for understanding
this complex process due to its accessibility,
clear developmental stages, and its importance
as a representative species of amniotes. The
primitive streak, a characteristic feature of avian
and mammalian gastrulation, forms early in the
chick and plays a crucial role in establishing the
body axis and guiding the formation of the germ
layers.

In this comparative study, we will delve into the process of gastrulation in the chick embryo,
examining how its specific features compare with those of other organisms, such as

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amphibians and mammals. This will help us understand the underlying similarities and
differences in embryonic development across different species. Additionally, we will explore
how the germ layer formation in each species contributes to its unique developmental
strategy and evolutionary adaptations.

Gastrulation is not just a morphological transition; it is a dynamic cellular reorganization that

lays the groundwork for the body’s future structure.

Scientific Classification Of Chick:

Rank Classification Example/Description
1. Kingdom - Animalia Animals

2. Phylum - Chordata Chordates (vertebrates with a backbone)

3. Subphylum - Vertebrata Vertebrates (animals with a backbone)

4. Class - Aves Birds

5. Order - Galliformes Order containing fowl

(like chickens)

6. Family - Phasianidae Family of pheasants,

quails, and chickens

7. Genus - Gallus Genus containing chickens

and related species

8. Species - Gallus gallus domesticus

Domestic Chicken

Common Name: Domestic Fowl or Hen

Oviparous Nature: Chick is oviparous, meaning it hatches from eggs.

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What Is Gastrulation? (Definition And Significance)
Definition Gastrulation is a critical and highly coordinated phase in early embryonic
development, during which the simple, single-layered blastula is transformed into a complex,
three-layered structure called the gastrula. During this process, the three primary germ
layers are formed:

Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Each of these layers will later give
rise to specific tissues and organ
systems in the body.

Significance Of Gastrulation:
Foundation of Body Plan: Gastrulation lays down the basic body plan of the organism,
including the future head-tail (anterior-posterior), back-belly (dorsal-ventral), and left-right
axes.

Germ Layer Formation: It establishes the three germ layers from which all body tissues and
organs develop.

Organogenesis Begins: It marks the beginning of organ formation (organogenesis).

Cell Differentiation: Cells start receiving positional information and begin differentiating into
specialized types.

Developmental Milestone: Gastrulation is considered a crucial milestone — developmental

biologists often say: "It is not birth, marriage, or death, but gastrulation which is truly the
most important time in your life."

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2. Key Events of Gastrulation (गैस्ट्रोल की प्रम घटलाएँ)
Gastrulation is not a single-step event, but a sequence of highly regulated and coordinated
changes that reshape the embryo. The major events of gastrulation are as follows:

1. Formation of the Primitive Streak

In birds and mammals (like chick), gastrulation begins with
the appearance of the primitive streak on the surface of the
epiblast.

It appears as a linear thickening at the posterior end of the

embryo and elongates anteriorly.

The primitive streak serves as the site of cell ingress and is

crucial for establishing the body axes.

2. Formation of Hensen’s Node (Primitive Knot)

At the anterior tip of the primitive streak, a specialized structure called Hensen’s Node forms.

It acts as the organizer of gastrulation and plays a role in inducing the formation of the
notochord and neural tissues.

3. Ingression Of Epiblast Cells

Epiblast cells migrate inward through the primitive streak (a process called ingression).

These cells displace the hypoblast and form the endoderm.

Additional ingressing cells settle between the epiblast and endoderm to form the mesoderm.

The remaining epiblast cells become the ectoderm.

4. Establishment Of Germ Layers

The three primary germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) are now organized in a
trilaminar disc.

Each layer begins to specialize for forming future organs.

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5. Axis Formation
The embryo establishes its:

Anterior–Posterior Axis

Dorsal–Ventral Axis

Left–Right Symmetry

3. Cell Movements During Gastrulation (गैस्ट्रोल कर

दौराल कटशोकाओं की गशियाँ)
During gastrulation, specific movements of cells reshape the embryo and position them into
their appropriate germ layers. These morphogenetic movements are conserved across
many species. The major types of cell movements are:

1. Ingression (अवग्ल)

Individual cells leave an epithelial sheet and migrate inward independently.

In chick gastrulation, epiblast cells ingress through the primitive streak to form mesoderm
and endoderm.

These cells change their shape and lose

adhesion with neighboring cells.

2. Invagination (अंिःवरर)

A sheet of cells bends inward to form a

depression or pocket.

Common in sea urchins and frogs; in chick,

similar movements occur near Hensen’s Node.

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3. Involution (पशिविमल)

A sheet of cells rolls inward to spread over the internal surface of the embryo.

In chick embryos, cells move through the primitive streak and involute to spread inside.

4. Epiboly (उपररवृद्)

Expansion and thinning of epithelial sheets to cover the yolk or deeper layers.

Epiblast cells spread to cover the whole embryo and eventually become ectoderm.

5. Convergent Extension (सम्््ल दवसिार)

Cells intercalate (insert between each other) along the mediolateral axis, causing the tissue
to narrow and elongate.

This helps lengthen the primitive streak and shape the body axis.

4. Formation of Germ Layers During Gastrulation

(गैस्ट्रोल कर दौराल भ्रूय परिो का शल्ामर)
The process of germ layer formation is the central outcome
of gastrulation. Through coordinated cell movements, the
embryo transforms from a single-layered blastula into a
trilaminar (three-layered) gastrula, consisting of:

1. Ectoderm
2. Mesoderm
3. Endoderm
Each of these germ layers will later give rise to specific
tissues and organ systems. Let’s study each in detail:

c1. Ectoderm (बाह भ्रूय परि)

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Origin:
Derived from epiblast cells that remain on the surface and do not ingress through the
primitive streak.

Fate (भदवषय ्े कया बलिा है ):

Nervous system (brain, spinal cord)

Epidermis of skin, hair, nails

Eyes (lens, retina), ears

Enamel of teeth

Parts of pituitary gland and adrenal medulla

Significance:
It forms the interface between the organism and its environment.

2. Mesoderm (्धय भ्रूय परि)

Origin:
Formed by epiblast cells that ingress through the primitive streak and settle between the
ectoderm and endoderm.

Fate:
Muscles, bones, cartilage

Blood and blood vessels

Heart, kidneys, gonads

(testes/ovaries)

Dermis (inner layer of skin)

Connective tissues and

lymphatic system

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Subdivisions Of Mesoderm In Chick:
Paraxial mesoderm → somites (muscles, vertebrae)

Intermediate mesoderm → urogenital organs

Lateral plate mesoderm → limbs, body wall, circulatory system

3. Endoderm (अंिभ्र
म ूय परि)

Origin:

Formed by the first wave of epiblast cells that ingress through the primitive streak and
replace the hypoblast.

5. Gastrulation in Chick Embryo (च्जर कर भ्र ्े गैस्ट्रोल

की प्रया)
Gastrulation in the chick (Gallus gallus) is a well-studied model of amniote development. It
begins soon after the formation of the blastodisc and leads to the establishment of the three
germ layers. Here's a deep breakdown of the process:

1. Structure Before Gastrulation:

The chick embryo is a flat disc of cells called the
blastodisc on top of a large yolk.

It has two layers:

Epiblast (upper layer): gives rise to all three germ
layers.

Hypoblast (lower layer): replaced by definitive

endoderm later.

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2. Formation of the Primitive Streak:
Gastrulation begins with the thickening of epiblast cells
at the posterior end, forming the primitive streak.

The streak elongates anteriorly through convergent

extension.

This structure serves as the site of cell ingress and

migration.

3. Hensen's Node (Primitive Knot):

Located at the anterior end of the primitive
streak.

It acts as an organizer (like the dorsal lip of

amphibians).

Cells migrating through it give rise to the

notochord and parts of the mesoderm.

4. Ingression and Germ Layer Formation:

First cells to ingress through the primitive streak displace the hypoblast and form the
endoderm.

Next wave of cells settle between epiblast and endoderm to form the mesoderm.

Remaining epiblast becomes ectoderm.

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5. Mesodermal Subdivisions:
The mesoderm in chick further differentiates into:

Paraxial Mesoderm

Intermediate Mesoderm

Lateral Plate Mesoderm

6. Regression of the Primitive Streak:

After cell migration is complete, the primitive
streak regresses.

Hensen's Node moves posteriorly, laying

down the notochord.

7. Outcome of Chick Gastrulation:

The embryo is now a trilaminar disc with ectoderm (outer), mesoderm (middle), and
endoderm (inner).

The body axis and future tissue fate are established.

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6. Comparative Study of Gastrulation in Chick and Other
Organisms (e.g., Frog and Mammals)
Gastrulation is a crucial phase in embryonic development during which a single-layered
blastula reorganizes into a multi-layered structure, the gastrula, with three primary germ
layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. This process sets the foundation for the
development of the entire organism, forming tissues and organs. While gastrulation is a
common event across all triploblastic organisms, it varies significantly between species,
depending on the type of egg, amount of yolk, and overall body plan. Understanding these
differences provides insight into how evolutionary adaptations have shaped the
developmental process.

1. Gastrulation in Chick
Embryo (Gallus gallus)
In chick embryos, which are telolecithal
(large yolk concentrated at one end),
gastrulation takes place on a flat disc-like
blastoderm, called the blastodisc. The
yolk is too large to undergo complete
invagination, so the embryo develops a
primitive streak as the main site for the
initiation of gastrulation.

Primitive Streak Formation: The

primitive streak appears along the midline
of the blastoderm and is essential for the organization of the three germ layers. Cells at the
anterior end of the streak form the Henson’s node, which is responsible for notochord
development.

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Cell Movements:
Ingression:
Epiblast cells move
inward through the
primitive streak to
form the mesoderm
and endoderm.

Epiboly: The
ectodermal layer
spreads and thins to
cover the entire surface of the embryo.

Convergent Extension: The primitive streak elongates along the anterior-posterior axis.

Germ Layer Formation:

Ectoderm is formed from the cells that remain on
the surface of the blastoderm.

Mesoderm forms by ingressing cells through the

primitive streak and spreads across the embryo,
eventually giving rise to the notochord, somites,
and other structures.

Endoderm forms from the cells that ingress at the

streak's midline, displacing the hypoblast cells and
forming the future digestive tract.

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2. Gastrulation in Frog Embryo (Rana
temporaria)
In frog embryos, which are mesolecithal (moderate
yolk distribution), gastrulation begins with the
formation of the blastopore at the dorsal side of the
embryo. Due to the more uniform distribution of yolk,
involution is the dominant movement.

Blastopore Formation: The blastopore forms in

the dorsal lip, and it is here that the gastrulation
process is initiated. The cells at the dorsal lip will
eventually form the notochord and contribute to the
mesoderm and endoderm.

Cell Movements:
Involution: Cells from the surface
layer of the embryo roll inward
(through the blastopore) to form the
mesoderm and endoderm. These
movements contribute to the
development of the archenteron, the
precursor to the gut.

Epiboly: The ectoderm spreads

over the surface of the embryo as
cells in the deep layers migrate
inward.

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Germ Layer Formation:
Ectoderm forms the outermost layer, responsible for the nervous
system, skin, and other external features.

Mesoderm forms the middle layer, developing into muscles,

bones, circulatory system, and other internal organs.

Endoderm forms the innermost layer, leading to the formation of

the gut and associated organs (e.g., liver, pancreas).

3. Gastrulation in Mammals
(e.g., Humans, Mice
In mammals, which are isolecithal
(very little yolk), the blastula is
bilaminar, consisting of wo layers:
epiblast and hypoblast. Gastrulation in
mammals is more complex compared
to chicks and frogs, as it occurs within
a more compact, internalized embryo.

Primitive Streak Formation: The primitive streak forms within the epiblast layer,
beginning at the posterior end and progressing towards the anterior end. The formation of
the primitive streak is crucial for organizing the embryo along the anterior-posterior axis.

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Cell Movements:
Ingression: Cells of the epiblast move
inward through the primitive streak to form
the mesoderm and endoderm.

Epiboly: The epiblast cells spread to cover the

entire embryo's surface.

Convergent Extension: The primitive streak

elongates as cells move towards the streak,
creating a more elongated and organized body
axis.

Germ Layer Formation:

Ectoderm forms from the cells that remain on
the surface layer of the epiblast. This layer
gives rise to the nervous system (brain, spinal
cord), skin, hair, and other external features.

Mesoderm forms from the epiblast cells that

ingress through the primitive streak. This forms
structures like muscles, skeleton, circulatory
system, and kidneys.

Endoderm is derived from the epiblast cells

that ingress through the primitive streak to form the digestive tract, lungs, and other internal
organs.

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Summary:
Gastrulation is essential for the formation of the three germ layers across all species.
However, the mode of movement and patterns of development differ between species due
to variations in yolk distribution, egg structure, and the type of embryo.

Chick embryos undergo primitive streak formation, with cells migrating through it for
mesoderm and endoderm formation.

Frog embryos rely on blastopore and dorsal lip for involution and invagination to form
their germ layers.

Mammals develop through ingression at the primitive streak, forming a bilaminar disc that
transitions to a trilaminar structure.

Understanding these differences offers insights into the evolutionary and adaptive
modifications that allow organisms to develop in different environmental and
physiological conditions.

7. Comparative Formation of
Germ Layers in Different Species
Germ layers are the foundational layers formed
during the process of gastrulation in developing
embryos. These germ layers—ectoderm, mesoderm,
and endoderm—give rise to all tissues and organs in
the adult organism. While the process of germ layer
formation is broadly conserved across species, there
are significant variations in the mechanics and timing
of their development. Below, we explore the
formation of these germ layers in different species,
including chick, frog, and mammals.

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 1. Germ Layer Formation in Chick Embryo

The chick embryo, being telolecithal (with a large yolk), exhibits

unique gastrulation characteristics. The primitive streak is the
major site of germ layer formation. Here’s how it occurs:

Ectoderm: The ectoderm is derived from the cells that remain on

the surface of the epiblast. This layer will give rise to the skin,
nervous system (brain, spinal cord), and sensory organs (eyes,
ears).

Mesoderm: The mesoderm is formed by epiblast cells that

ingress through the primitive streak. These cells give rise to
structures such as muscles, bones, circulatory system (heart and
blood vessels), kidneys, and reproductive organs.

Endoderm: The endoderm is formed from epiblast cells that

ingress through the primitive streak and displace the hypoblast
cells. The endoderm eventually forms the digestive tract, liver,
pancreas, lungs, and associated organs.

Summary of Germ Layer Formation in Chick

Embryo:
Ectoderm from surface epiblast cells.

Mesoderm from epiblast cells that ingress through the primitive streak.

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Endoderm from epiblast cells that ingress and displace the hypoblast.

2. Germ Layer Formation in Frog Embryo

In frog embryos, which are mesolecithal (with moderate yolk distribution), the process of
gastrulation involves the formation of a blastopore and
dorsal lip, which are crucial for germ layer
development:

Ectoderm: The ectoderm is formed by cells at the

surface of the blastula. These cells will give rise to the
skin, nervous system,
and other external
tissues.

Mesoderm: The mesoderm forms from involuting cells at the

dorsal lip of the blastopore. These cells will eventually form
structures such as muscles, skeleton, heart, kidneys, and
blood vessels.

Endoderm: The endoderm is derived from involuting cells

that move inward through the blastopore and will eventually
form the digestive system (gut), liver, and lungs.

Summary of Germ Layer

Formation in Frog Embryo:
Ectoderm from surface cells.

Mesoderm from involuting cells at the dorsal

lip.

Endoderm from cells that move inward

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through the blastopore.

3. Germ Layer Formation in Mammal Embryos (Humans, Mice)

Mammals, including humans, are isolecithal (with little yolk) organisms. Their embryos
develop through a bilaminar disc (epiblast
and hypoblast) which then undergoes
gastrulation to form a trilaminar disc:

Ectoderm: The ectoderm is formed from

cells that remain on the surface of the
epiblast. This layer will give rise to the
skin, hair, nails, brain, and spinal cord.

Mesoderm: The mesoderm forms from

epiblast cells that ingress through the primitive streak. These cells will give rise to muscles,
bones, circulatory system (heart and blood vessels), and reproductive organs.

Endoderm: The endoderm is derived from epiblast cells that ingress and form the inner
layer, replacing the hypoblast. The endoderm gives rise to the digestive system, lungs, liver,
and pancreas.

Summary of Germ Layer Formation in Mammal Embryos:

Ectoderm from epiblast cells that remain on the surface.

Mesoderm from epiblast cells that ingress through the primitive streak.

Endoderm from epiblast cells that displace the hypoblast.

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Conclusion
The process of germ layer formation plays a critical role in the development of tissues and
organs in all animals. Although the fundamental concept of gastrulation remains the same—
formation of the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm—the mechanism and pattern of germ
layer formation vary significantly across species, depending on the egg type, yolk
distribution, and overall body plan. Understanding these differences not only provides
insight into evolutionary adaptations but also offers valuable knowledge for comparative
embryology and developmental biology.

8. Conclusion: Significance of
Gastrulation in Development
Gastrulation is one of the most pivotal stages of
embryonic development in all multicellular organisms.
During this process, the primary germ layers
(ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) are
established, setting the foundation for the
development of tissues, organs, and systems. Here's
a deep dive into the significance of gastrulation and
why it is so crucial for proper organismal development:

1. Formation of Germ Layers

The first critical outcome of gastrulation is the formation of the
three primary germ layers:

Ectoderm: Forms the nervous system (brain, spinal cord), skin,

and sensory organs.

Mesoderm: Forms the muscles, skeleton, circulatory system,

kidneys, and reproductive organs.

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Endoderm: Forms the digestive tract, liver, pancreas, and lungs.

These germ layers give rise to all the tissues and organs in the organism. The correct
formation and specification of these layers are essential for proper growth and function of
the organism in later stages.

2. Cellular Movements in Gastrulation

The movements of cells during gastrulation—such as ingression, involution, epiboly, and

convergent extension—are complex, but essential for shaping the body plan. Through these
movements:

Cells from the outer layer (epiblast) migrate inwards to form the mesoderm and endoderm.

The ectoderm remains as the outer layer, becoming the skin and nervous system. These
movements are guided by molecular signals, ensuring the right cells end up in the correct
locations.

3. Patterning and Axial Development

Gastrulation also plays a crucial role in the
establishment of the body axis, which defines the
anterior-posterior (head-tail) and dorsal-ventral (back-
belly) orientation of the embryo. The primitive streak (in
birds and mammals) or the blastopore (in amphibians)
is the region where cells ingress and undergo
patterning. This provides the framework for the later
development of specific body regions like the brain, heart, and limbs.

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4. Organogenesis and Tissue Differentiation
Once the germ layers are formed during
gastrulation, they begin to differentiate into specific
tissues and organs in a process known as
organogenesis. This leads to the establishment of
organ systems such as the circulatory system,
digestive system, nervous system, and
musculoskeletal system. Without proper germ layer
formation during gastrulation, organogenesis will be
compromised, resulting in developmental
abnormalities or failure of organs to form altogether.

5. Evolutionary Significance
From an evolutionary perspective, the process of gastrulation is deeply conserved across
species. However, differences in gastrulation patterns among different organisms—such as
chick, frog, and mammals—illustrate how evolution has fine-tuned developmental processes
to accommodate different body plans and reproductive strategies. The study of gastrulation
can shed light on the evolution of body structure and developmental mechanisms across
diverse species.

6. Medical and Developmental Implications

A thorough understanding of gastrulation is crucial not only for basic biology but also for
medical research:Abnormalities in gastrulation can lead to congenital defects, including
problems in organ formation (e.g., neural tube defects, heart malformations).

Stem cell research often aims to understand how germ layers can be formed from
pluripotent stem cells, offering potential for regenerative medicine and tissue engineering.

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7. Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Therapy
Insights from gastrulation and germ layer formation have contributed to the development of
stem cell-based therapies. Researchers are exploring ways to guide pluripotent stem cells
(cells that can become any type of cell) to differentiate into specific germ layer derivatives,
which could one day help in repairing or regenerating damaged tissues and organs.

Conclusion Summary
Gastrulation marks the beginning of true differentiation in the developing embryo, with the
formation of the three primary germ layers that give rise to all tissues and organs. It is
crucial for establishing the body plan, guiding cellular movements and fate, and ensuring
proper organ formation. The study of gastrulation provides valuable insights into not only
basic developmental biology but also evolution, medical applications, and regenerative
medicine. Understanding how germ layers form in different species enriches our knowledge
of embryonic development, providing a deeper understanding of the evolutionary history
and molecular mechanisms that shape life.

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