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Britannia ad 43–105
MONS GRAUPIUS 60
ad 83
ANALYSIS 70
Use of terrain • Pitched battle vs guerrilla warfare • Equipment and fighting style
AFTERMATH 74
BIBLIOGRAPHY 77
INDEX 80
Introduction
Reverse of a coin of the The Romans invaded Britain in the spring of ad 43 at the command of the
Catuvellauni tribe displaying emperor Claudius (r. ad 41–54). Roman involvement with the tribes of the
a mounted warrior carrying
a carnyx. The Catuvellauni
south-east of Britain had steadily increased since Julius Caesar’s expeditions
occupied an area of south- to the island in 55 and 54 bc. Successive emperors had been keen to offer
eastern Britain north of diplomatic and economic support to friendly tribal chieftains in return
the River Thames in the for access to Britain’s mineral resources, in particular iron and silver. In
1st century ad, and led the
resistance to the Roman
the early 1st century ad, the most powerful ruler was Cunobeline, king of
invasion in ad 43. (Werner the Catuvellauni, whose territory roughly corresponded with the modern-
Forman/Universal Images day English counties of Hertfordshire and Essex. During his long reign,
Group/Getty Images) Cunobeline carefully managed to court Roman patronage without alienating
those who feared Roman influence. Sometime in the early ad 40s, however,
Cunobeline either died or became seriously ill. Two of his sons, Togodumnus
and Caratacus, seized control and quickly moved against pro-Roman factions.
They first ousted another brother, Adminius, who ruled a small territory
in the north-east tip of what is now Kent; he fled to Claudius’ predecessor
Caligula (r. ad 37–41), whose planned invasion never materialized. Soon
after, the anti-Roman brothers deposed Verica, the chieftain of the Atrebates,
whose power was centred around Calleva (modern-day Silchester). Verica left
Britain and appealed to Claudius for help.
OPPOSITE Claudius agreed to send an expedition to Britain, with the invasion force
A 1st-century ad relief commanded by Aulus Plautius. The Roman Empire at the time enjoyed a
showing two Roman soldiers, period of relative peace, so Plautius was able to gather an army of considerable
from a Roman building in
Mainz, Germany, now in the
strength from across Roman-controlled territory. At its core were four legions,
Landesmuseum, Mainz. The providing 20,000 highly trained and well-equipped heavy-infantry soldiers,
figure on the left is wearing reinforced with artillery. Plautius probably also assembled at least as many
a lorica segmentata, and is auxiliary infantry and cavalry troops, again from all over the Roman Empire,
carrying a pilum and a semi-
cylindrical shield, or scutum,
including a number of cohorts of Batavians from the Rhine delta, and cavalry
so is probably a legionary. alae (sing. ala; literally ‘wing’, an all-mounted cavalry unit) from Thrace
(DeAgostini/Getty Images) (Webster 1980: 85–87).
4
5
The famous ‘Waterloo We only have one literary source for the invasion of Britain: the brief
Helmet’ (150–50 bc) was account of Cassius Dio, a Roman statesman and historian originally from
dredged from the River
Bithynia in Asia Minor, who wrote a vast history of the Roman Empire
Thames near Waterloo
Bridge in the early 1860s and in Greek. Dio records (Roman History 60.19–22) that the Roman army
shows the very high quality landed in Britain unopposed (probably at Richborough in Kent) because
of metalwork produced by the British tribes were not expecting them. When the British did gather
the British Celts. The ‘horned’
together into an army, they immediately adopted the strategy that would
design is unique: no other
Iron Age helmet with horns prove so successful against Roman commanders in Britain for centuries: they
has yet been found in Europe. fell back into the marshes and forests, drawing the Roman force into terrain
This was almost certainly a where the heavily equipped legionaries were unable to fight effectively,
helmet produced for ritual or
and refusing to meet the Romans in pitched battle. Plautius eventually
parade rather than battle: the
‘horns’ would have caught, managed to catch up with a British army commanded by Caratacus, whom
rather than deflected, edged he defeated, and then another led by his brother Togodumnus, who was
weapons, and it would have killed. Plautius then followed the retreating Britons westward across Kent,
been cumbersome to wear.
finding them again on the far bank of the River Medway. The British appear
Although it was almost
certainly deposited in the to have assumed the Roman army could not cross the river without building
Thames for some religious bridges and took few precautions. They had not heard of the special skills
reason, it was probably not of Plautius’ Batavian auxiliary cavalry, however, who swam across the wide
made for this purpose; one
river alongside their horses and caught the British by surprise. More Roman
of the horns has broken at
some point and a replacement troops led by the future emperor Vespasian also managed to ford the river
fitted. (CM Dixon/Print and after two days of brutal fighting the Romans forced the British to flee
Collector/Getty Images) once more, this time to the mouth of the River Thames.
Again, the British looked to the landscape to aid them, and slipped
across the treacherous tidal flats of the Thames estuary, hoping to trap the
Romans in the rising flood. After some confusion due to their ignorance of
the terrain, the Batavians managed to cross, and other units found a bridge
6
Iron Roman helmet found
in Nijmegen, Netherlands.
Dating from the
1st century ad, this style of
helmet was adapted from
Celtic designs. (DEA/G.
DAGLI ORTI/De Agostini
via Getty Images)
further upstream. The Romans surrounded the Britons and killed many. The
survivors melted away, luring a number of Roman soldiers to their deaths in
the marshes.
Plautius consolidated his gains and set up garrisons in the territory he
had conquered. He gathered the remainder of his army north of the Thames,
ready to march on Cunobeline’s capital at Camulodunum (modern-day
Colchester). Here, however, Plautius was forced to stop, being under
strict orders from Claudius to await his arrival in Britain before taking the
enemy capital. Caratacus took immediate advantage of Plautius’ delay, and
retreated with his family and a force of loyal retainers further to the west,
into the territories of other tribes, whom he persuaded to join his resistance.
Plautius’ failure to catch Caratacus was costly: the British leader would
continue his guerrilla campaign for seven bloody years before his defeat
and capture.
When Claudius arrived in the autumn of ad 43, he took command of
his army and easily captured Camulodunum. He accepted the capitulation
of several tribal leaders, and negotiated settlements with others. Claudius
attempted to reinforce the borders of the new province of Britannia through
treaties with friendly tribal leaders (Webster 1981: 13). It was common Roman
practice to enlist the help of ‘client kings’ to administer newly conquered
territory, which helped to reduce the burden on the army for peacekeeping
duties, and provided a ‘buffer zone’ on the frontiers. The ‘buffer zone’ to the
7
Roman Britain, ad 85
We have little literary evidence for life in Iron Age Britain before as the use of metal coinage for trade. Before he left in 54 bc,
the arrival of the Romans. The eminent archaeologist Barry Caesar made alliances with several of these tribes, including
Cunliffe posits (1997: 156–64) that archaeological analysis of the Catuvellauni and the Atrebates. This gave access to the
settlement patterns and the distribution of pottery, weapons region to Roman traders, who soon imported Italian wine,
and other goods shows that Iron Age Britain was roughly pottery and fine silverware, in exchange for British produce
divided into four different communities. (Webster 1980: 53). There is evidence of rapid agricultural
In the far south-western peninsula, and the south of what development in the territory of the Trinovantes in this period,
is now Wales, most people lived in fortified enclosures, large which may indicate that British chieftains attempted to increase
enough to contain a single extended family and their livestock, the production of cereals to pay for Roman luxury goods
or easily defensible ‘cliff castles’ in coastal areas. Metal (Webster 1980: 49).
production was important to the economy of this region. When the Romans returned to Britain in force in ad 43, the
The south-east and east were dominated by tribes whose south-east was the region most easily brought under Roman
much larger, open settlements, and complex, hierarchical society, control. The emperor Claudius gave a large part of this area
based around a powerful ‘warrior elite’, were very similar to to a ‘client king’ called Cogidubnus, whom he made a Roman
those of neighbouring areas of what are now northern France citizen. The king adopted the emperor’s names, as recorded
and Belgium. Metalworking techniques and artistic styles spread in an inscription from a temple to Jupiter and Minerva, found
here from across the Channel. It is in this part of Britain that most near Chichester, in which he is described as ‘Tiberius Claudius
of the examples of beautifully decorated metalwork have been Cogidubnus, great king of the Britons’ (Webster 1981: 25). The
found, such as the so-called ‘Witham’ and ‘Battersea’ shields. ‘hillfort’ zone to the west proved much more resistant, however.
Burial culture, particularly the practice of interring warriors with Soon after the Roman invasion, the new governor Plautius sent
their two-wheeled chariots and other possessions, also mirrored the legio II Augusta under the command of the future emperor
that of the nearby European mainland. Vespasian into the lands of the hostile Durotriges, where he
Between the very different communities of the east and took a number of hillforts, including Maiden Castle and Hod Hill
south-west, there was a large ‘border’ region, spreading in southern England.
northwards in a narrowing band from the central–southern By the time Plautius left Britain in ad 47, the new province of
coast to what is now north Wales. Although the cultures of Britannia extended to a line running from the mouth of the River
the communities of this region differed in many respects, their Trent to the Severn estuary. Successive governors fought to
landscapes and societies were dominated by the widespread conquer the territories of the tribes to the west and north of this
construction of hillforts: large, fortified settlements built on the frontier. The Silures and Ordovices resisted a Roman ‘peace’
top of high hills, which could house a number of families and until their territory was finally subjugated by Agricola, who
their animals in times of danger. began his long governorship in ad 77. After subduing the tribes
The fourth cultural group inhabited a region that extended of what is now Wales, Agricola headed north and attempted to
around the north and west coast of Scotland and the Scottish extend Roman control across the whole of Britain. He won an
Islands, where the people built massive stone settlements overwhelming victory over a coalition of northern tribes in ad 83,
called ‘brochs’ or ‘duns’. This community was isolated from and his fleet completed the first circumnavigation of the island.
much of the rest of Britain. Soon after Agricola was recalled the following year, however,
In the century before Julius Caesar’s expeditions to Britain Roman troops were withdrawn and his gains in the far north
in 55 and 54 bc, there appear to have been several migrations were abandoned. A new frontier was established from the
of people from what are now northern France and Belgium into Solway Firth to the estuary of the River Tyne, which would later
south-eastern Britain. The tribes of the areas in which they become the northerly limit of the Roman Empire and is known
settled adopted many of the immigrants’ cultural practices, such today as ‘Hadrian’s Wall’.
8
?Mons Graupius,
AD 83
I
NI
DO
LE
CA
Ta y)
us
(Ta
Taus (Firth of Tay)
Bodotria
(Forth) Bodotria (Firth of Forth)
Clo
(Cl ta
yde
)
Clota
(Firth of Clyde) NOVANTAE
Vindolanda
DUMNONII
ES
G ANT
BRI
PARISI
Humber estuary
Invasion of Mona,
AD 60
Mona VI
(Anglesey)
Deva
E LTA
DECEANGLI (Chester)
TI na
R o
CO ant
Tris rent)
T
ORDOVICES
rina
DOB CA
UNN TU TRINOVANTES
I VE
SILURES LL Camulodunum
Glevum AU (Colchester)
(Gloucester) NI
ATREBATES esis
Tam es)
am CA
BE (Th NT
LG RE IAC Rutupiae
DUR AE GN dw
ay I (Richborough)
N OTR I Me
IGES
0 50 miles
O NII
MN
DU
0 50km
9
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