Introduction to Geography

 The Meaning of Geography

 Environment
 Branches of Geography
 Importance of Studying Geography
 Relationship between Geography and Other Subjects

 Centrality of Geography as a Science

The Meaning of Geography

 Scientific study of the earth as a home of man.

 Study of interrelationship on natural and human phenomena on the earth’s

surface.

Environment

 The surroundings
 All external conditions surrounding an organism which has influence over
its behaviour.

Environment can be divided into two:

1. The Physical Environment
 Natural physical conditions of weather, climate, vegetation,
animals, soil, landforms and drainage.
2. The Human Environment
 Human activities such as farming, forestry, mining, tourism,
settlement, transportation, trade and industry.

Branches of Geography
There are two main branches of geography

1. Physical Geography
- with the study of natural physical environment of human kind.
- The areas covered include:
a. The earth and the solar system..
b. The internal land forming processes.
c. The external land forming processes
d. weather and climate
e. Soils
2. Human and Economic Geography
- Study of people and their activities on the earth’s surface.
- The areas covered include:
a. Mining
 b. Forestry
c. Agriculture
d. Fishing
e. Wildlife and tourism
f. Industry
g. Energy etc.

Practical Geography

 A smaller branch which equips the learner with practical skills that enhance
their understanding and interpretation of physical geography, human and
economic geography.
 The areas under practical geography includes:
a. Statistical methods
b. Map work
c. Field work
d. Photograph work

Importance of Studying Geography

1. Facilitates good relationship among nations by studying geography of

other regions of the world.
2. it’s a career subject in that it enables one to go for advanced studies
in specialised fields e.g. geography teachers, meteorology, surveying etc.
3. Enables us to appreciate other people’s way of life by learning
economic activities of different communities within our country and other
parts of the world.
4. Enables us to conserve our environment when we learn negative and positive
effects of human activities on the environment.
5. Enables us to conserve our resources when we learn wise use of resources
in conservation and management of resources e.g. wildlife, forests, energy,
etc.
6. Inculcates in us virtues of cooperation and patience as we work in groups.
7. Helps learners to develop skills of observing and interpreting
maps,photographs, charts etc.
8. Through the study of fieldwork, geography teaches one on how to manage
time properly by drawing a time schedule and follow in it.
9. It helps us to learn and explain the origin of the earth and the solar system.

Relationship between Geography and Other Subjects

1. Mathematics-mathematical techniques are used in drawing graphs and pie

charts and mathematical formulae are used in geography to calculate
distances, areas, population density, population densities, etc.
2. History - history uses geographical tools like maps, charts and graphs to
show where past events took place e.g. the movement of people in the past.
3. Biology - Geography explains the distribution of organisms and factors
influencing their distribution on the earth’s surface.
 4. Physics - geography uses physics principles and formulae to calculate and
describe aspects such as magnetic field, gravity, vibrations of the earth etc.
5. Chemistry - geography applies chemistry in studying chemical composition
and chemical changes which take place in soils and rocks.
6. Agriculture - geography studies farming systems, their distribution and
factors affecting farming activities.
7. Meteorology - geography uses meteorological information in the study of
weather and in classifying climatic regions and mapping them.
8. Geology - geography studies rocks but geology goes into much details where
it deal with origin, structure and composition of the earth.

A model showing relationship between geography and other disciplines.

Centrality of Geography as a Science

 Geography relates well to the earth sciences which focuses on the

different components of the earth.
 It also links to the geometrical sciences because of its practical a
The Earth and the Solar
System
 Introduction
 The origin of the Solar System
o Theories
 Composition of the Solar System
 The Origin of the Earth
 The Shape of the Earth
o Forces that are Responsible for the Spherical Shape of the Earth
o Proofs/Evidence That the Earth Is Spherical
 The Movement of the Earth
o Rotation of the Earth
o Revolution of the Earth
 Latitudes and Longitudes
o Latitudes
o Longitudes
 Structure of the Earth
o Internal Structure of the Earth
o Why the Interior of Earth Is Very Hot
o External Structure of the Earth

Introduction

 Solar system is the group of heavenly bodies comprising the sun and the nine
planets.

The Origin of the Solar System

Theories
A theory is a set of reasoned ideas intended to explain facts or events

1. Passing Star Theory

 A star with a greater gravitational pull passed near the sun
 It attracted large quantities of gaseous materials from the sun
 The materials split, cooled and condensed to form planets
 The planets were set in orbit by the passing star

Weaknesses
 Doesn’t explain the origin of the sun and star.
 Minimal chance of a star approaching another
 High temperature, gaseous material drawn from the sun would
disperse than condense
 The gases should have followed the star since it had a greater
gravitational pul
2. Nebula Cloud Theory
  There was a slowly rotating cloud of dust and gas called Nebula
 As the nebula rotated it flattened into a disc with high concentration of
materials at the centre
 The high concentration of material at the centre condences to form the
sun.
 Gases such as ammonia and methane condense to form larger planets
that is Jupiter, Saturn, uranius and Neptune
 Closer to the centre of Nebula, particles of dust and gas bumping into
each other formed the inner smaller planets.

Weaknes
 The origin of nebular is not explained.
 Cause of rotation is not mentioned.
 All planet should rotate in the direction of the rotation of the nebula
that is west to east but venus and uranius rotates from west to east.

Composition of the Solar System

1. The Sun
- It’s the centre of the universe.

Characteristics
 It’s a star.
A star is a heavenly possessing its own light which it transmits.
Nebula/galaxy is a cluster of stars.
The earth is in a galaxy called The Milky Way.
 It’s made of very hot gases mainly hydrogen (70%) and helium (30%).
Has a diameter of 1392000km.
 Surrounded by a layer of gas which has boiled from its surface which is
called corona.
 Rotates on its own axis in anticlockwise direction.
 Has gravitational pull which holds all the planets in orbit around
it. An orbit is a path which a planet or a satellite follows around a star
or a planet.
 Temperature at its centre is the surface is 6000◦c.
 Radiates solar energy which is very important for all forms of life on
the earth.
2. The Planets
- Planets are large spherical celestial/heavenly bodies in space.
- There are 8 planets in our solar system.
Characteristics

 Spherical in shape.
 Don’t have their own light but reflect it from the sun.
 Revolve around the sun in anticlockwise direction.
 Have their own force of gravity
 Only one is known to support life.
The following are the planets arranged in order from the one nearest to
the sun.

Mercury
 Nearest from the su
 Its 58m km from the sun
 Has no satellites
 Takes approximately 88 earth days to revolve around the sun

Venus

 2nd planet from the sun

 It’s 108m km from the sun
 One of the brightest planetsCan be seen clearly with naked eyes
 Takes approximately 225 earth days to revolve around the sun
 Slightly smaller than the earth
 Has no satellites
 Together with the earth they are called twin planets due to having
many similarities Earth
 The 3rd planet from the sun
 The earth and the heavenly bodies make the universe
 The only planet that supports life
 The home of man
 Approximately 149m km from the sun
 Takes 365 ¼ days to revolve around the sun
 Has one satellite, the moon

Mars
  Also called The Red Planet because when it’s observed through a
telescope it appears reddish.
 The 4th from the sun
 Slightly smaller than the earth
 Approximately 228m km from the sun
 Takes 687 earth days to revolve around the sun
 Between Mass and Jupiter there are small celestial bodies called
planetoids.
 Has 2 satellites.

Jupiter

 5th planet from the sun

 Approximately 778m km from the sun
 Largest in the universe
 Rotates on its own axis at very fast speed
 Has flattened poles due to its fast speed of rotation
 Has very thick layers of ice on its surface
 takes 12 earth years to revolve around the sun
 Has 13 satellites

Saturn

 6th planet from the sun

 Second largest planet
 Approximately 1427m km from the sun
 Takes 29 ½ earth years to revolve around the sun
 Has 3 rings around it, a ring of clouds, a ring of fine dust and a ring of
ice particles revolving around it at different speed.
 Has 8 satellites

Uranus

 7th planet from the sun

 About 4 times bigger than the earth
 Approximately 2870m km from the sun
 Also rotates very fast
 Also has flattened poles due to fast speed of rotation
 It appears greenish foe being surrounded by methane gas
 Has 5 satellite
 Takes 84 earth years to revolve around the sun

Neptune

 One of the farthest from the sun

  8th planet from the su
 Approximately 4497m km from the sun
 Has 2 satellites
 Takes 165 earth years to revolve around the sun
 Very similar in size, colour and character with Uranus
3. Other Celestial Bodies

Natural Satellites
 Any natural heavenly body that orbits around a planet e.g. moon for
earth

Asteroids/Planetoids

 Also called minor planets.

 Are small fragments of rocks left going around the sun when the solar
system was formed
 Found between Mass and Jupiter
 Are 1500 in number
 They sometimes collide with each other and planets due to Jupiter’s
gravitational pull causing them to move in erratic orbits.

Comets

 Heavenly bodies which appear to have a head and a long tail

 Made of ice, dust and frozen gas
 The head is made of many particles of dust, rock and frozen gases.
 Their tail is made of gases and points away from the sun.
 Move around the sun in extremely long and oval orbits
 Their orbits cross the earth’s orbits.

Meteoroid

 Small heavenly body which strays from its orbit in the solar system and
enters the earth’s atmosphere at very high speed.

Meteor

 A meteoroid which is burning out due to friction after entering the

earth’s atmosphere.

Meteorite
  Remains of a meteoroid which have reached the earth’s surface or
incompletely burnt up meteoroid.
 When they fall they sink into the ground forming craters
 They are rich in iron.

The Moon

 A natural satellite
 Receives its light from the sun and reflects it onto the earth.
 It revolves around the earth
 Takes 29.5 days to complete one revolution around the earth
 Its orbit is almost circular
 As it revolves around the sun it appears in various shapes ranging from
crescent/new moon, half moon, gibbons moon and full moon.
 Has gravitational pull which causes the rising and falling of the ocean
level
 As the moon orbits around the earth it creates an event called eclipse.

Eclipse
 Phenomenon occurring when the rays of the sun are blocked from
reaching the earth or the moon.

Solar/Sun Eclipse
 The moon comes between the earth and the sun
 The moon’s shadow is cast on the earth
 The earth appears to be covered by darkness.

Lunar/moon Eclipse
 The earth comes between the moon and the sun
 The earth’s shadow is cast on the moon
 The moon appears to be covered by darkness

The Origin of the Earth

 A star with a greater gravitational pull passed near the sun

 It attracted large quantities of gaseous materials from the sun
  The materials split, cooled and condensed
 Heavier materials collected at the Centre to form the core
 Less dense materials collected around the core to form the mantle
 The lightest materials formed the crust

The Shape of the Earth

 The shape of the earth is called geoid/ovoid/oblate spheroid due to being an

imperfect sphere by being wide at the equator and flat at the poles.

Forces that are Responsible for the Spherical Shape of the Earth

1. Force of gravity- pulls every part of the earth towards the centre giving it
a rounding effect.
2. Centrifugal force- causes the earth to bulge outwards
3. The centripetal force-causes the flattening at the pole.

Proofs/Evidence that the Earth Is Spherical

1. If one moves towards the east in a straight line he will end up where he
started; this is called circumnavigation.
2. Satellite photographs taken from space show that the earth is like a sphere.
3. Places in the east see the sun earlier than those in the west.
4. When a ship is approaching the smoke is seen first, then the mast and finally
the whole ship.
5. All the planets are spherical so the earth being one of them is also spherical.
6. During the moon eclipse the earth casts a spherical shadow on the moon.
7. The earth’s horizon appears curved when observed from a very high point
like a tower.

The Movement of the Earth

 There are 2 movements of the earth namely:

1. Rotation of the earth on its axis
2. Revolution of the earth around the sun
Rotation of the Earth

 Movement/spinning of the earth on its own axis in an anticlockwise direction

(west to east).
 Rotates through 360◦.
 Takes 24 hours (day) to complete 1 rotation.

Effects of Rotation of the Earth

1. Causes day and night because at any one time one side of the earth faces
the sun (day) and the other remains in darkness (night).
2. Causes deflection of winds and ocean currents( in the north hemisphere to
the left and in the south hemisphere to the right).
3. It causes rising and falling of ocean tides.
4. It causes variation in the speed of air masses.
5. Causes time difference between meridians 150.

Calculation of Local Time

 The time recorded in places within the same longitude.

 A longitude is an imaginary line running from north to south which shows how
far east or west a place is from the prime meridian.
 Greenwich Meridian (0◦) longitude is the point of reference when calculating
time.
 Time is gained towards the east and lost towards the west.

Examples

1. Suppose the time at GWM is 12 noon what is the local time at Watamu 40 ◦E?

Solution
Time gained=40×4=160min=2 hours
40min Local time at Watamu is 12.00+2.40=14.40-1200=2.40pm.
2. At Dar-es-Salaam 40◦E time is 12pm what is the time at Ecuador 40 ◦E?
40◦+20◦=60◦
60×4=240min=4hours
Ecuator is behind in time =12.00-4=8am.
If the places are on the same side subtract the degrees to get the difference
and add or subtract from the reference time depending on which side the
place is.

Calculation of Longitude

1. What is the longitude of place x whose local time is 8 am when local time at
GWM is noon?

Solution
Time difference =12.00-8=4 hours
 Degrees=4×15=60◦
Since x is behind in time its then 60 ◦W.

Standard Time and Zones

 Standard time is time recorded by countries within the same time zone.
 Standard time was come up with due to confusion resulting from time
changing at every longitude.
 The world has 24 time zones.

The International Date Line

 It’s the 180◦ longitude, its run from north to south but avoid areas with land
masses

Effects of Crossing It
 One gains time when he crosses it from W to E and has to adjust the clock
ahead by 24 hours.
 One loses time when he crosses it from E to W and has to adjust the clock
backwards by 24 hours.

Revolution of the Earth

 Movement of the earth in its orbit around the sun.

 It’s in anticlockwise direction.
 The orbit of the earth’s revolution is elliptical.
 Takes 365¼ days in a year or 366 days in a leap year (every 4 years).
 The sun moves from the tropic of cancer to the equator and then towards
tropic of Capricorn and back to the tropic of cancer.
 21st march and 23rd September are called equinoxes because the length of
day and night is equal. The sun is vertically overhead at noon at the equator.
 21st June is called summer solstice because its summer in the N
hemisphere. The sun is vertically overhead at noon at the tropic of cancer.
 22nd December is called winter solstice because its winter in the
northern Hemisphere. The sun is vertically overhead at noon at the tropic of
Capricorn.
 Solstice is the period of maximum tilting of the earth towards the sun
Effects of the Revolution of the Earth

1. Causes the four seasons summer, autumn, winter and spring due to the
movement of overhead sun causing changes in the heat belt.
2. Causes variation of day and night’s lengths due to the earth’s axis being
inclined to the path of revolution at an angle of 60◦.
o Equinoxes have equal lengths of day and night throughout the world.
o Summers have longer days and shorter nights. Winters have longer
nights and shorter days.

3. Causes changes in the position of the midday sun at different times of the
year
4. Causes lunar eclipse due to revolution bringing the earth in line with the sun
and the moon.
NB: Equinoxes is the time of the year when the sun overhead position at noon
is over the equator hence causing equal length of day and night throughout
the world.

Latitudes and Longitudes

Latitudes

 Refers to an imaginary line which is drawn on a map running from west to

east and measured in degrees showing how north or south a place is from the
equator.

Longitudes

 Refers to an imaginary line which is drawn on a map running from north pole
to south pole and is measured in degrees east or west from the prime
meridian

Differences between Latitudes and Longitudes

1. Latitudes run from west to east while longitudes run from north to south
2. Latitudes shows how far a place is from the equator while longitudes
show how far a place is from the prime meridian
3. Latitudes are parallel to one another while longitude meet at the poles
4. The distance between latitude is even around the globe while that
between longitudes is longest at the equator and decreases pole wards.
Structure of the Earth
The structure of the earth consist of a series of layers both internal and
external, these layers includes

Internal Structure of the Earth

The evidence used to study the earth’s interior are

1. mining
2. drilling
3. quarrying/excavation

A. Crust/Lithosphere

 Outermost layer of the earth

 Made of soils and other loose deposits of sand
 The dominant rocks are granites.
 Extends from 16-24 km thick but where mountains occurs it can have a
thickness of 70km.
 Has 2 layers; continental crust and oceanic crust.

1. Sial

 Also called continental crust

  Made of light colored rocks
 Called sial because it’s made up of silica and aluminum.
 It is lighter( having a density of 2.7 grams/cc) this makes it float on the
oceanic crust.

2. Sima

 Also called oceanic crust

 Mainly made of basaltic rocks which are brittle.
 Called sima because it is made of silica and magnesium.
 It has a density of 2.8-3.0gm/cc
 It is thin ranging from 6km-10km in thickness.

Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho)

 A definite zone of discontinuity between the crust and the mantle.

 Was discovered by Dr. Andrija Mohorovicic in 1909.

B. The Mantle/Asthenosphere

 On average its about 2900km thick

 Its composed of silicate rocks rich in iron and magnesium.(olivine)
 It has an average density of 3.0-3.3gm/cc
 Its divided into two layers namely; upper mantle and lower mantle

Upper mantle

 Rocks are more elastic than those of sima.

 Temperature is about 1000◦c.

Lower mantle

 Rocks are like very viscous liquid.

 Temperature ranges between 1000◦c to 3000◦c.

Gutenberg Discontinuity

 A definite zone of discontinuity between mantle and core

C. Core/Barysphere/Centrosphere

 Its has a radius of 3470km

 Its divided into two layers namely; inner core and outer core.

Outer Core
 Its has an average density of 12.0gm/cc
 Composed of hot molten rocks
 Made up of nickel and iron
  Temperatures are up to 3700◦c.

Inner Core

 A solid mass of iron

 Its has a density of 16 -17gm/cc.
 Temperatures are estimated to be 3700◦c to 5500◦c.

Why the Interior of Earth Is Very Hot

a. Due radio-active decay causing most of the heating. The decay of the radio-
active material causes explosion occasionally releasing a lot of heat through
nuclear fission
b. Due to great pressure as a result of overlying crustal materials, this intense
pressure generates a lot of heat inside the earth.
c. The earth stills retains the original heat which it had before its started
cooling, during cooling the outer parts cool faster than the interior trapping
the original heat inside it

External Structure of the Earth

A. The Atmosphere

 It’s a layer of transparent and odourless gases held to the earth by its
gravitational pull.
 The earth revolves with it because its held onto it by gravity
 It’s about 330km thick.

Composition of the Atmosphere

 Gases-exist as a mixture
 Smoke particles
 Dust particles
 Water vapour

The Structure of the Atmosphere

 It’s divided into 4 layers/zones namely: troposphere, stratosphere,

mesosphere and thermosphere.

Troposphere
 Lowest layer of the atmosphere

characteristics
 Contains most of the atmospheric water vapour or clouds
 Extends 8km at the poles and 13km at the equator
 Temperature decreases with increase in altitude at a rate of 6.50 c per 1000m
(normal lapse rate)
 Pressure falls with increase in height
 The speed of wind increases with increase in height
 Contains dust particles
 There is a zone of transition between troposphere and stratosphere
called tropopause,
 In these zone there is no change in temperature with increase in height,
hence experiences zero lapse rate

Stratosphere

 Extends from the tropopause to a height of 30km

characteristics
 The temperature increases with increasing altitude , this is called the
negative lapse rate, the temperature increase is caused by the concentration
of ozone gas
 Has ozone layer which absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation.
 Winds are light in the lower but increase with height.
 The atmospheric pressure continues to fall as the air is dry
 Air is calm so it’s used by passenger jets
 Limited amounts of water vapour

There is a zone of transition between stratosphere and mesosphere

called stratopause.

Mesosphere

 Extends from 50-80 km

Characteristics

 Temperature decreases with increasing altitude, this is called positive lapse

rate, the decrease in temperature is because there is no water vapour or
ozone gases to absorb the incoming terrestrial radiation
 Its has the lowest temperature ranging -900c
 Has very strong winds that at times reaches 3000km/hr

There is a zone of transition between mesosphere and thermosphere

called mesopause .which is an inversion layer.

Thermosphere

 Extends from 90-120km

characteristcs
  High radiation is present.
 Temperature rapidly increases with height, this is due to the over
concentration of atomic oxygen which absorb incoming ultra-violet radiation
 Temperature reaches to a high of over 15000c
 The pressure is very low.
 Gases and molecules in this layer exist as ions due to high radiation.

Note:
 Thermosphere has no definite top but merges gradually into the outermost
part of the atmosphere called exosphere.
 Exosphere consists of rare gases like hydrogen and helium.
 Beyond the atmosphere there is the outer space.
 Outer space is the universe beyond the atmosphere in which other planets
and stars exist.

Composition of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is composed of the following gases

1. Nitrogen 78%
2. Oxygen 20%
3. Water vapour 1%
4. Argon 0.94%
5. Carbon dioxide 0.03%
6. Inert gases such as neon, krypton and xenon are found in traces
(negligible percentages)

Significance of the Atmosphere

a. Animals and plants breathe in from it oxygen for respiration.

b. Plants use carbon dioxide from it for photosynthesis.
c. Water vapour in the atmosphere condenses to form clouds which give us rain.
d. Ozone layer in the stratosphere shields us from ultraviolet radiation which
may cause cancers.
e. Carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere cause global warming
through the green house effect.

B. The Hydrosphere

 Part of the earth’s surface covered by water masses e.g. oceans, seas, lakes,
rivers and even underground water. It comprises 73% of the earth’s surface
area.
 The lower atmosphere, hydrosphere and the upper part of the earths crust
are called biosphere meaning the sphere of the earth in which organic liofe
exists.
 Statistical Methods
 Introduction
 Significance of Statistics
 Types of Statistical Data
o Primary Data
o Secondary/Derived Data
 Nature of Statistical Data
 Sources of Statistical Data
 Methods of Collecting Data (Statistical Techniques)
 Methods of Recording Data
 Analysis of Data - Examining the Numerical Figures in Detail
o Techniques of Analysing Data
 Graphs
o Steps of Drawing a Graph
o What a Well Drawn Graph Should Have
o Simple Line Graph
o Simple Bar Graph/Histogram
o Combined Line and Bar Graph

Introduction
Statistics - numerical figures collected systematically and arranged for a
particular purpose.
Statistical data - information presented inform of numbers e.g

 No. of students in a school

 Mean daily temperature of a place
 Amount of milk produced daily from a farm 4. Amount of money earned from
exports annually.

Statistical methods - techniques of collecting, recording, analysing, presenting

and interpreting statistical data.
Significance of Statistics

 Illustrates relationship between 2 or more varying quantities e.g. beans

production and acreage under cultivation.
 Summarises geographical information which saves time and space.
 Makes comparison between components e.g. province with the
highest number of people.
 Prediction of future trends of weather and climate.
 Prediction of natural disasters e.g. droughts and floods.
 Planning for provision of social amenities e.g. hospitals and schools.

Types of Statistical Data

Primary Data

3. First hand or original information from the field e.g.

a. Mean daily temperature from a weather station
b. Enumeration/census

Secondary/Derived Data

 2nd hand information available in stored sources compiled by other

researchers e.g.
a. Textbooks
b. Reference books
c. Maps
d. Video/audio tapes
e. Textbooks
f. Newspapers
g. Magazines
h. Census reports
i. Slides

Nature of Statistical Data

10.Discrete Data - Which is given in whole numbers e.g. 16 elephants, 1093

tonnes of wheat
11.Continuous Data -Facts and figures which can take any value e.g.
1. Fractions e.g.23 ¼
2. Decimals e.g. 6.20 mm
3. Values within range e.g. 0-30◦c
 12.Grouped Data -Which is non precise/exact but values range in groups e.g.

Age Number of boys

group
15-19 32

20-24 8

Sources of Statistical Data

9. Primary Sources
- People or places which have 1st hand or original information.
The information can be collected by observation, measuring,
counting, photographing etc.

Advantages
1. Give first hand information
2. The information cant be got from other sources
10.Secondary sources
-Materials in which information collected by others was stored e.g. text
books, reference books, etc.

Methods of Collecting Data (Statistical Techniques)

 Observation
-Use of eyes to observe features or weather then information is recorded
immediately e.g. cloud cover, rocks, soil, land forms, vegetation, etc.

Advantages

 Gives 1st hand information which is reliable.

 Relevant material to the study is collected.
 Time saving since one doesn’t have to look for data in many places.

Disadvantages

o Data on past activities isn’t available.

o May be hindered by weather conditions e.g. mist and dust storms.
o Ineffective for people with visual disabilities.
 o Tiresome and expensive as it involves a lot of travelling because
physicalpresence is required.

 Interviewing
-Gathering information from people by direct discussions then answers
are recorded. It may be face to face or on a telephone. A questionnaire
prepared in advance is used.

Guidelines

 One should be polite

 Warm and friendly
 Respondents/ interviewees should be assured information
is confidential.
 Respondent should not be interrupted when answering questions.
 They should not be given clues but answers should come from them.

Advantages

 Reliable first hand information is collected.

 Interviewer can seek clarification incase of ambiguity of answers.
 Can be used on illiterate.
 Interviewer can gauge the accuracy of responses.

Disadvantages

 Time consuming since one person can be handled at a time.

 Expensive and tiresome as extensive travelling is required to meet
the respondents.
 May encounter language barrier if the respondent doesn’t speak the
same language as the interviewer.
 A respondent may lie, exaggerate or distort facts leading to collection
of wrong information.
 Administering questionnaires
-Set of systematically structured questions printed on paper used on
interviews or sent to respondents to fill answers.

Types
 Open-ended questionnaire-in which respondent is given a chance to
express his views. The disadvantage is that different answers are given
which are difficult to analyse.
 Closed-ended (rigid) questionnaire-in which respondents are given
answers to choose from.
 Characteristics of a good questionnaire

 Short
 Uses simple language
 Systematically arranged from simple to difficult
 Clear questions
 Doesn’t touch on respondent’s privacy

Advantages

 Comparisons can be made since questions are similar.

 First hand information which is relevant to current trends and situation
is collected.
 Saves money on travelling as physical presence isn’t required.
 Saves time as all respondents are handled at the same time.
 A lot of information can be collected.

Disadvantages

 Difficult analysis due to different answers.

 Some questionnaires may be sent back while blank by lazy
respondents.
 Can’t be used on illiterate respondents.
 Some respondents may write wrong information.
 Content analysis
- Technique of collecting data from secondary sources.
- This is by reading, watching films, viewing photographs and listening to get
what is relevant.

Advantages
 Easy to get data if analysed.
 Cheap as there isn’t extensive travelling
 Saves time as all information is in one place.
 Possible to get old data

Disadvantages

 Difficult to verify accuracy of data

 Data may be irrelevant to current trends
 Up to date data may not be readily available
 Measuring
-Determining distances, areas, height or depth using instruments and
recording.
- Distance can be estimated by pacing or taking steps of equal and unknown
length.
 Collecting Samples
-Getting a small part e.g. of soil, rock or vegetation to represent the whole to
be used to carry out tests in the laboratory.
 Counting/census taking -Arithmetical counting and recording.
 Photographing -Capturing on film or video and still photographs.
 Digging
-Using tools such as hoe pick axe, spade or soil auger to get samples of soil
and rocks.
 Feeling and touching
-Using fingers to feel the surfaces of soils and rocks to get their textures.
 sampling
-Examining by taking a sample -a part representing the whole (population).

Types of Sampling

o Random Sampling
-Selection of members of a group haphazardly where every item has an
equal chance of being selected e.g. to select 5 students to go for a tour
from a class:
• Class members write their names on pieces of paper
• They are folded and put in a basket
• The basket is shaken and fives papers are taken out
o Systematic Sampling
-Selection of members of a sample from an evenly distributed
phenomena at regular intervals e.g. after every 10 items/members.
o Stratified sampling
-Selection of members of a sample by breaking the population into
homogenous groups e.g. to select 6 students to go for a tour:
• Break the class into boys and girls
• Select 3 student from each group by random or systematic sampling
Combine units from each group to form the required sample.
o Cluster Sampling
-Selection of sample by dividing the sample into clusters with similar
characteristics then a sample is taken from each cluster and
representative choices from each cluster are combined to form a
sample e.g. to sample the housing cost an estate is chosen
to represent each group and representative choices are chosen from
each estate and combined to form a sample.

Advantages
 It’s less expensive
  It saves time
 It avoids bias

Disadvantages

 A poor selected sample can lead to misleading information

 Systematic sampling to an evenly distributed population

 Experimentation
–Conducting a test or investigation to provide evidence for or against a
theory e.g. to determine the chemical composition of rocks and soils.

Advantages

o First hand data is obtained

o Gives accurate results if properly conducted.
o It can lead to further discoveries

Disadvantages

o May be expensive as it involves use of expensive equipment.

o May be time consuming
o Use of defective instruments may lead to inaccurate results
o Improper handling of equipment and chemicals may lead to accidents

Methods of Recording Data

-Methods off storing information to avoid losing it.

 Note Taking
- Writing in a note book what is being observed, answers during interviews
and then notes are compiled in school or office when writing report.
 Filling In Questionnaires
- Filling answers in questionnaires which are responses from a respondent by
an interviewer or respondent himself which he/she then sends back.
 Tallying
- Making 4 vertical or slanting strokes and the 5th across the 4 to record data
obtained by counting or measuring similar items.
 Tabulation
- Drawing of tables and filling in data systematically e.g. weather recording
sheets.

Month J F M A M J J A S O N D

Temp(◦c) 24 24 23 22 19 17 17 18 19 20 22 23

Rainfall(mm) 109 122 130 76 52 34 28 38 70 108 121 120

 Field Sketching
- Summarising information observed in the field by making a rough drawing
of landscape and labelling the essential information.

 Mapping/Drawing Maps
- Drawing of a rough map of an area of study and labelling in words or
symbols accompanied by key.

 Tape Recording
- Recording image of an object or landscape on a film which is processed to
get a photograph then the photographs are labelled to avoid mix up during
storage.

 Labelling samples
- Recording conversations during interviews on audio tapes using a tape
recorder.
- Permission should be got from the respondent to record his/her responses.
Advantages
o It’s used if responses are too many to be recorded on a note book.
o It allows smooth flow of discussion as asking respondents to repeat
answers would irritate them.
Analysis of Data - Examining the Numerical Figures in Detail
Techniques of Analysing Data

 Calculation of Percentages
-If in the study of a farm 10 hectares are devoted to coffee, what is the % of
the area under coffee?
10
/100×10%
The table below shows the number of tourists who visited Kenya from various
parts of the world in 2006.

No of tourists per year

Place of origin
2005 2006

Europe 942000 965000

Africa 120000 154000
Asia 97000 128000

Total 1159000 1247000

o Calculate percentage increase of tourists from Africa between 2005

and 2006.
 Measures of Central Tendency
-Outstanding general characteristics of the data.

o Arithmetic Mean
-The average

Advantages
 Easy to calculate for a small data
 Summarises data using a single digit
 Easy to understand and interpret

Disadvantages
Difficult to calculate for grouped data Affected by extreme values

o Median
-The middle value in a set of data arranged in order. M= (N+1)/
2

(I) 20, 50, 90, 100, 150, 180, 200, 220, 240, 300, 360.
(II) 20, 50, 90, 100, 150, 180, 200, 220, 240, 300.
 Advantages
 Easy to calculate in a small data set
 Easy tounderstand as it’s the value at the middle

Disadvantages

 Difficult to calculate in a large data set

 Doesn’t show data distribution
o Calculation of Ranges
-Difference between the largest and smallest values. Calculate the
range of for the data above.
o Mode
-Most frequently recurring value in a set of data.
10, 2, 5, 9, 10, 11, 20, 15, 18, 10.
The mode is 10.

Advantages
 Easy to find as no calculation is involved
 Easy to understand

Disadvantage

 Rarely used as a measure of central tendency

Graphs

 2 dimensional drawings which show relationships between 2 types of data

representing two items also called variables.
 These are dependent variable which is affected by the other e.g. temperature
(on y axis) and independent variable whose change is not affected by the
other e.g. altitude (on x axis).

Steps of Drawing a Graph

 Draw x and y axis.

 Choose suitable scale to accommodate the highest and lowest value.
 Plot the values accurately using faint dots.
 Join the dots using curved line. If it’s a bar graph the dots should be at the
middle of the top line. Years should also be at the middle. You should have
also decided on the width of the bars.
  In data without continuity e.g. crop production there should be gaps between
bars and for one with continuity e.g. rainfall bars should not have gaps.
 Draw vertical lines on either side of the dot then draw horizontal line to join
them with the dot.
 Shade uniformly if they are representing only one type of data and differently
if representing one type of data.
 In combined line and bar graph temperature figures are plotted on the right
hand side of y-axis while rainfall on the left
 Don’t start exactly at zero.
 Include temperature and rainfall scales.
 Start where the longest bar ends.

What a Well Drawn Graph Should Have

3. Title
4. Scale/scales
5. Labelled and marked x and y axis starting at zero.
6. Key if required e.g. in comparative bar graph.
7. Accurately plotted and lines, curves or bars properly drawn.

Simple Line Graph

Advantages

4. Easy to construct
5. Easy to interpret
6. Easy to read/estimate exact values.
7. Shows trend or movement overtime.

Disadvantages

 Doesn’t give a clear impression on the quantity of data.

 May give false impression on the quantity especially when there was no
production.
 Poor choice of vertical scale may exaggerate fluctuations in values.
 Difficult to find exact values by interpolation.

Simple Bar Graph/Histogram

Advantages

 Easy to construct.
 Easy to interpret.
 Easy to read.
 Gives a clear visual impression on the quantity of data.

Disadvantages
 4. Poor choice of vertical scale may cause exaggeration of bars.
5. Doesn’t show continuity/ variation of data overtime.
6. Unsuitable technique when values exist in continuity.
7. Not possible to obtain intermediate values from the graph.

Combined Line and Bar Graph

Advantages

8. Easy to construct.
9. Easy to read.
10.It shows relationship between two sets of data.

Disadvantages

 Difficult to choose suitable scale when values of variables differ by great

magnitude.
 Considerable variation of data represented by the line may cause the line the
bars thus obscuring the relationship.
 Doesn’t show relationship between the same sets of data of more than one
place.

Temperature and Rainfall for Thika

Month J F M A MJ J A S O N D

Temp(◦c) 24 24 23 22 19 17 17 18 19 20 22 23

12 12
Rainfall(mm) 109 130 76 52 34 28 38 70 108 120
2 1

Analysis and Interpretation

 The month with heaviest rainfall is May.

 The month with lowest rainfall is July.
 The hottest month was January and February.
 The months with lowest temperature were June and July.

Crop Production in Kenya in the Years 2001 and 2002

crop Amount in metric tonnes

2001 2002

Tea 300,000 500,000

Coffe
120,000 80,000
e

wheat 120,000 150,000

Maize 250,000 400,000

Value of export Crops from Kenya (ksh million)

Crop 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

2412 3306
Tea 32971 35150 34485
6 5

1685 1202
Coffee 12817 11707 7460
6 9

1375 1764
Horticulture 14938 21216 19846
2 1

6. If the data has large figures e.g. 195262 plot in 1000s=195, 184,988=185.
7. You can draw comparative/group/multiple line and bar graphs from the data.

Weather
 Introduction
 Elements of Weather
 Factors Influencing Weather
o Temperature
o Humidity
o Precipitation
o Atmospheric Pressure
o Mist and Fog
o Clouds
 World distribution of Pressure Zones and the Planetary Wind
System/World Prevailing Winds
o The Equatorial Low Pressure Zone (ITCZ-low)
o High Pressure Zone
o The Temperate Low Pressure Zone
o The Polar High Pressure Zone
 The Worlds Prevailing Winds
 Air Masses
o Characteristics of Air Masses
o Types of Air Masses
  Pressure Systems in the World
 Local Winds
o Sea Breeze
o Land Breeze
o Anabatic winds (Valley Breeze)
o Katabatic/Descending Winds
o Harmattan Winds
o Fohn Winds (Alps)
o Factors influencing Wind Flow (Speed and direction)
 A Weather Station
o Factors to Be Taken Into Account When Sitting a Weather
Station
o Instruments for Measuring Elements of Weather
o The Stevenson Screen
 Recording and Calculating Weather Conditions
o Temperature
o Rainfall
o Sunshine
o Humidity
o Wind
o Atmospheric Pressure
o Evaporation
o Cloud Cover
 Weather Forecasting
o Methods of Weather Forecasting
o Significance/Importance of Weather Forecasting
o Factors Hindering Weather Forecasting

Introduction

 Daily atmospheric conditions of a place at a particular time.

Elements of Weather

 Temperature
 Humidity precipitation
 Precipitation
 Atmospheric pressure
 Wind
 Sunshine
 Cloud cover
Factors Influencing Weather
Temperature

4. It is the degree of sensible heat within the atmosphere,the suns energy

is transmitted inform of short waves rays in a process called insulation or
solar radiation

Factors Determining the Amount of Solar Radiation Reaching the Earth Surfaces

 The intensity of the sun radiation in the space, and the average distance from
the sun
 The transparency of the atmosphere. If there are many particles in the
atmosphere like dust,ice,crowns etc, they will absorb scatter and reflect the
sun rays making less radiation to reach the earth surface
 The position of the earth on its orbits which produces different seasons
 The angle of the surface on which the sun rays fall
 The area and nature of the surface on which the rays fall

Ways in Which the Atmosphere is Heated

13.Radiation
14.Conduction
15.Convection
Radiation
1. This is the way bodies emit heat in form of electro magnetic waves
2. Radiation travels in waves that are very small and are transmitted from
one place to another without the help of any medium.
3. The earth emits heat by long wave radiation called terestial
radiation while the sun through by short waves radiation called solar
radiation

Terrestrial radiation Solar radiation

- Waves invisible
- waves visible
- Long waves
- short waves radiation
radiation

16.
Conduction
1. Is the transfer of heat energy through motion from one molecule to
another Air in the atmosphere is heated by direct contact with the
earth, then its heat the one above
 Convection

2. Air si heated by the earth and become less dense

3. The heated air then rises to higher level transferring heat with it
4. The colder dense air above the surface descends down to replace the
warm rising air
5. The colder air on reaching the surface,in turn becomes heated and
rises
6. The movement of lighter air upwards and dense air downward is
called convectional currents

Factors Influencing Temperature

11.Altitude
1. Height above sea level.
2. Temperature decreases with increase in height due to air at higher
altitude being thinner and hence there is less particles e.g. gases, dust,
smoke and water vapour to store heat so its rapidly lost to the outer
space.
12.Latitude
1. Distance from the equator.
2. Temperature decreases with increase in latitude.
3. Places neat equator experience high temperature due to the rays of
the sun travelling a shorter distance facing less interference from
atmospheric conditions hence more solar energy reaches the earths
surface. Also the rays of the sun strike the earth at right angles hence
solar energy is concentrated over a small area.
4. At higher latitudes the rays of the sun travel a longer distance facing
more interference from atmospheric conditions hence less solar energy
reaches the earth’s surface. Also the rays of the sun strike the earth at
an acute angle hence solar energy is spread over a large area.
13.Aspect
1. Direction of slope in relation to rain bearing winds or sunshine
2. At higher latitudes slopes facing the equator have higher temperature
because they face the sun while those facing the poles have lower
temperature have lower temperature because they face away from the
sun.
14.Winds
1. Transfer heat from one place to another.
2. When they blow from cool areas they take the cooling effect to the
areas they blow over and when they blow from warm areas they take
warming influence to the places they blow over.
15.Distance from a Large Water Body
1. Areas near a large water body experience lower temperature during
the hot season and higher temperature during the cool season due to
 sea breezes, warm and cold ocean currents and wind blowing over
water which could be either warmer or cooler than the adjacent land.
16.Cloud Cover
1. Clouds reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the surface by
absorbing, scattering and reflecting solar radiation.
2. When there are clear skies during the day the temperature is higher
due to the earth receiving maximum solar insolation.
3. During clear nights there are very low temperatures due to a lot of
terrestrial radiation being lost to the outer space.
4. Cloudy nights on the other hand are warmer due to clouds radiating to
the earth heat absorbed during the day.
17.Length of Day
1. The longer the period of solar insolation the greater the quantity of
radiation a place receives and hence the more the heat that will be
generated by the earth and vice versa.

Humidity

 Is the condition of the atmosphere with references to its water vapour

content

Absolute Humidity

 Actual amount of water vapour a given volume of air can hold. It’s expressed
in g/m3.

Relative Humidity

 Ratio between the absolute humidity and the maximum amount of water the
air can hold expressed in a percentage.

Factors Influencing Humidity

 Temperature
o Places with high temperature experience high humidity due to high
evaporation and air having high capacity to hold moisture.
o Places with low temperature have low humidity due to low evaporation
and air having low capacity to hold moisture.
 Source of Moisture
o Areas near water bodies e.g. Kisumu and Mombasa experience high
humidity due to evaporation of water from the water body.
o Places near thick vegetation also have high humidity due to
evapotranspiration.
o Areas far away from water bodies such as the middle of deserts have
low humidity.
o Areas receiving heavy rainfall also have high humidity.
  Air Pressure
o There is high humidity at low altitudes because high pressure
compresses air warming it increasing its capacity to hold moisture and
also causes high evaporation.
o There is low pressure at high altitudes because air expands and cools
thus reducing its capacity to hold moisture.
 Latitude
o Low latitudes experience high humidity due to high temperatures
resulting into high rates of evaporation and air having high capacity to
hold moisture.
o High latitudes experience low humidity due to low temperatures
resulting into low rates of evaporation and air having low capacity to
hold moisture.

Significance of Humidity/Moisture

 Affects rain formation in such as way that places with high humidity are likely
to experience higher rainfall than those with low humidity.
 Regulates the heat loss from the earth’s surface by absorbing terrestrial
radiation (process in which the earth gives off heat into the atmosphere).
 It affects sensible temperature in that the higher the humidity the more we
experience sensible temperature.

Precipitation

 The forms in which the earth’s surface receives moisture.

Snow

 Solid precipitation formed when tiny water droplets freeze and form ice
crystals.
 The crystals may fuse to form flakes.

Sleet

 Precipitation which is a mixture of rain and snow.

Hail

 Roughly spherical lumps of ice formed when super cooled cloud droplets
mould themselves around ice crystals before cooling. It destroys crops life
and house roofs.
Dew

8. Precipitation consisting of water droplets formed on cold surfaces at night

e.g. iron roofs and glass blades.

How It’s Formed

 In a clear night there is a high ground radiation.
 Temperature of the earth’s surface fall below dew point (temperature
at which air being cooled becomes saturated).
 Excess water condenses on cold surfaces.

Rain

8. Precipitation consisting of water drops/droplets formed when tiny water

droplets merge around particles of matter and become heavy and fall down
to the earth.

Condensation
 Turning of water vapour into tiny water droplets as cooling continues
below dew point.
 The droplets join to form clouds.

Causes of Condensation
1. Adiabatic cooling-cooling of moist air as it rises vertically.
2. Orographic cooling-cooling of moist air as it climbs a hill or
mountain.
3. Frontal cooling-cooling of warm air mass when it blows towards a
cold air mass.
4. Advection cooling-cooling as a result of moist air moving over a
cool land or sea

How Condensation Takes Place/Cloud Formation

 Moist air rises to the condensation level (altitude where

temperature is below dew point.
 It’s cooled below dew point.
 Tiny water droplets condense around tiny particles such as dust,
smoke particles and pollen grains and salt particles
(condensation nuclei). The droplets merge and eventually
become bigger and fall as rain. If moisture rises to an altitude
where temperature is below 0◦c the condensed water droplets
freeze forming ice particles or super cooled water (water which
has remained in a liquid state at temperatures below freezing
point due to lack of sufficient condensation nuclei.
  Super cooled cloud droplets may mould themselves around ice
crystals before freezing to form hail.

Types of Rainfall
 Relief/Orographic/Mountain rainfall
- Rain experienced on the windward slopes of mountains or hills formed when
moist air is forced to rise over a mountain or a hill.

How it Forms
o Moist air is forced to rise over a hill or mountain.
o The temperature and air pressure decreases making it to expand.
o Air cools due to decreased temperature and decreased pressure
causing it to expand.
o Moisture condenses forming tiny water droplets (clouds).
o The tiny water droplets in clouds merge and become too heavy to be
suspended in air and fall as rain
o Air proceeds to the leeward side with low moisture content.
o Since its heavier due to being cool it descends over that side and gets
warmed making it to hold onto the little moisture it had causing that
side to receive low rainfall (rain shadow).
 Convectional Rainfall
- Type of rainfall common near large water bodies formed as a result of
convective rising and cooling of moist air. It’s accompanied by thunderstorms.

How it Forms
o Ground or water body is heated causing evaporation.
o There is convective rising and cooling of moist air.
o Condensation takes place forming tiny water droplets (clouds).
 o The droplets merge and fall as rain.
o The cooled dry air descends to the surface where its heated and its
capacity to hold moisture is increased.
o The process is repeated.
 Frontal/Cyclonic Rainfall
- Type of rainfall common in mid-latitudes formed when warm air blows
towards a cold area or when warm air mass meets with a cold air mass.
- It’s accompanied by cyclones (violent winds).

How it Forms
o Warm moist air mass meets with a cold air mass.
o The warm air is forced to rise as it’s less dense.
o It cools as it rises at the line of contact with cold air.
o The moisture condenses forming clouds resulting in frontal rain.

Factors Influencing Rainfall Types and Amounts

8. Relief/Topography
1. Relief features such as mountains and hills results in the rising and
cooling of moist winds to form relief rainfall.
9. Aspect
1. Windward slopes which are on the path of rain bearing winds receive
heavier rainfall than leeward slopes which face away.
10.Forests and Water Bodies
1. Areas near forests and large water bodies experience higher rainfall
and more often due to high rate of evaporation.
11.Air pressure
1. High pressure areas receive low rainfall than low pressure areas due to
pushing of air masses from high pressure to low pressure. The high
pressure areas have descending dry air.
12.Air masses
1. When warm and cold air masses meet frontal rainfall is formed.
13.Ocean Currents
1. It influences rainfall whereby coasts washed by warm ocean currents
experience heavy rainfall when moist onshore winds are warmed by
the current and made to hold on to moisture which they release on
reaching the land.
 2. The coasts washed by cold ocean currents on the other hand
experience low rainfall as a result of moist winds being cooled and
moisture in them condensed resulting in rain falling over the ocean
thereby bringing little or no rain to the coastal areas. This is the cause
of western margin deserts e.g. Kalahari and Namib deserts.

Atmospheric Pressure
Factors Influencing Atmospheric Pressure

11.Altitude
1. Pressure decreases with increase in altitude because the column of air
becomes shorter hence it exerts less weight.
12.Temperature
1. When air is heated it expands and exerts pressure over a large area
resulting in reduced pressure.
2. When it’s cooled it contracts and exerts pressure over a small area
resulting in increased pressure.
13.Rotation of the earth
1. Rotation pushes air masses from poles towards the equator causing air
to spread out and occupy more space causing it to expand making
pressure to decrease.
2. When air from the equator moves towards the poles it occupies less
space causing it to contract resulting into high pressure.

Mist and Fog

 Mist and fog are a mass of tiny water droplets suspended in the lower layers
of the atmosphere.
 Fog is denser than mist i.e. has more moisture.
 Both hinder visibility although fog reduces visibility to less than a kilometre.
 When fog mixes with smoke its called smog.

How They Form

1. Moist air cools below dew point.
2. Condensation takes place.
3. The resultant water droplets remain suspended in the air.

Types of Fog

o Radiation Fog
 Type formed when moist air is cooled below dew point as a
result of intense radiation on the ground at night.
o Advection Fog
  Type formed when moist air from the sea moves horizontally
over a cold surface e.g. snow covered ground.
o Orographic/Hill/Upslope Fog
 Type formed when moist air is cooled after climbing a hill or
mountain.
o Evaporation Fog
 Type formed when water vapour is added to cold air that is
already near saturation causing excess water vapour to
condense and form fog.
o Frontal Fog
 Type formed when warm moist air is cooled from below as it
rises over a cold air mass.
o Steam Fog
 Type formed when moist air passes over the surface of a much
warmer fresh water body.
 The warm water is cooled from above and condensing water
vapour forms fog.
 It appears to be steaming.
o Ice Fog
 Type formed when water vapour is converted directly into ice
crystals when temperatures are below freezing point.

Clouds

8. Are a mass of tiny droplets or ice particles formed when water vapour
condenses.

Three Cloud Forms

1. Cirroform -Thin and wispy clouds composed of ice crystals.
2. stratiform-Appear as greyish sheets covering most of the sky and are
rarely broken into units.
3. Cumuliform-Are massive rounded with a flat base and limited
horizontal extent and billow upwards to great heights.

Basic Cloud Types

4. Stratus Clouds
-Are found in layers, are flat in shape and resemble fog.
5. Nimbus Clouds
-are dark at the base and sometimes white at the sides and cause rain
and thunderstorms.
6. Cirro-cumulus
-Are white clouds consisting of white ice crystals.
 7. Nimbostratus
-A rain cloud which is dark grey and spreads over the sky in low
uniform layers.
8. Cumulus Clouds
-Clouds with a flat horizontal base, massive, rounded and less
horizontal extent.
9. Alto cumulus
-High clouds composed of ice crystals which indicate fair weather.

World distribution of Pressure Zones and the Planetary Wind

System/World Prevailing Winds

The Equatorial Low Pressure Zone (ITCZ-low)

 Found between 23½◦N and 23◦N

 Experiences high temperatures.
 A zone of low pressure and doldrums (light and intermediate winds).
 Zone where S.E and N.E Trade Winds converge.
 Associated with convectional rain and thunderstorms.
 Migrates to the N and with the apparent movement of the overhead sun. The
Sub-tropical

High Pressure Zone

3. Found within 30◦N and 30◦S.

4. A zone of high pressure.
5. A region of calm descending air.
6. Source of Trade Winds and Westeries.
7. Zone of divergence of T. Winds and Westeries.
The Temperate Low Pressure Zone

2. Found within 60◦N and 60◦S.

A Low Pressure Zone.

3. Zone of convergence of westeries and polar easteries.

The Polar High Pressure Zone

 Found over the poles 90◦N and 90◦S.

 A high pressure Zone.
 Zone of descending calm air of low temperature.
 Source of polar easteries.

The Worlds Prevailing Winds

- These are the major winds blowing over the earth frequently and consistently and
which influence the world weather.

 Trade Winds
o Blow from sub-tropical high pressure zone and blow to the equatorial
low pressure belt.
 Westeries
o Originate from sub-tropical high pressure zone and blow to the
temperate low pressure belt.
 The Polar Easteries
o Originate from polar high pressure zone and blow to temperate low
pressure zone
 Monsoon Winds
o Seasonal winds which reverse in the direction of flow.
o They blow towards the land during summer (onshore) and from the
land during winter (off shore).
o Bring heavy rains when onshore which can cause severe flooding.
o Well developed in the Indian Sun-continent, china, Japan and S.E Asia.

Air Masses

 Distinct large parcels of air moving in one direction

 Originate from areas of uniform weather and topography from where they
derive their characteristics e.g. flat areas, forests, deserts, and snow covered
areas.
Characteristics of Air Masses

5. A large volume of air.

6. Covers an extensive area.
7. Has uniform temperature and humidity.
8. Distinct from the surrounding air.
9. Retains its characteristics when it moves away.

Types of Air Masses

 Equatorial Air Mass

o Originate from equatorial oceans.
o It’s hot and unstable.
 Sub-tropical Air Mass
o Forms near sub-tropical high pressure belt.
 Polar Air Mass
o Forms near the poles or temperate low pressure zone.
o It’s cool.
 Arctic and Antarctic air Masses
o Forms over the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica respectively.
 Effect of air masses on Weather
o When warm moist air mass and cool air mass meet cyclonic rainfall is
formed e.g. tropical maritime and polar maritime.
o Cool air masses take cooling effect to the areas they move to e.g. polar
continental.
o If they are warm they take warming influence to the area they move to
e.g. tropical continental.

Pressure Systems in the World

 Cyclone
o It’s a low pressure system characterised by low pressure at the centre
and increases outwards.
o Starts in areas where air ascends from the ground to the atmosphere
and descends at high altitude.
o It’s of two types.
 Tropical cyclones e.g. hurricane, typhoon and willy willies
 Depressions which are characterised by temperate latitudes.
o The movement of wind is anticlockwise in the N. hemisphere and
clockwise in the S. hemisphere.
  Anticyclone
o A high pressure system characterised by high pressure at the centre
and decreases outwards.
o It starts in areas where air is descending from the atmosphere onto the
ground and then blows outwards on the ground.
o The movement of wind is clockwise in the N. hemisphere and
anticlockwise in the S. hemisphere.

Local Winds

5. Which occur regularly for a short period of time affecting a limited area.
6. Modify the weather of the area they blow to.
Sea Breeze
4. A light and gentle wind which blows from the sea to the adjacent land.

How it Forms
1. During the day land is heated faster than the sea.
2. Air over the land is warmed and rises.
3. Air from the sea moves to the land to replace the rising air.
4. The rising air from the land cools and descends over the sea at high
altitude.
5. Circulation continues until the pressure difference is reversed at night.

Effects on weather

6. It takes cooling effect on land on a hot afternoon.

Land Breeze
 A light and gentle wind which blows from land to the sea during the night.

How it Forms
o At night land loses heat faster than the sea.
o Air over the sea is warmed and rises.
o Air from the land moves to the sea to replace the rising air.
o Rising air from the sea descends over land at high altitude.
 o Circulation continues until pressure difference is reversed during the
day.

Effects on weather

o It causes early morning showers through moisture brought towards

land at high altitude.

Anabatic winds (Valley Breeze)

 Cool local winds which blow from the valley to the hill tops during summer
afternoons.

How it Form
o During the day hill tops are heated more than valley bottoms.
o Air over the hill tops is warmed and rises.
o Cool air over the valley move up to the hill to replace the rising air.

Effect on weather

o Cause afternoon showers on hilly grounds.

Katabatic/Descending Winds

 Cold local winds which blow from hill tops to the valley during the night.
 During the night hill tops lose heat faster than the valley
 Air over the valley is warmed and rises.
 Cool air over the hill tops move to the valley by gravity to replace the rising
air.
 Effect on Weather
o Takes chilly conditions on valley bottoms.

Harmattan Winds

d. N.E winds which originate from Sahara and blow across W. Africa between
November and March taking dry conditions there.

Fohn Winds (Alps)

 Local cold winds which slide down the leeward side of the mountain at high
speed and are warmed producing a temperature rise.
 Due to the high speed and temperature they are associated with wild fires.
 They are known as Chinook in Rocky Mountains, Santa Anas in California and
Mistral in France.

Factors influencing Wind Flow (Speed and direction)

 Pressure Gradient
 If the pressure difference between high and low pressure areas is high
the winds blow at high speed (strong) but if it’s low they blow at high
speed (are gentle).
 Distance between Places of High and Low Pressure
 if the high and low pressure areas are near each other winds blow at
high speed but if distant from each other winds blow at low speed.
 Rotation of the earth
 Rotation of the earth deflects winds to the right in the N. hemisphere
and to the left in the S. hemisphere.
 Frictional Force
 If the surface of the earth is rugged or has obstacles such as hills,
mountains, valleys or vegetation the wind is blocked causing speed
reduction and its direction of flow is also changed.
A Weather Station

 A place where observation, measuring and recording of weather elements is

done

Factors to Be Taken Into Account When Sitting a Weather Station

7. An open place where there is free flow of air.

8. A fairly level or gently sloping ground so that it’s easy to position weather
instruments.
9. The site should be free from flooding.
10.The place should have security.

Instruments for Measuring Elements of Weather

f. Thermometer-temperature
g. Hygrometer-humidity
h. Rain gauge-rainfall
i. Barometer-air pressure
j. Sunshine recorder-sunshine duration and intensity
k. Wind vane –wind direction
l. Anenometer-wind speed
m. Evaporimeter-rate and amount of evaporation

The Stevenson Screen

 A white wooden box mounted on 4 legs used to house thermometers and

hygrometers.
 The instruments which are found in it are:
 Maximum thermometer
 minimum thermometer
 Six’s thermometer
 hygrometer-wet bulb and dry bulb thermometer

Importance
  Provide shade conditions for accurate temperature recording.
 Ensure safety of thermometers because they are delicate.

Qualifications Which Make Stevenson Screen Suitable For Its Work

 Painted white for little absorption of solar heat energy.

 Made of wood which is a bad conductor of heat.
 Well ventilated to allow easier flow of air inside it.
 Raised to prevent contact with terrestrial radiation.
 Has double roof which acts as an insulator to prevent direct heating
from the sun.

Recording and Calculating Weather Conditions

Temperature

 It is the degree of sensible heat within the atmosphere.

 It’s measured using 3 types of thermometers namely:
o Maximum thermometer
o Minimum thermometer
o Six’s thermometer

Maximum Thermometer

o It’s used to measure the highest temperature reached in a day.

o It uses mercury.

How It’s Used/Works

o Temperature rises causing mercury to expand.

o Mercury pushes the index up.
o When temperature falls mercury contracts.
o The maximum temperature is read from the scale at the lower end of
the metal index.
o Thermometer is reset by shaking it to force mercury back into the bulb.

Minimum Thermometer
 o It’s used to record the lowest temperature reached in a day.
o It uses alcohol.

How it’s Used/Works

o Temperature falls causing alcohol to contract.
o Alcohol pulls the index down.
o When temperature rises alcohol expands and rises in the tube.
o The index remains where it was pulled.
o Minimum temperature reading is obtained from the scale at the lower
end of the index.

Calculating Temperature

 Diurnal/daily Temperature range

o Difference between the maximum and minimum temperature for any
one day.
 Mean Daily Temperature
o Average of the maximum and the minimum daily temperatures.
 Mean Monthly temperature
o Sum of mean daily temperatures in a month divided by the number of
days in that month.
 Mean Annual Temperature
o Sum of mean monthly temperatures divided by 12.
 Mean Annual Temperature Range
o Difference between the highest and the lowest mean monthly
temperatures in a year.

Rainfall
 Rain gauge is the instrument used to measure the amount of rainfall in a day.

How It’s Used/Works

 It’s taken to an open space to prevent water from dropping into the funnel.
 Its sunk into the ground to prevent evaporation
  The funnel top is left 30cm above the ground to prevent splashes of
water and run off.
 After 24 hours water is emptied into the measuring cylinder.
 The reading of the amount of rainfall is got from the measuring cylinder
in millimetres.
 The figure represents the millimetres of water falling on each
square millimetre of the ground.

Calculating Rainfall

1. Monthly Rainfall Total

1. Sum of rainfall recorded in a month.
2. Annual Rainfall Total
1. Obtained by adding all the total monthly rainfall for a year.
3. Mean Annual Rainfall
1. Obtain by adding total annual rainfall usually for a period of 35 years
and dividing by 35.
4. Mean Annual Rainfall
1. Sum of mean monthly rainfall for 12 months of the year.

Sunshine
1. Duration of sunshine is measured using Campbell stokes sunshine recorder.

How It Works
2. Spherical lens focuses light on sensitized paper.
3. The paper burns when the sun is shining.
4. The total hours of sunshine is got by adding all the burnt sections
from calibrations on the side of sensitized paper.
5. The sensitized paper is changed every day.

Humidity

1. Humidity is the condition of atmosphere with reference to its water content.

2. It’s measured with hygrometer or psychrometer which consists of wet and dry
bulb thermometers kept in Stevenson screen.
3. Dry bulb thermometer is a thermometer covered with muslin bag immersed
in water while dry bulb thermometer has no muslin.
 How It Works
4. When air is dry there is a lot of evaporation from the muslin.
5. Evaporation cools the bulb of thermometer resulting in a low
temperature reading.
6. When humidity is high there is little evaporation from the muslin.
7. The wet bulb thermometer is cooled at a slower rate and both
thermometers show almost the same temperature reading.
8. The difference in readings between the two thermometers is used
to determine relative humidity.

Interpretation of Hygrometer Readings

1. When the 2 readings are the same, relative humidity is 100% i.e. the
air is saturated.
2. If the difference is small, humidity is high.
3. If the difference is big, humidity is very low.

Calculating Humidity
Absolute Humidity

1. Actual amount of water vapour a given volume of air can hold. It’s expressed
in g/m3.

Relative Humidity
1. Ratio between the absolute humidity and the maximum amount of water the
air can hold expressed in a percentage.

Example

1. If the air at 20◦c contains 10g/m3 and given air can hold a maximum
of 20g/m3.calculate the relative humidity.
10×100/20=50%
Wind
Direction
1. Wind direction is determined using wind vane.

How It Works
2. As the wind blows the arrow swings.
3. The arrow points in the opposite direction of the wind flow.
4. The direction is read from the cardinal compass points.
5. The arrow will point in the direction from which the wind is blowing.
6. For instance if it points S the wind is blowing from S towards N.

Wind Sock

1. Used to indicate the general direction of wind flow.

2. Not kept in a weather station because it doesn’t give the accurate direction of
wind flow.
3. Seen near airstrips for the benefit of pilots.

How it Works
4. When wind blows the bas stretches out in the direction that the wind is
blowing.

Wind speed/Velocity
1. Measured using anemometer.

How It Work
2. When wind bows hemispherical cups rotate.
3. The number of rotations is obtained from the metre on the lower part of
the anemometer.
4. The units for measuring wind are called knots.

Atmospheric Pressure

1. The force exerted by gases in the atmosphere on some area or body on the
earths surface.
2. Measured using barometers of three types namely mercury, aneroid and
Fortin Barometers.

Mercury Barometer

How It Works

1. Air exerts pressure on the mercury in the beaker.

2. The height of mercury in the tube is proportional to the atmospheric pressure.
3. The readings are taken in mmHg.
4. Its 760mmHg at sea level

Advantage
5. Quite accurate

Disadvantage
6. Cumbersome to carry around.
7. Can be damaged quite easily while being carried around

Aneroid barometer
Measures the changes in atmospheric pressure
How it works

1. Has air tight compartment(vacuum)

2. Compartment expands when pressure decreases.
3. It collapses when pressure increases.
4. The movement is transmitted by lever to a pointer on a dial.
5. The readings are in kg/cm3.
Evaporation

1. The rate and amount of evaporation is measured using piche and tank
evaporimeters.

Piche Evaporimeter

1. When there is a lot of sunshine water evaporates from the blotting paper.
2. The level of water in the glass tube reduces.
3. The rate and amount of evaporation is got by looking at the scale on the
outside of the glass tube.
4. The units are in mm.

Tank Evaporimeter
How It Works

1. The tank with water is put in the open

2. Water evaporates when there is a lot of sunshine.
3. Water in the tank reduces.
4. The rate and amount of evaporation is got from calibrations in the inner side
of the tank in mm.

Cloud Cover

1. The amount of cloud cover is observed using eyes.

2. It’s given in oktas.
3. Okta=approximately 1/8 of sky is covered with clouds.
Weather Forecasting

1. Prediction of the conditions of the atmosphere for a given place for a certain
period.

Methods of Weather Forecasting

Traditional Methods

1. Prediction of weather based on traditional beliefs and facts.

1. Plants shedding leaves indicates period of drought.
2. Safari ants indicate it will rain.
3. Migration of butterflies also indicates it will rain.
4. Croaking of frogs during dry season indicate its going to rain. Flowering
of certain plants indicates the onset of rainfall.
5. Changes in the intensity of sunshine indicate its going to rain.

Modern Methods

1. Prediction of weather using modern instruments and new technology of

collecting, transmitting, processing and analysing weather data.

Instruments Used
1. Satellites-electronic devices which orbit the earth which collect and
transmit weather data which is interpreted by computers.
2. Radar-an instrument used to see cloud formation.
3. Sensors/radiosodes-instrument fixed on a balloon used to measure
atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity.
4. Computers-electronic device used to store, analyse and display
weather information.

Significance/Importance of Weather Forecasting

1. Helps us to be aware of natural calamities related to weather before they

occur so as to take precautionary measures.
2. Guiding tourists on when to visit national parks.
3. Helps farmers to plan their activities such as planting, harvesting, etc.
4. Ensures air and water transport is carried out safely.
5. Helps sporting people to plan their training and competition schedules.
6. Helps people to plan many other activities such as mining,
electricity generation, holiday events, etc.
7. Helps fishing communities to plan their activities.
Factors Hindering Weather Forecasting

1. Lack of skilled man power due to limited training facilities.

2. Lack of modern equipment leading to wrong forecasts.
3. Natural calamities such as storms and earthquakes.
4. Extreme weather conditions which may damage or displace instruments.
5. Use of faulty instruments.
6. Human error.
7. Poor sitting of instruments

Minerals and Rocks

 Minerals
o Characteristics of Minerals
o Types of Minerals
 Rocks
o Classification of Rocks
o Distribution of Major Rocks in Kenya
o Significance of Rocks

Minerals
- Inorganic substances occurring naturally at or below the earth’s surface.

Characteristics of Minerals

 Different degrees of hardness e.g. some are very hard e.g. diamond while
others are very soft e.g. talc.
 Some have atoms arranged in an orderly manner to form crystals e.g. quartz
form a 6- sided prism.
 Varying number of elements e.g. gold has one (Av) while quartz has 2 (SiO2).
 Different abilities to allow light to pass through e.g. some are transparent,
opaque or translucent.
 Specific colours e.g. gold is shiny yellow while copper is brown.
 Have specific surface appearance (lustre) when they reflect light i.e.
metallic (shiny) or non-metallic (glass like).
 Definite chemical composition or constant ratio of elements e.g. quartz has
one atom of silicon and two atoms of oxygen.
  Tendency to break along certain lines or cleavage) e.g. flint has cleavage like
that of glass.
 Different densities e.g. some are very heavy e.g. lead while others are light
e.g. silicate minerals.
 Some minerals conduct electricity while others don’t e.g. copper conducts
while diamond doesn’t.
 Some can be pressed into different shapes while others can’t e.g. copper
is malleable while flint isn’t.

Types of Minerals
Metallic minerals

 Ferrous Minerals-limonite, magnetite, siderite and haematite.

 Non-ferrous Minerals-copper, aluminium, gold, lead, etc.

Non-metallic Minerals-graphite, diamond, asbestos, coal, etc.

Energy minerals-petroleum, coal and uranium.

Rocks
-A consolidated material composed of grains of one or more minerals.

Classification of Rocks

5. Igneous Rocks
-Rocks formed when molten material from the earth’s interior cools and
solidifies on or beneath the earth’s surface.

Types of Igneous Rocks

a. Intrusive Igneous Rocks
-Rocks formed when magma cools and solidifies below the earth’s
surface e.g. granite, diorite, gabbro, peridotite.
-Have coarse texture as a result of slow cooling giving minerals more
time to form large crystals.
-Are classified further into two:
1. Hypabyssal rocks- intrusive igneous rocks which are near the
earth’s surface.
2. Plutonic rocks-intrusive igneous rocks which are deep below the
surface.
b. Extrusive Igneous Rocks
-Rocks formed when lava solidifies on the earth’s surface.
-Have fine texture due to fast cooling giving minerals less time to
collect together to form larger crystals.
- They are of two types namely:
 1. Volcanic Ejecta - Extrusive igneous rocks formed in the following
ways:
1. When ash and lava ejected from underground as they fall
on the earth’s surface e.g. pumice.
2. When dust and ash ejected settle on the ground and get
compressed to form a rock e.g. tuff.
2. Lava Flows
-Extrusive igneous rocks formed when basic lava flows over a
considerable distance then cools and solidifies e.g. basalt and
obsidian.
6. Sedimentary Rocks
- Rocks formed when particles of other rocks are laid down and compressed
into layers or when plant and animal remains are buried and compressed
and compacted.
- When they are laid down a layer is formed.
- As deposition continues additional layers are formed which compress the
lower layers into a hard mass.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

a. Mechanically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
-Sedimentary rocks formed when weathered igneous or metamorphic
rocks are deposited and compacted e.g. sandstone and shale.
b. Organically formed Sedimentary Rocks
-Sedimentary rocks formed when animal and plant or animal remains
are buried, compressed and compacted.

Classification of Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks

1. Calcareous rocks-rich in calcium carbonate e.g. chalk and
limestone. Coral rocks are formed from remains of sea polyps
which extract lime from the sea, build shells for protection,
attach themselves to each other and rocks to live in
colonies, then die and shells to form coral rocks.
2. Ferruginous Rocks-rich in iron e.g. ironstone.
3. Siliceous Rocks-rich in silica e.g. diatomite.
4. Carbonaceous Rocks-rich in carbon e.g. coal.
c. Chemically formed Sedimentary Rocks - Sedimentary rocks formed
when materials dissolved in water chemically react forming new
substances then water evaporated leaving layers of those salts.

Classification of Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks

1. Carbonates e.g. trona and dolomite
2. Sulphates-sulphate compounds
3. Chlorides e.g. halite (iv) Silicates e.g. flint
4. Iron stones e.g. haematite and limonite.
7. Metamorphic Rocks
-Rocks which have changed their physical appearance and chemical
properties as a result of subjection to great heat and pressure e.g.
 a. Gneiss from granite
b. Slate from clay
c. Marble from limestone
d. Quartzite from sandstones

Distribution of Major Rocks in Kenya

Eastern Kenya region

17.The major rocks are metamorphic rocks e.g. marble in parts of Machakos
and schist and gneiss in parts of Kitui.
18.Volcanic rocks in Yatta plateau and Kapiti plans.
19.Sedimentary rocks e.g. limestone rocks used in Bamburi for
cement manufacturing.

Coastal Region

18.Major rocks are sedimentary rocks e.g. limestone used in Bamburi for
cement manufacture.
19.There are volcanic rocks in Tsavo rich in ground water
resources. Northern and N.E Region Dominated by sedimentary sands.
20.There are volcanic rocks in Mt. Marsabit and around Rift Valley. Rift Valley and
Kenya Highlands
21.Dominated by volcanic rocks
22.There are metamorphic rocks which have resulted from changing of
igneous rocks.

L. Victoria Basin

 Granite and gneiss dominate Western Kenya where they form high rocky
hills called granitic tors common in Kisii, Maragoli and Bunyore areas.
 Sedimentary rocks deposited by rivers e.g. Nyando, Nzoia, Yala and Sondu.

Significance of Rocks

 Rocks weather to form soil which is important in agriculture.

 Form aquifers which store ground water which forms springs which form
rivers and wells which provide water for domestic and industrial use.
 Some rocks are sources of building materials e.g. igneous rocks are used to
make ballast and limestone rocks are used as building blocks and raw
material in cement manufacturing.
 Phosphate and nitrate rocks are used to make fertiliser used in agriculture.
 Granitic tors of W. Kenya and high volcanic peaks such as those of Mt. Kenya
are a tourist attraction which brings foreign exchange.
 Pumice is used as a scrubbing stone.
 A rock such as coal is used as fuel for heating, smelting of iron and
thermal electricity generation.
 Source of minerals e.g. oil and coal is associated with sedimentary rocks.

Mining
 Introduction
 Formations in Which Minerals Occur
 Factors Influencing Exploitation of Minerals
 Methods of Mining
 Significance of Minerals/Mining in Kenya
 Distribution of Minerals in E. Africa
 Problems Facing Mining Industry in Kenya
 Effect of Mining on the Environment
 Trona Mining on L. Magadi
o Location
o Occurrence
o Mode of Formation
o Extraction and Processing
o Uses of Soda Ash
o Benefits to the Economy
o Problems Facing Trona Mining
 Gold in S. Africa
o Processing
o Significance to the Economy of S. Africa
o Problems Facing Gold mining
 Diamond Mining in S. Africa
o Processing
o Contribution to the Economy
o Problems Facing Diamond Mining
 Petroleum in the Middle East
o Processing
o Contribution to the Economies
Introduction

 Process of extracting valuable minerals from the earths surface.

Formations in Which Minerals Occur

 Veins and Lodes

1. Occurrence of minerals in crevices, cracks or faults in igneous rocks.
2. They are said to occur in veins if they occur there in small quantities.
3. Said to occur in lodes if they occur there in large quantities e.g. zinc,
copper and silver.
 Reefs
1. Veins and lodes which are exposed on the surface.
 Seams/Layers/Beds
1. Occurrence of minerals as sedimentary or as a result of compression of
accumulated organic or inorganic material e.g. coal and halite.
 Alluvial Deposits
1. Occurrence of miner als while mixed with materials such as sand,
gravel, silt, etc.
2. These were minerals which were detached from the veins by
weathering and carried away by streams and rivers and got deposited
e.g. gold, diamond and platinum.
 Weathering Products
1. Minerals formed by deep weathering of rocks then leaching carried
minerals from the top to lower layers where they accumulated e.g.
aluminium, nickel, iron and manganese.
 Oil pools/Wells
1. Occurrence of minerals in pools or wells in sedimentary rocks e.g.
petroleum and natural gas.

Conditions Necessary for Formation of Petroleum

a. Presence of fossils or organic remains

b. Presence of sedimentary rocks for burying organic remains.
 c. Presence of pressure to compress organic remains to cook the oil and
natural gas out of organic matter.
d. Presence of a porous reservoir rock to store and transmit petroleum to
the oil pools e.g. limestone and sandstone.
e. Presence of a trap like a syncline to hold petroleum in a reservoir to
prevent its escape.
f. Presence of impermeable rocks below the trap or syncline to prevent
petroleum from percolating further underground.

Factors Influencing Exploitation of Minerals

 Value of Mineral
a. Minerals of high value will be mined even if they occur in small
quantities because one sold it will be possible to offset mining costs
and make a profit and vice versa.
 Quality of Ore
a. Mining can be done if the mineral deposits have high mineral content
because they are economical to work on but deposits with low mineral
content are rarely worked on except if the mineral in them is rare e.g.
uranium.
 Size of Deposit
a. Minerals which aren’t of high value have to occur in large quantities for
them to be mined so that it will be a possible to recover mining costs
and make a profit.
 Capital
a. Lack of capital causes developing countries not to exploit minerals and
leave it to international companies because a lot of money is needed
for exploration, infrastructure, salaries, energy etc e.g. titanium mining
at Kwale is being done by Tiomin company from Canada.
 Method of Mining
a. A mineral requiring open cast mining will be mined even if the mineral
deposit is large but one requiring underground mining will be extracted
if its in large deposit or if its of high value or rare.
 Transport costs
a. Minerals occurring in remote areas far from the markets are not likely
to be exploited if the transport system is poorly developed since
mineral ore is heavy and bulky and transporting it by road and railway
is expensive.
 Market for the Mineral
a. Mining can be done if the mineral is in demand and if the prices are
reasonable so that mining costs are offset and a profit is realised.
 Political Influence
 a. Mineral deposits at the borders of two countries may not be exploited
as a dispute may arise concerning whom mine it e.g. dispute between
Iraq and Kuwait over Rumaila should oil field.
 Labour
a. Exploitation of some minerals require skilled workers and if they lack it
may not be done as is the case in developing countries because
expatriates have to be engaged and are very expensive to pay which
may reduces the profits accruing from mining.

Methods of Mining

20.Open Cast Mining

-Method of extracting minerals which are near the earth’s surface.

Types
1. Stripping
-Stripping off of the unwanted material lying on top of the mineral
deposit and then digging to remove the mineral bearing rock if it’s soft
or if it’s hard explosives may be used to loosen it and then huge power
shovels are employed to dig up the mineral deposits.
2. Hill-slope Boring
-Using boring instruments known as augers to drill out mineral deposit
and bring it to the surface.
21.Underground Mining
-Method employed when the mineral lies very deep below the surface and
the overburden is too thick to be removed by mechanical means.

Types
1. Shaft Method
-Method employed when the mineral bearing rock doesn’t out crop.

How it’s carried Out

1. Vertical shafts are sunk into the earth’s crust to reach the layer
with the mineral.
 2. Horizontal tunnels are dug from the vertical shaft to reach the
mineral.
3. Props are erected to support the roof to prevent it from
collapsing.
4. The mineral bearing rock is blasted loose by explosives.
5. The deposit is transported on light rail or conveyor belt to the
bottom of the shaft.
6. It is then brought to the surface in a crane or a lift called cage.
2. Drift/Adit Mining
1. Method employed when the mineral deposit can be reached
from the valley sides.
2. Horizontal tunnels (adits) are constructed from the side of the
hill.
3. Railway line is constructed into the mine to bring out the mineral
e.g. mining of copper at Kilembe in Uganda.
3. Solution Method
1. Method used in mining soluble minerals such as sulphur, salt,
potash, etc.
2. Superheated water is ejected into salt deposits.
3. The mineral dissolves or melts.
4. The solution is then pumped into the surface.
4. Drilling
1. Method employed in exploitation of petroleum.
2. Wells (oil derricks) are drilled.
3. Oil and natural gas are brought to the surface under their own
pressure or by pumping.
22.Alluvial/Placer Mining
-Method used to extract minerals occurring in alluvial deposits e.g. gold, tin,
diamonds and platinum.

Types
1. Panning
- It involves:
1. Digging a mixture of sand, gravel and mineral from the river
bed.
2. Putting it in a pan and rotating the pan while tilted.
3. The lighter sand or gravel is washed on the side leaving the
heavier mineral at the bottom of the pan e.g. gold mining in
Migori and R. Morun Beds in W. Pokot.
2. Dredging
1. A dredger scoops water logged alluvium from the bed of a lake.
2. The alluvium is passed over sloping channels with series of
traps.
3. Wastes are washed away and denser materials are left at the
bottom of the trap e.g. mining of soda ash at L. Magadi.
3. Hydraulic Mining
1. Method used when alluvial deposit occurs on a valley side.
 2. A powerful jet of water is directed at the deposit
3. Gravel and mineral collect at the valley because of the great
pressure.
4. The mineral grains are recovered and washed out.
4. Sub-marine Mining
1. Method employed in extracting minerals in alluvial deposits lying
deep down the ocean floor.
2. A sub-marine dredger goes down the ocean floor.
3. It scoops mineral deposit and rises to the surface.
4. The alluvium is passed over sloping channels with series of
traps.
5. Wastes are washed away and denser materials are left at the
bottom of the trap.

Significance of Minerals/Mining in Kenya

23.Kenya earns foreign exchange from exportation of minerals which is used

to import goods and services and fund development projects.
24.Mining is a source of employment to people such as those who work in
mines, in cement factories, in transport sector, etc.
25.Mining has led to development of industries by providing raw materials used
in those industries e.g. limestone used in cement factories, coal used in iron
and steel industries, soda ash used in glass industry, etc.
26.Mining has led to development of transport system to make mining
areas accessible e.g. Magadi soda mine is connected to the main Mombasa-
Nairobi railway line.
27.Mining has led to development of settlements e.g. Magadi town which
originated from the mining of soda ash.
28.Mining is a source of market for goods and services e.g. there are shops
and markets, banking and insurance services offered to people working in
mines and related industries.
29.Has led to development of social amenities by providing social facilities such
as housing, health, electricity, water and education alongside infrastructure.

Distribution of Minerals in E. Africa

 Phosphates used in the manufacture of fertiliser-Tororo in Uganda and

Majingu Hill in Tanzania.
  Limestone used in cement manufacturing-Hima in N.W Uganda, Tanga in
Tanzania, Athi River and Bamburi in Kenya.
 Fluorspar a source of fluorine used in chemical industries-Kerio Valley in
Kenya.
 Common salt used for consumption-Kilifi and Magadi in Kenya and L. Kitwe
in Uganda.
 Diatomite used in making insulators –Kariandusi near Gilgil and Gicheru
in Nyandarua.
 Stones in Machakos, Mutonga and Mbeere.
 Carbon dioxide used in making dry ice and in beer and soft drinks industry-
Esagari in Baringo and Kagwe in Kiambu.
 Diamond used to make ornaments, glass cutters and drills-Mwadui in
Tanzania.
 Titanium used in the manufacture of insulators for aircraft- Kwale district.
 Gemstones near Voi and Mwatate.
 Soapstone used for sculpture-Tabaka in Kisii.
 Copper used to make electrical wires and coins-Kilembe in Uganda.
 Gold used to make medals and jewellery and as a basis of world currency-
Musoma in Tanzania, Kakamega and Migori in Kenya.
 Coal used in smelting of iron and generation of thermal electricity-in Ruvuma
River Basin and Kivira Songwe in Tanzania.

Problems Facing Mining Industry in Kenya

 Inadequate capital making Kenya not to benefit from mineral resources

because mining is left to multinational companies who pocket all the money
to recover mining cost.
 Areas where mineral deposits are inaccessible due to poor transport
and infrastructure which makes prospecting and mining difficult.
 Insufficient skilled personnel causing dependence on expatriates who are
expensive to pay which reduces profits accruing from mining.
 Most of mining is controlled by foreign companies so most of the mineral
revenue ends up to them as salaries and dividends.
 Occurrence of minerals in very small deposits which are not economically
viable.
 Lack of power supply especially in remote areas with minerals.
 Land use conflicts which affect mining e.g. in Kwale between Tiomin and the
local people due to inadequate compensation.
Effect of Mining on the Environment

 Renders land useless for other economic activities such as

agriculture (dereliction) due to open pits left on land and heaps of rock waste
litter dumped on land.
 Pollutes the environment e.g. atmospheric pollution from dust and smoke
from tractors and trucks, water pollution from spilling of oil from offshore oil
drilling and soil pollution from chemicals and explosives used in mining.
 Leads to loss of bio-diversity due to destruction vegetation which also
destroys habitats of various animals leading to their destruction also.
 Causes soil degradation e.g. by loosening the soil which makes it vulnerable
to agents of erosion like wind and water, tractors and trucks compact the
soil making water infiltration difficult and chemicals used interfering with
soil chemical composition making it unsuitable for agriculture.
 Causes mass wasting when explosives and heavy equipment used in
mining shake the ground making weathered materials to move faster down
slope under the influence of gravity.

Trona Mining on L. Magadi

Location
- L.Magadi is 120km S.W of Nairobi on the floor of the Great Rift Valley.

Occurrence
- Trona deposits occur as a solution of sodium salts the main ones being
sodium sequicarbonate and sodium chloride.

Mode of Formation

 Rain water dissolves soda salts in volcanic rocks.

 The solution percolates through the rocks and soil and gets beneath the
basin.
 The accumulated solution is heated by the hot rocks beneath.
 Pressure builds up and the heated solution is pushed to the surface.
 It comes out of the ground inform of hot springs below or on the sides of
the lake.
 Due to high temperature water evaporates leaving behind crystals of trona.

Extraction and Processing

 A dredger scoops trona out of the lake.

 It crushes it into smaller pieces and separates it from rock debris.
 The material is mixed with water to form slurry and transported to factory
on the lake’s shore.
  In the factory the slurry is mixed with water to wash out impurities such as
mud and salt and dried.
 It is sent to desiccators and heated to remove moisture and hydrogen to
form soda ash.
 Soda ash is cooled and ground into powder and sieved.
 It’s packed into paper bags, weighed and transported to the market.

Uses of Soda Ash

- Used in the:

 Glass industry in the manufacture of glasses and bottles.

 Manufacture of soaps and detergents.
 Softening water in paper making.
 In textile industry.
 In oil refining.

Benefits to the Economy

 Has led to growth of Magadi town ship.

 Has led to development of social amenities such as hospitals and schools and
water from Oloibortoto River which has benefited the local people.
 Has led to development of infrastructure e.g. railway line from Konza to L.
Magadi.
 The Magadi Soda Company employs many Kenyans including the nomadic
Maasai.
 Exports of soda ash earn Kenya a substantial amount of foreign exchange.

Problems Facing Trona Mining

 Stiff competition from developed countries with large soda deposits e.g. U.S.A
and Israel.
 Low value of salt is insufficient to meet its production cost.
 High labour costs due to incentives given so that workers agree to work in
the hostile environment of L. Magadi.

Gold in S. Africa

 Gold occurs as small grains in a hard rock.

 It’s mined by shaft mining since its bearing rocks are deep below the surface.
 The main mining area is the Witwatersrand and others are Ogendaalrus and
lydenburg.
Processing

9. Ore is crushed to a fine powdery dust.

10.Mixed with water until it is fluid mud.
11.Cyanide is added to dissolve gold.
12.The fluid is runoff with gold dissolved leaving behind waste salts.
13.Zinc dust is added to filter gold for solidification.
14.Gold sinks as it is denser.
15.Gold is smelted and cast into ingots.

Significance to the Economy of S. Africa

9. Earns the country foreign exchange used for paying foreign debts.
10.Offers employment to many people raising their living standards.
11.Has led to widespread urbanisation contributing to formation of
Witwatersrand conurbation.
12.Has formed a broad market for other industries e.g. engineering, foot
wear, electrical and construction industries.
13.Has led to improvement of infrastructure and social amenities e.g. roads,
schools, hospitals, etc.
14.Led to development of agriculture.

Problems Facing Gold Mining

 Expensive to mine for lying deeply.

 Large capital is required to start mines.
 Complication of mining by folds and faults in the crust.
 Low gold content in the ore.
 Problem of removal of underground water.
 Lack of adequate supply of fresh water on the surface in mining areas.
 Accidents resulting from collapsing of mine roofs.

Diamond Mining in S. Africa

 Diamond is the hardest known substance.

 Mined in Kimberly, Bloemfontein and Alexander Bay. -
 Mined by underground mining or alluvial mining.

Processing

14.Diamond bearing kimberlite is crushed Crushed rock is mixed with water

15.Diamond sinks to the bottom as it’s denser
 16.Water and less dense residue are drained off
17.Remaining material is put on heavily greased trays and washed
18.Diamond repels water so it sticks to grease while remnants are drained off
19.Diamonds are then sorted out and graded into gem diamonds and industrial
type (for cutting purposes).

Contribution to the Economy

14.Provides employment to thousands of people

15.Earns the country substantial foreign exchange
16.Has led to growth of urban centres e.g. Pretoria and Kimberly.
17.Has contributed to development of infrastructure

Problems Facing Diamond Mining

 Fluctuation in the world market prices

 High cost of mining and processing diamond
 Depletion of mines
 Low mineral in the ore making mining expensive
 abour competition with other sectors e.g. manufacturing and gold mining

Petroleum in the Middle East

 Oil is a thick black sticky liquid called crude oil

 It was formed from small creatures that lived in shallow lagoons about
100200m ago.
 Decaying remains of those creatures mixed with mud at the bottom as
sediments
 The sediments piled on each other and slowly transformed into
sedimentary rocks
 Gradually the remains were converted into oil and gas.
 Major oil producers in the Middle East are Saudi Arabia with the largest
reserves, Iraq, Kuwait and United Arab Emirates.
 Middle East accounts for 64% of world oil reserves.
 There are several giant oil fields in Ghawar in Saudi Arabia and Kirkuk in Iraq.

Processing

9. Crude oil is processed by refining using a technique called fractional

distillation.
10.The process takes place near as possible to the market as it’s cheaper to
transport crude oil than the different refined products.
 11.It’s processed into secondary products such as petrol, paraffin, lubricating
oils, dyes, fertilisers and plastics.
12.Impurities are removed from the crude oil
13.Crude oil is heated before entering fluctionating column
14.It’s turned into vapour or gas
15.Different ingredients turn back to liquid at different temperatures.
16.Ingredients gradually cool, condense and collect in various trays and allowed
to overflow until they reach an outlet.

Contribution to the Economies

 Arab’s investments overseas have increased due to oil reserves.

 High income per capita due to oil profits.
 Has led to development of cities e.g. Tripoli in Libya.
 Investment of oil money in other sectors e.g. power stations, cement
factories and exploitation of other minerals.
 Earns the countries substantial foreign exchange
 Increased political and military power.
 Artesian water is made available for domestic and irrigation purposes e.g. in
Libya.
 Oil companies help in fixing down the sand dunes and planting trees in the
deserts.

Fieldwork
 Introduction
 Types of Field Work
 Importance of Field Work
 Field Work Procedure (Steps Followed)
 Follow Up Activities
 Problems Encountered in Field work
Introduction
-Scientific study of geography using the environment as a laboratory or source
of information.

Types of Field Work

 Field Excursion
-Visiting an area near or far from the school to see geographical phenomena
then note down and discuss later in class.

Aim

o Reinforce what has been learnt in class

o Gain more geographical knowledge
o Identify and appreciate geographical features
o Identify problems of geographical interest
 Field Research
-Systematic problem solving done by experts in which scientific methods of
collecting, recording and analysing data are used.
 Field Study
-Study conducted within a neighbourhood in which one theme is pursued e.g.
‘A study of a local farm’.

Importance of Field Work

 Reinforces what has been learnt in class.

 Enables one to gain more geographical knowledge.
 It breaks the monotony of classroom work.
 It provides learner with practical skills of collecting, recording and
analysing data and report writing.
 Gives students an opportunity to go out and practise what they have learnt
in class.
 Enables students to familiarise themselves with the environment and develop
a positive attitude towards it.
 Enables students to develop a positive attitude towards manual work.
 Promotes development of virtues like cooperation by working in groups.
Field Work Procedure (Steps Followed)

8. Identification of Topic/Theme
- Reason why you want to carry out field study e.g. ‘A study of rocks around
the school’
9. Identification of the Area of Study
- Determining the area to be used for study.
- Should be chosen carefully to ensure that the field study is successful.

Conditions It Should Meet

a. Should contain sufficient information

b. Should be within a convenience distance to reduce expenses
10.Statement of Objectives
- Stating aims of carrying the field study.
- Act as guidelines to activities to be undertaken during field work.
- They should be simple, brief, testable and achievable. E.g. for the topic ‘A
study of a local farm’ objectives could be stated as follows:

b. To find out methods of farming in a local farm To identify the

cattle breeds in the farm
c. To investigate the problems facing the farm.

11.Formulation of Hypotheses
-Assumptions set before field work whose validity or acceptance is to be
proved.

Types of Hypotheses

5. Null Hypothesis (Ho)

-One stated in negative form e.g. ‘There is no relationship between
rainfall and crop yield’.
6. Alternative/Substantive hypothesis (H1)
-One stated positively e.g. ‘most foodstuffs sold in the neighbourhood
don’t come from the immediate neighbourhood’.
- Quantitative words should be used e.g. more, most, majority. It should
not be obvious.

12.Preparation of the Field Study

- It involves:
a. Seek Permission from Relevant Authorities
- Seeking permission from school and authority in the area you are
visiting.
- It is important to:
1. To avoid being denied permission to enter there
 2. Enables individuals to set early the suitable date and time of
visit
3. Helps to arrange for a guide to conduct you around
b. Conduct Reconnaissance (Pre-Visit)
-A familiarisation tour of the intended area of study.
- It is important to:
1. To determine appropriate routes to be taken
2. Enables to get documents from officials
3. Helps one to identify the appropriate methods of data collection
4. Helps to identify appropriate equipment to be used
c. Hold Discussion In Class
- Looking through formulated objectives and hypotheses.
- It’s important to:
1. Determine their suitability
2. Make adjustments
3. Decide upon data recording methods
d. Preparation of a Questionnaire
-Important where the interviewer is not able to be with respondents for
a long time.
e. Dividing Into Groups
1. To ease congestion in the area of study
2. To create order during field work
3. To reduce fatigue among participants
4. To help participants collect data within the time given
f. Preparation for Documents
1. Topographical maps to show the routes you will follow
2. Tables for filling in information
3. Permission documents
g. Reading Through Relevant Books
- Reading about the topic and the area of study
- Important in that it helps participants to know:
1. The kind of data they need to collect
2. The techniques to be employed in the field.
h. Preparation of a Work Schedule
- A timetable to be followed on the day of field study.
- It is important to:
1. Indicate the specific time when each activity should take place
2. Reduce time wastage by ensuring proper time management
3. Ensure all important areas are covered and none is forgotten
4. Provide an estimate of total time required for study
i. Selection of Important Tools and Equipment
-Tapemeasure and rulers for measuring, pencils for drawing sketch
maps, notebooks for writing notes, polythene bag for sorting and
carrying samples, cameras for taking photographs, geological hammer
getting rock samples and hoe for digging to get soil samples, etc.
 13.Carrying Out the Field Study
-Setting off to go to the area of study to look for data where techniques of
collecting and recording data are applied.

Follow Up Activities
- After data is collected and recorded it’s summarised in the following ways:

30.Discussing the findings in class giving reports through group leaders

31.Writing reports in essay form
32.Calculation of percentages, means, medians and modes
33.Laboratory testing of samples
34.Presentation of data using methods such as graphs, pie charts, etc.

Problems Encountered in Field work

 Language Barrier
-Inability to communicate due to the interviewer and the respondent not
sharing the same language or respondents may be illiterate and thus unable
to fill questionnaire.
- The problems are:
 Data may not be collected
 lliterate people may give wrong answers while attempting
questionnaires
 An interpreter may have to be engages who would be paid which
would raise costs.
 Answers may be distorted by the interpreter
 Hostility
- Those being approached to give answers may become harsh due to
feeling that their time is being wasted which would cause the field study to
be unsuccessful.
 Dishonest Respondents
-Respondents giving wrong information due to suspicion fear of shame or
superstition.
 Bad Weather
- Raining heavily making it impossible to proceed with data collection
and difficulty in movement.
- Becoming very hot making participants uncomfortable and thus unable
to proceed with data collection smoothly.
- Becoming misty or foggy causing invisibility problems.
  Accidents in the Field
- One may fall and get inured when walking on rugged areas.
- Injuries may result when using tools to get samples by cutting using pangas
or knives and digging using hoes.
 Attacks by Wild Animals
-Participants may encounter wild animals when carrying out the study in
bushy areas e.g. snakes which may bite them, rhinos which may charge at
them, etc.
 Inaccessibility
-physical barriers such as swamps, rivers without bridges, steep slopes and
thick vegetation may hinder participants from reaching areas with vital
information.

Maps and Map Work

 Definition
 Types of Maps
 Uses of Maps
 Marginal Information
 Map Scales
o Types of Scales
o Conversion of Scales
o Arranging Scales in Order
o Uses of Scales

Definition
- Map - representation of the whole or part of the earth’s surface drawn to scale.

 Shows outline of objects on the ground

 Drawn as if the drawer was above the ground
 It shows details
 Most of the features are indicated by symbols.
- Picture: image of a real object.

 Gives details in their visible shapes and sizes

 Can be inform of free hand, drawing, painting or a photograph
 Not drawn to scale

- Plan: outline of something drawn to scale.

14.Also drawn as if a person was directly above the ground

15.It represents a very small place
16.The scale is large to show details e.g. house plan
17.Gives specific information

Types of Maps

 Classified according to the purpose for which each map is drawn.

a. Topographical Maps: This shows selected natural physical features on a
small portion of a country.
b. Atlas maps: this is a collection of maps in one volume.
c. Sketch maps: maps which are roughly drawn. A good sketch map
should have the following characteristics:
 neat and clear
 title
 frame
 key
 compass direction

Uses of Maps

23.Sketch maps are used to summarise information for easy reference.

24.Used for locating other countries.
25.Used for comparing sizes of countries.
26.For locating climatic regions of different parts of the world.
27.Give information on distribution of geographical phenomena e.g. vegetation
on the earth’s surface.
28.Help travellers to find their way.
29.Used to calculate distance of a certain place.
30.Used to locate physical features like landforms.
Marginal Information
- Information contained in the area surrounding the map.

35.Map name e.g. Yimbo.

36.Sheet title e.g. East Africa 1:50000 (Kenya).
37.grid system numbers
38.latitudes and longitudes
39.Compass direction with grid, true and magnetic north.
40.scales
41.key
42.publisher and copyright
43.Map identification
1. Map series
2. Sheet number or sheet index
3. Sizes of Scales

Map Scales

 A scale is a ratio of a distance on a map to a corresponding distance on the

ground.

Types of Scales

 Statement scale –expressed in words e.g. 1cm represents 1km, 1cm to 1km.
 Representative Fraction (RF)-expressed as a fraction or ratio e.g. 1/200,000 or
1:200,000.
 Linear scale-shown by a line which is subdivided into smaller units.

Conversion of Scales
Statement Scale into RF
1cm rep 1km to RF

 Multiply the number of kilometres by 100,000 (1km=100,000cm) i.e.

1×100000=100,000.
 Statement scale is 1/100,000 or 1:100,000.

2cm rep 1km

 Divide both sides by two to get 1cm rep ½ kilometres.

 Multiply ½ by 100,000 to get 50,000.
 RF is 1/50,000 or 1:50,000.

RF to Statement Scale

 Divide the denominator by 100,000.

 Write the scale in statement form.
Linear Scale to Statement Scale
 Measure a unit distance off a linear scale e.g.

 The distance is 4-3=1km which is represented by 2cm.

 Use the methods in (1) and (2) above.

Q. Given that the ground distance is 200km while the distance on map is
20cm calculate the scale.

Sizes of Scales

 Small scales- show a large area of land on a small size of paper. They show
limited details e.g. 1:250,000, 1:500,000, 1:1,000,000.
 Medium scales- used to represent a relatively smaller area on a given size of
paper e.g. 1:50,000, 1:100,000, 1:125,000.
 Large scales-used to represent a small area of land on a given piece of paper.
They show a lot of details e.g. 1:2,500, 1:10,000, 1:25000

Arranging Scales in Order

 Ascending Order-smallest to largest

 Descending Order-largest to smallest
(1)1/500,000
(3)1:25,000
(4)1/10,000
(2)1cm rep 500m

Uses of Scales

16.Estimating distances on maps

17.Measuring distances accurately-use dividers and ruler, piece of string or
thread for curved distances or straight edge of paper.
E.g. calculate actual distance of a line 8.5cm long on a map using the
following scales.
(i) 2cm rep 1km
(ii) 1:100,000
 18.Calculation of areas-no. of full grid squares+ number of ½grid squares/2 or
use of rectangles (l×b) or triangles (½ b×h).

Internal Land Forming/Endogenetic Processes

 Definition
 Crustal Earth Movements
o Horizontal Earth Movements
o Vertical Earth Movements
o Causes of Earth Movements
o Theories Explaining the Earths Movements
 Folding
o Parts of a Fold
o Types of Folds
o Resultant Features Due To Folding
o Significance of Folding
 Faulting
o Parts of a Fault
o Types of Faults
o Features Resulting From Faulting
o Major Faulted Areas of the World
o Significance of Faulting
 Vulcanicity
o Causes of Vulcanicity
o Types of Vulcanicity
o Features Resulting From Vulcanicity
o World Distribution of Volcanoes
o Significance of Vulcanicity
 Earthquakes
o Causes of Earthquakes
o Measurement of Earthquakes
o World Distribution of Earthquakes
o Effects of Earthquakes

Definition

 Processes operating in the interior of the earth resulting in the formation of

natural physical features or landforms.
 They are caused by earth movements.
 Examples of these processes are folding, faulting and Vulcanicity.
 Formation of land forms by internal land forming processes is determined by:
 o Nature and age of earth materials
o Type of movement involved
o Intensity and scale of movement involved

Crustal Earth Movements

 Displacement of the earth’s crustal rocks.

 They are brought about by:
o Tectonic forces which originate and operate in the interior of the earth
e.g. tensional forces (which operate along horizontal plane moving
away from each other),
o Compressional forces (which operate along horizontal plane moving
towards each other),
o Shear forces (which move past each other with unequal strength) and
o Gravitational forces (which attracts things to the earth’s centre).
 Earth movements are of 2 types:

1. Horizontal/lateral/orogenic movements
2. Vertical/epeirogenic movements

Horizontal Earth Movements

 Movements which act along a horizontal plane within crustal rocks.

 They are caused by tensional and compressional and shear forces.

Effects
- They cause:

 Strain and stretching of crustal rocks due to stretching caused by tensional

forces which cause formation of cracks or faults.
 Squeezing and shortening of crustal by compressional forces rocks which
cause them which also cause formation of faults.
 Crustal rocks to shear by slipping past each other or by dividing into layers
which is caused by shear forces.

Results of Horizontal Earth Movements

 Results in the formation of the following features:

1. Faults
2. Rift valleys
3. Fold mountains
4. Escarpments
5. Basins
6. Tilt blocks
7. Block mountains
Vertical Earth Movements

 Movements which occur along the earth’s radius or towards the earth’s
surface or towards its centre.

Effects
- Causes:

 Subsiding/sinking/downwarping or pulling of crustal rocks downwards.

 Uplifting/upwarping or pushing of crustal rocks upwards
 Tilting of crustal rocks or shearing in vertical direction due to greater uplift on
one side.

Results of Vertical Earth Movements

1. Raised cliffs
2. Tilt blocks
3. Rift valleys
4. Fault scarps/escarpments
5. Plateaus
6. basins

Causes of Earth Movements

 Magma movement within the earth’s crust.

 Gravitational force
 Convectional currents in the mantle
 Isostatic adjustment

Magma Movement within the Earth’s Crust

 When magma moves with force pushing crustal rocks horizontally or

vertically.
 When magma moves from reservoir and leaves empty spaces onto which
crustal rocks are pulled inwards.

Gravitational Force

 When the attractive force of the earth pulls crustal rocks into empty spaces
left after magma escaping from the reservoir.
Convectional Currents within Mantle

 When convectional currents in magma in mantle drug crustal rocks by

friction.
 Horizontal movement of currents cause horizontal movements while vertical
cause vertical movements.

Isostatic Adjustment

 Rising of continental masses to restore the upset state of balance between

sial and sima layers.
 Isostacy is the state of balance between sial and sima layers.
 It can be disturbed by erosion on continents and melting of continental ice
sheets.
 The reduced weight causes continental masses to rise.

Theories Explaining the Earths Movements

 A theory is reasoned ideas intended to explain facts or ideas.

 There are 2 theories which explain the earth’s movements namely
1. The Continental Drift Theory and
2. The Plate tectonics theory.

A. Theory of Continental Drift

 Its proponent was A. Wegener.

 It explains the origin of 6 continents.
 It states:
o The earth was a single sialic land mass called Pangaea surrounded by
a huge ocean called Panthalasa whose floor was a mass of sima.
o Pangaea broke into two parts called Laurasia (N. Hemisphere) which
lay around equator and Gondwanaland (S. Hemisphere) which lay
around south pole which were separated by a narrow ocean
called Tethys (the present Mediterranean Sea).
o Laurasia broke into Laurentian Shield and Fennoscandia (Europe, Asia
and N. America) and moved northwards to their present positions.
o Gondwanaland broke into Africa, Australia, S. America and Antarctica
and India subcontinent.
o Africa and India drifted northwards.

Evidences Supporting the Theory

 1. Fitting of western coast of Africa and S. America into a jigsaw.
2. Discovery of coal 40◦N and 55◦N which was formed by burying of tropical
vegetation.
3. Considerable displacement of rocks along some faults e.g. along the Great
Glen Fault of Scotland.
4. Cape and Buenos Aires folds resemble one another by having east west
trend.
5. Red sea shores show evidence of having undergone lateral displacement an
indication that it was formed by movement of the earth’s crust.
6. Evidence of ancient Glaciation to the south of equator in Africa in Madagascar
and India where there is presence of ancient glacial deposits suggesting
these areas were once around South Pole.

B. Plate Tectonics Theory

- It states that:

 The earth’s crust is made of blocks called plates.

7 Large Ones

1. Eurasian plate
2. Australian plate
3. Africa plate
4. Antarctic plate
5. American plate
6. American plate
7. Pacific plate

Smaller Ones

1. Indian
2. Arabian
3. Caribbean
4. Cocos
5. Somali plates
6. Juan de Fuca
7. Nazca
8. Philippine
9. Scotia

 These plates are two types : tectonic plates:

1. Oceanic plates which form major areas of the ocean floor including
coastal lowland.
2. Continental plates which form the bulk of the continental land mass.
 The plates float on molten mantle layer called
 The plates move relative to each other due to convectional currents in the
mantle.
 They move away from each other
forming extension or constructive boundary called so because magma
 fills the space between.

 They move towards each other

forming compressional or destructive boundary called so because
materials between are crushed. The movements of those two types of plates
have the following effects:
I. When two oceanic plates meet

 There is subduction and the ocean floor is pulled inwards forming a trench
e.g. Java Trench .Subduction is the passing of edge of one plate beneath the
edge of another.
 Sediments on the sea floor in the region of subduction are compressed to
form Fold Mountains.

II. When an oceanic plate meets a continental plate the edge of the
oceanic plate slides beneath the continental plate in a movement called
subduction.
 Sediments on the sea floor in the region of subduction are compressed to
form Fold Mountains.
 Fold Mountains are also formed at the edge of the continent when the sial
layer is compressed.
 The edge of the oceanic plate bends into the mantle forming a trench.

III. When two continental plates collide the sial layer is folded into
 mountains.

 They move past each other

forming transform or conservative boundary called so because there is
neither construction nor destruction which occurs where the plates are
separated by a major fault.

Significance of Plate Movements

1. Are sources of earthquakes and Vulcanicity.

2. Causes formation of land forms such as Fold Mountains and ocean trenches.
3. Spectacular landscapes formed are a tourist attraction.
4. Eruption of magma can result in formation of valuable minerals.

Folding

 Process in which crustal rocks are distorted by compressional forces by being

caused to bend upwards and downwards.
 It occurs on fairly young sedimentary rocks.
Parts of a Fold

 Anticlines (upfolds)-parts of the earth’s surface which bend upwards when

folding occurs.
 Synclines (down folds)-Parts of the earth’s surface which bend downwards
when folding occurs.
 Crest-upper most part of Anticline.
 Trough-lowest part of a syncline
 Limp-rock layers sloping on both sides of a fold
 Axis-imaginary line drawn vertically through the centre of the anticline.

Types of Folds
1. Simple Symmetrical Folds

o Which are symmetrical about the anticline.

o Formed by 2 compressional forces of equal magnitude.

2. Asymmetrical Folds
o Which are asymmetrical about the anticlines axis or in which one limp
is steeper than the other.
o Formed by two compressional forces of unequal magnitude in which
one is stronger than the other.

3. Over Folds
 o In which anticline of one fold is pushed over the limp of the other.

4. Isoclinal Folds

o Which are packed closely together and with limps almost parallel to
each other.
o Vertical Isoclinal folds are formed by compressional forces of equal
magnitude while inclined Isoclinal folds are formed by forces of
unequal magnitude.

5. Recumbent Folds

o Which lie in a horizontal manner.

o Formed by two compressional forces one of which is very strong.

6. Nappe/Overthrust Fold

o In which one limp is pushed over the other limp.

o The forces are very strong and they cause a fracture/fault to develop.
7. Anticlinorium and Synclinorium Complex

o Folds characterised by minor upfolds and minor downfolds.

o Land is first subjected to weak compressional forces resulting into
minor folds.
 o Later the land is subjected to much greater compressional forces
resulting into new upfolds with minor folds (Anticlinorium) and new
down folds with minor folds (Synclinorium).

Resultant Features Due To Folding

1. Fold Mountains and Their Distribution

- Worlds highest and most impressive mountains and the most conspicuous
feature of folding.
 Himalayas-Asia
 Everest-Nepal-Tibet border-highest point.
 Andes-Peru in S. America
 Alps-South Central Europe
 Rockies-W.N. America
 Atlas-N.W. Africa.
 Appalachian-E.N. America

Theories of Origin of Fold Mountains

h. Contraction Theory
- During the earth’s formation surface rocks cooled faster and wrinkled to
form Fold Mountains.
i. Convectional Currents Theory
- Horizontal convectional currents in the mantle exerted frictional pull
on crustal rocks.
- Continental crusts were pulled towards each other.
- Sediments between them were squeezed into folds.
j. Continental Drift Theory
- During break of Gondwanaland India drifted northwards and collided
with Eurasia.
- Sediments between were squeezed to form fold mountains e.g.
Himalayas and Everest.
k. Plate Tectonics Theory
- When an oceanic plate meets another or it meets a continental plate
the sediments under the sea are compressed to form Fold Mountains.
- When two continental plates meet the sial layer is compressed to
form fold mountains
- E.g. Alps was formed when Africa plate pushed against the rigid
European plate.
2. Escarpments

 A relatively continuous line of steep slopes facing the same direction.

 Formed one compressional force causes folding resulting in one steep
limp of the anticline which forms the escarpment.

3. Depressions

 Formed when not very strong forces cause folding causing some parts
of the earth’s surface to form synclines forming basins.

4. Ridges and Valleys

 When folding occurs anticlines form uplands/ridges/hills while synclines

form valleys.

5. Rolling Plains

 Plains which appear to rise and roll.

 Formed when plains are acted upon by weak compressional forces
resulting into gently sloping anticlines and very wide synclines.
 6. Inter-montane Plateaus

 A high fairly level land between mountains.

 Formed when rocks at the edges of a region become intensely folded
and the middle parts resist folding resulting into mountains which
enclose a high fairly level land.

7. Inter-montane basins
 Formed when some parts of inter-montane plateau sink more to form
basins.

Significance of Folding
To Human Activities/Economic significance
Positive/Advantages

1. Fold Mountains are a tourist attraction which brings foreign exchange.

2. Fold Mountains are water catchment areas and sources of rivers.
3. Some fold mountains have valuable mineral deposits such as coal and
petroleum.
4. Fold Mountains act as protective barriers during war.
5. Some fold mountains on the path of rain bearing rainfall influence rainfall
causing the windward slopes to receive heavier rainfall.
6. Folding can lead to formation of valuable minerals due to metamorphism.
7. Folding brings valuable minerals to the surface making them easily available.

Negative/Disadvantages

1. Fold Mountains on the path of rain winds cause the leeward slopes to receive
less rainfall.
2. Fold Mountains discourage settlement due to cold temperatures and rugged
terrain
3. Folding can lead to burying of minerals.
4. Fold Mountains are a barrier to road and railway where there are no passes
and where there are passes they may be covered by snow. Orographic fog
hinders pilot’s visibility.

To Physical Environment

1. Folding can result in submerged coastal zones which are used as harbours.
2. Can lead to metamorphism of rocks changing their original state and making
them more resistant to erosion.
 3. Depressions formed by folding turn into wet land important for water
purification.
4. Folding leads to faulting and magma may escape through faults leading to
Vulcanicity and earth quakes.

Faulting

 Faulting is the cracking/fracturing of the brittle crustal rocks due to tectonic

forces.
 Faults are fractures or cracks that develop in the crust.
o When tensional forces cause crustal rocks to stretch and fracture at the
region of maximum tension.
o When compressional causes squeezing of crustal rocks to fracture at
the areas where they are intensely squeezed.
o When vertical movements exert pressure on rocks leading to
fracturing.
o When shear forces cause crustal rocks to tear.

Parts of a Fault

1. Upthrow-part of the land displaced upwards.

2. Down-throw-part of the land displaced downwards.
3. Throw-vertical displacement.
4. Heave-horizontal displacement
5. Hade-inclination of fault to vertical plane
6. Fault line-fault path
7. Fault plane-separation of land created by the fault

Types of Faults
Normal Faults
- Type formed by tensional forces in which one block slides downwards in
relation to the other.
  Rocks are subjected to tensional forces

 A normal fault develops

 One block slides downwards.

Reverse Fault
- Type formed by compressional forces in which one block of land is pushed
upwards in relation to the other.

 Rocks are subjected to compressional forces.

  A reverse fault develops.

 One block is pushed over the other.

Shear/Tear Fault

- Type formed by shear forces in which adjacent blocks of land slide past one
another.

- If a shear fault occurs between continents it’s called a Transform

fault e.g. San Andrean fault of California and great glen fault of Scotland.

Thrust Faults
- Type formed when very strong compressional forces cause almost
horizontal faults to develop and one block of land is pushed over the other.

Anticlinal fault

- Type formed when anticlines are compressed further and cracks form on
the crest.

Features Resulting From Faulting

Fault Scarp/Escarpment

 Steep line of slopes formed by vertical movement of earth along a fault e.g.
Mau, Nguruman, Nyandarua and Nandi.
 Are exposed parts of a fault plane.
 It may be formed due to normal faulting or reverse faulting when
overhanging blocks are eroded.

Fault Steps
- Land resembling the staircase or steps of a house with a series of fault
scarps at different levels.

 Parallel vertical faults develop.

 Land between the faults is unequally displaced downwards.
 A series of fault scarps at different levels is formed.

- E.g. Keiyo escarpment and at Kijabe.

Fault Blocks/Block/Horst Mountains
Fault Blocks

- Blocks of land raised above the surrounding land.

 Where tectonic forces cause faulting and land on one side of the fault get
raised or sink along the fault planes.
 Examples of fault blocks are Aberdare/Nyandarua ranges, Mau escarpment
and Nandi Hills.

Horst Mountains

 Where Blocks of land bordered by normal faults which are almost parallel to
each other sink leaving the middle block standing.
 Examples of horsts are Ruwenzori of W. Uganda and Usambara and Pare
mountains of Tanzania.

Tilt Blocks
-Fault blocks which are inclined on one side.

 Occurs when the fault block, horst or fault steps have greater uplift on one
side and as a result they are not flat at the top but tilted. The resultant
features are tilted fault blocks, tilted horst and tilt fault steps which form
ridges and fault guided valleys.

Rift Valley
- A long narrow trough with steep escarpments on both sides.

Theories of Formation

1. Tensional Theory
  Rocks are subjected to tensional forces.

 Normal faults which are almost parallel develop.

 One block slides downwards forming the rift valley.

2. Compressional Theory

 Rocks are subjected to compressional forces.

 Reverse fault which are almost parallel develop.

 The side blocks are pushed over the middle block.

  Overhanging blocks are worn out by denudation to form escarpments

3. Anticlinal Theory

- Suggests the rift valley was formed by Anticlinal arching.

 Upward forces pushed sedimentary rock strata upwards.

 The rock layers bent into a big arch.
 A gaping/huge crack developed at the crest of the arch due to tension
forming the rift valley.

The Great Rift Valley/The Great E.A Rift Valley

- The world’s biggest rift valley.

- It starts in Syria and ends in Mozambique.

- It’s divided into 4 parts.

1. Ethiopian Rift system-starts from Afar in Ethiopia to the Kenyan border around
L. Stephanie.
2. Gregory Rift system-Starts from the northern border of Kenya with Ethiopia to
Tanzania. It has a small N.E-S.W branches:
o Kano Rift valley in Kenya
o Eyasi Rift Valley in Tanzania
3. Western Rift valley-Starts at Sudan border to south of L. Rukwa. Features
which are here are Ruwenzori Mountain and Lakes Albert, Edward, Kivu,
Tanganyika and Rukwa.
4. Malawi Rift valley-a continuation of Gregory Rift system to Zambezi River in
Mozambique. It has a small N.E-S.W branch called Luangwa valley.

The Gregory Rift Valley

  Named after a geologist called Gregory J.W who carried out extensive studies
in this area.
 It’s where the Rift Valley features are more pronounced.

Features associated with it

 Fault blocks-Aberdare range, Mau, Nandi and Cherangani hills.

 Step faults-Kijabe and Tambach
 Tilt blocks-Aberdare range uplifted and tilted eastwards and Mau escarpment
uplifted and tilted westwards.
 Lava flows and volcanic cones e.g. Menengai and Ngorongoro crater.
 Rift Valley lakes formed when unequal sinking created faults which were later
filled with water. The lakes are deep and elongated. Examples are Lakes
Naivasha, Nakuru, Elementaita, Baringo, Bogoria, Ol Bolossat and Turkana.
Most of the lakes are salty with exception of L. Naivasha which has fresh
water.

Why Most Rift Valley Lakes Are Salty

 Lack of outlets to drain away salts contained in them.

 Lack of enough water to dilute salinity due to little rainfall and lack of rivers
flowing in them.
 High rates of evaporation causing increased accumulation of salts.
 Lake’s water being in contact with rocks with mineral salts which it directly
dissolves.
 Washing into the lake of mineral rich soils by surface runoff.

Why L. Naivasha Has Fresh Water

 It has underground drainage to the Indian Ocean.

 There is inflow of fresh water from rivers and rain.
 The latest volcanic eruption covered the bed rock with lava.

Major Faulted Areas of the World

 The Great Rift Valley from Syria to Mozambique.

 Northern England and the Great Glen Fault of Scotland.
 The Central Massif of Europe.
 The middle Rhine Rift Valley region.

Significance of Faulting
To Human Activities

1. Rift valley lakes are important for fishing, irrigation and domestic use.
2. The Rift Valley and associated features are a tourist attraction which earns
foreign exchange.
3. Hot springs and geysers formed during faulting can be harnessed for
geothermal power.
 4. Block Mountains are water catchment areas and sources of rivers due to the
heavy rainfall they receive on the windward side.
5. Faulting results in the exposure of minerals such as diatomite in Gilgil and
Fluorspar in Kerio Valley.
6. Fault scarps may expose underground water resulting in the formation of
scarp springs.
7. Unequal subsidence caused by faulting may cause formation of depressions
which may form lakes which useful for fishing, transport and mining e.g. L.
Naivasha.

Negative

1. Faulting disrupts transport and communication by disjointing land.

2. Faulting may lead to loss of life and property by causing land to sink.
3. Faulting may cause a river to disappear or change its course and flow along
the fault line.
4. Steep scarp slopes formed by faulting are prone to soil erosion.
5. Faulting has given rise to semi-desert conditions in some areas when Block
Mountains on the path of rain winds cause leeward sides to receive little
rainfall.

Vulcanicity

 Process in which solid, liquid or gaseous materials are forced out of the
interior of the earth into the earth’s crust or onto the earth’s surface.
 These materials are magma, lava, gases, dust, ash and cinder.

Causes of Vulcanicity

 Magma under high temperature and pressure moving through lines of

weakness or faults.
 When tectonic plates move away from each other and boundaries give way to
magma.
 Underground water coming into contact with hot materials hence changing
into gaseous form.

Types of Vulcanicity
- There are 2 types of Vulcanicity:

 Extrusive Vulcanicity (volcanic): in which materials intrude crustal rocks

and don’t reach the earth’s surface. Magma is the molten material while it’s
underground.
 Intrusive Vulcanicity (plutonic): in which materials reach the earth’s
surface. Lava is the molten material after it reaches the surface.
 o There are two types of lava and magma, acidic and basic.
o Acidic lava is viscous and solidifies quickly and doesn’t spread far but
accumulates around the vent.
o Basic lava is more fluid or less viscous and takes longer before cooling
and spreads for great distances before doing so.
o Other materials emitted are gases, ashes, dust and cinder.
o The solid materials are called pyroclasts.
o Materials come out through a hole/vent (vent
eruption) or crack/fissure (fissure eruption).

Features Resulting From Vulcanicity

 Divided into intrusive and extrusive features or landforms.

Intrusive/Plutonic Features

 Features formed by intrusive Vulcanicity when materials intrude the earth’s

crust.

Sill
 An igneous intrusion which lies along a bending plane of rock strata.
 Formed when magma forces its way between rock layers then cools and
solidifies.
 It forms ridge like escarpments when exposed by erosion e.g. Fouta Djalon
highland of Guinea and 3 sisters of S. Africa.

Dyke
 A wall-like igneous intrusion which lies across the bedding plane of rock strata
 Formed when magma intrudes cracks or faults cutting across bedding planes
of rocks then cools and solidifies.
 Can be vertical or inclined.
 When exposed it forms ridges e.g. Kaap Valley in Transvaal S. Africa and Jos
Plateau in Nigeria.

Laccolith
 A mushroom-shaped igneous intrusion lying between bending planes of a
country rock.
 Formed when viscous magma pushes its way through a vent and
accumulates around the vent before reaching the earth’s surface pushing the
overlying rock into a dome shape.
 It’s so high that land is turned into mountains e.g. El Koub Hill in Algeria,
Henry Mountains in Utah U.S.A and Fonjay Massif in Madagascar.
 Batholiths
 Largest igneous intrusion formed underground formed when very hot magma
intrudes bedding planes of rocks and replaces or metamorphoses it e.g.
Chaila Massif in Gabon, Ikhonga-Murwe in Kakamega and the largest is in
British Columbia.

Lopolith
 a large saucer shaped igneous intrusion formed when viscous magma
intrudes into bedding planes of a country rock.
 They form shallow depressions on the earth’s surface of the earth e.g.
Bushveld complex in S. Africa and Duluth Gabbro mass in U.S.A.

Phacolith

 A lens shaped igneous intrusion which forms in the crest or trough of an

anticline e.g. Corndon Hill in England.

Extrusive/Volcanic Features
Formed when magma reaches the earth’s surface through vents or fissures.

Volcanoes

 A volcano is a cone shaped hill formed when volcanic materials flow out and
accumulate around a vent. Volcanoes are classified into three groups:
1. Active volcano - which is known to have erupted in recent times e.g. OL
Donyo Lengai in Tanzania and Mt. Cameroon, and Mauna Loa in Hawaii.
2. Dormant volcano - not known to have erupted in the recent past but
show signs of volcanic activity such as presence of hot springs, geysers
and fumaroles e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro, Longonot and Menengai.
3. Extinct volcano - which has not shown signs of possible future
eruptions e.g. Mountains Kenya and Elgon.

Types of Volcanoes

1. Acidic Lava Domes

-A steep dome shaped volcanic hill made of acidic lava.

o Viscous lava flows out through a vent.

 o It accumulates around the vent because it’s viscous.
o Eruptions occur later and lava flows out covering the layers below.
o A steep sided dome shaped mound of volcano is formed e.g. Itasy
Massif of Madagascar, Mt. Kenya and Kilimanjaro.

Characteristics
o Its dome-shaped
o Has steep slopes
o Made of acidic lava
o Has lava layers
o Has steep slopes
o Has a narrow base

2. Basic Lava Domes/Shield Volcanoes

- A low lying volcanic hill made of basic lava.

o Basic magma flows out to the surface through a vent.

o The lava flows far before solidifying because its fluid.
o Eruptions occur later and lava spreads over the old lava.
o A shield shaped mound of volcano is formed e.g. Canary Islands, Cape
Verde and Sao Tome which are volcanic Islands in the Indian Ocean.

Characteristics
o Dome/shield shaped
o Has gentle slopes
o Made of basic lava
o Has lava layers
o Has a broad base

3. Ash and Cinder Cones

- A volcano built from ash and cinder or small fragments of lava.

 o Violent vent eruption occurs.
o Ash and pyroclasts are emitted and thrown high.
o Some materials fall and settle around the vent forming a hill.
o Light materials are blown by wind to the leeward side e.g. Chyulu Hills,
Teleki and Likaiyu near L. Turkana.

Characteristics
o Made of pyroclasts
o Asymmetrical about the axis
o Cone shaped
o Has smooth slopes
o Has steep windward slope and gentle leeward slope

4. Composite/Complex/Stratified Volcanoes

- A volcano made of alternating layers of lava and pyroclasts and

conelets.

o The first eruption throws out pyroclasts.

o Then viscous lava flows out and solidifies on them.
o Eruption occurs later blowing the rocks sealing the vent.
o The pieces of rock settle on earlier solidified lava.
o Another mass of lava flows out and spreads over pyroclasts and
solidifies.
o The process is repeated causing the volcano to build upwards
o The conelets are formed when magma is unable to overcome the plug
and finds its way through weak lines at the sides and then pyroclasts
and lava accumulate around the side vent e.g. Mountains Kenya,
Longonot, Elgon and Kilimanjaro.

Characteristics

o Cone shaped
o Stratified (made of alternating layers of lava and pyroclasts.
o It has conelets (parasitic cones).
o It has steep slopes.
o Made of acidic lava
5. Plug Dome/volcano/Spine

- A column of very viscous lava which sticks above the ground.

o A column of very viscous magma flows out of the ground.

o It cools and hardens rapidly as it rises vertically.
o Pieces of rock break from the plug and accumulate on the sides e.g.
Mont Pelee in West Indies, Hyrax and Fischer’s Tower at Hells gate in
Naivasha and Devils Tower in U.S.A.

Characteristics

o Made of very viscous lava.

o It is dome shaped like a mushroom germinating out of the ground.
o Has debris on its sides.
o Has very steep sides
o Cylindrical in shape
o Disintegrates fast due to rocks undergoing rapid cooling.

6. Volcanic Plug

- Stump of rock formed when magma which solidified inside a vent

(plug) is exposed by denudation.

o A volcano is first formed.

o Lava on the sides of the volcano is eroded fast due to cooling fast.
 o The lava in the vent which is hard due to slow cooling is exposed
forming a stump of rock e.g. Peaks of Mt. Kenya, Rangwa Hill and
Tororo Rock.

Characteristics

o It resembles a stump of a tree.

o Its dome shaped.
o Very steep at the top and less steep at the bottom
o Made of hard/resistant rock

Lava Plains and Plateaus

- Lava plain: fairly level lowland below 500m above sea level covered by
thin lava layers.
- Lava plateau: fairly level highland/upland above 500m above sea level
covered by thick layers.
-Formed by fissure eruption.

 Magma of low viscosity comes out of the ground through a fissure.

 It flows for a long distance before cooling and solidifying filling depressions
and valleys forming a plain.
 Eruption occurs later and lava flows out through lines of weakness on crustal
rock and solidified lava.
 The new lava spreads on top of the old lava forming a new layer.
 The process is repeated and a plateau is formed e.g. Mwea, Nandi and
Laikipia Plains and Yatta and Uasin Gishu Plateaus.

Craters

- A funnel shaped depression found on top of a volcano.

Modes of Formation

1. Cooling and Contraction of Magma

 Eruption occurs and a volcano is formed.

  Magma in the vent cools and contracts.
 It withdraws into the vent leaving a depression at the vents mouth e.g.
Ngorongoro and Menengai craters.
 Rain water or water from melting snow may collect into craters to form crater
lakes e.g. L. Paradise on Mt. Marsabit, L. Magadi on Ngorongoro Crater and L.
Chala on Kenyan Tanzanian border.

2. Explosion

 Gases underground expand due to heat from magma.

 They force their way out through a weak line in the crustal rocks.
 An explosion occurs leaving a hole in the ground called a ring craterg.
Ghama and Dobot craters in Tanzania and Hora craters in Ethiopia.
 Water from underground or rivers may accumulate into ring craters to form
lakes called maarsg. Lakes Katwe and Nyungu in Uganda.

3. Falling of a Meteorite

 A meteorite falls on the earth’s surface.

 It sinks into the rocks leaving a depression.
 Water may collect into the depression forming a lake e.g. L. Bosumtwi in
Ghana.

Calderas/Basal Wreck

- A very large basin-shaped depression on the summit of a volcano.

Modes of Formation

1. Violent Explosion

 Gases and water heated by magma expand.

 They force their way through a vent.
 The rocks at the top of the volcano are blown off forming a large depression
e.g. Nyirarongo Caldera in DRC and Sabiro Caldera in Uganda.

2. Block Subsidence/Cauldron

 Eruption occurs to form a volcano.

  An empty space (cauldron) is left in the magma reservoir in the mantle.
 The rocks forming the middle of volcano are pulled inwards by gravity.
 The middle of the volcano collapses forming a large depression at the top e.g.
Menengai Caldera near Nakuru and Ngorongoro caldera which is the largest
in E. Africa and 6th largest in the world.
 Water from rain or underground may fill calderas to form lakes e.g. L. Magadi
in the Ngorongoro caldera and L. Ngozi in Tanzania.

3. Outward Collapsing

 Ash and pyroclasts volcano grows high.

 Materials on top exert pressure on those below.
 Materials at the base begin to spread outwards.
 The top of volcano collapses inwards forming a collapse caldera e.g. Napak
Caldera in Uganda.
-A vent in a volcano which emits gases.

Fumaroles

 The gases come from chemical reactions in crustal rocks when heated by
magma or when minerals in rocks come into contact with hot air and steam
underground.
 They are of two types:
 Mofette: fumarole which emits carbon dioxide.
 Solfatara: fumarole which emits gases with sulphurous compounds.

Hot Springs and Geysers

 Hot spring is a place where hot water is emitted from the ground quietly e.g.
at the shores of Lakes Magadi and Bogoria.
 A geyser is a jet of water and steam which are violently ejected from the
ground e.g. at Olkaria and western shores of L. Bogoria.

How They Are Formed

 Percolating water is heated by hot rocks or magma.

 Some collect into chambers called sumps where it develops pressure causing
it to be superheated super heated.
 The pressure forces the steam outwards towards the earths surface through
holes and cracks in rocks.
 The steam comes out of the ground which reduces pressure in sumps causing
the water to expand/boil and come to the surface.
 The steam comes out with a whistling sound accompanied by water forming a
geyser.
 The escaping steam heats ground water in surrounding rock.
 The heated water may find its way to the surface where it quietly comes out
of the ground forming a hot spring.
Differences

Hot spring Geyser

-Water comes out quietly. -Water and steam come out violently.

-only water comes out. -water is accompanied by steam.

-water may just be warm. -water is very hot.

-Small area of still water which appears to be boiling.

Pools of Boiling Water

 Actual heating of pool water by gases and steam causing the water to boil.
 Gases and steam coming out below the pool of water causing the pool to
bubble and appear as if it’s boiling.

World Distribution of Volcanoes

 Regions of faulting e.g. the Great Rift Valley of E. Africa.

 Mid-Atlantic ocean ridge.
 The western coast of America.
 Zones of recent mountain building e.g. fold mountains of S.E Asia.

Significance of Vulcanicity
Positive

 Volcanic rocks weather to form fertile agriculturally productive soils e.g.

basalt.
 Geysers are sources of geothermal electricity e.g. at Olkaria.
 Hot springs water is pumped into houses for heating during winter e.g.
Iceland.
 Volcanic features are a tourist attraction e.g. hot springs, geysers and snow
capped Mt. Kenya.
 Igneous rocks e.g. phonolites are crushed to make ballast for building roads,
bridges, etc.
 Crater lakes are a source of fish e.g. L. Katwe in Uganda, sources of minerals
e.g. L. Magadi and sources of water for domestic use.
 Volcanic mountains are catchment areas, sources of rivers and habitats for
wildlife.
 Pumice a volcanic rock is used as a scrubbing stone.
 Vulcanicity is useful for production of gases e.g. carbon dioxide used in soft
drinks manufacture.

Negative

 Volcanic eruptions cause of life and destruction of property e.g. sulphur

dioxide, ash, cinder and lava may bury houses and farm land.
  Volcanic mountains are barrier to transport and communication.
 Volcanic mountains on the path of rain winds cause leeward slopes to receive
little rainfall by preventing rain bearing winds from reaching there.
 Volcanic eruptions cause environmental pollution from dust, ash and sulphur
dioxide.

Earthquakes

 Sudden and rapid movement of the earth’s crust.

 areas prone to them are called seismic zones and those not prone are
called aseismic zones.
 It’s caused by shock waves.
 There are 3 types of earthquake waves namely:
1. Primary waves-which travel fastest and cause the rock particles to
vibrate in a push and pull manner and can pass through gases, liquids
and solids.

2. Secondary waves-which cause rock particles to vibrate at right angles

to the direction of wave movement.

3. Surface longitudinal waves-which cause surface rocks to shake

sometimes causing buildings to collapse.
i. Rayleigh waves-Which cause surface rocks to move in elliptical
orbits.

ii. Love waves-which cause rock particles to move in a horizontal

manner at right angle to the direction of wave.

 Earth quake originates from a point known as seismic focus/origin.

 The part of the earth vertically above the seismic focus and where the shock
waves are first experienced is called epicentre.
Causes of Earthquakes
Natural Causes

 Tectonic movements e.g. movement of tectonic plates. They cause tectonic

earthquakes.
 Vulcanicity when magma movement displaces rocks suddenly shaking and
shuttering them.
 Gravitative force when crustal rocks collapse into cauldron due to gravity.
 Energy release in the mantle when radioactivity takes place in mantle
releasing explosive energy which sends shock waves outwards.
 Isostatic adjustment when the continental masses rise to restore the upset
state of balance between sial and sima layers.

Human Causes

 Exploding nuclear bombs underground which causes shock waves which

spread outwards and are felt in the neighbourhood.
 When a train rolls on its rails causing the ground to vibrate.
 Explosion of explosives used in mining and quarrying which cause vibrations
to be felt in the neighbourhood.
 When large reservoirs are constructed and the heavy weight of water
reactivate dormant faults causing tremors.

Measurement of Earthquakes

 Seismograph is a pendulum based instrument used to measure earthquakes.

 It records seismic impulses on a graph-like record called seismogram
mounted on it.
 Earthquakes are measured by their intensity and magnitude.

Intensity
 Measure of how strong/hard the quake shakes the ground.
 It’s seen from the effects the earthquake has on people, buildings and other
structures.
 It’s measured on the Mercalli Scale which uses a scale running from Roman
i-xiii e.g.
o I- description -imperceptible
o V-rather strong-sleepers are awakened and there is swinging of
objects.
o VIII-destructive-gaping cracks in walls some brought down.
o XII- major catastrophe-every building destroyed.

Magnitude

 Measure of amount of energy given off by an earthquake.

 It’s measured on Ritcher Scale which ranges from 0-8.9.
 Intensity values depend on how far a place is from epicentre.
 The higher the scale the more severe the earthquake is.
 o Intensity I-magnitude 2
o Intensity VIII-magnitude 6
o Intensity XII-magnitude 8.5.

World Distribution of Earthquakes

 Within the zones of major faulting e.g. Rift Valley.

 In areas of Vulcanicity e.g. Oldonyo Lengai in Tanzania.
 Along boundaries of tectonic plates e.g. Japan, Philippines, East Indies and
west coast of north and South America.

Effects of Earthquakes

 Can cause loss of life and property when buildings collapse burying people.
 Disrupt transport and communication by vertically and laterally displacing
land which disconnects pipelines, electricity lines, roads and railways.
 Causes landslides which also cause loss of life and property and disrupts
communication.
 Causes raising and lowering of the sea floor and the coastal regions.
 Cause huge sea waves called Tsunami which may flood the neighbouring
coastal areas.
 Trigger folding, Vulcanicity and fires.
 Give off a lot of explosive energy more than an atomic bomb.
 Cause fear and panic.
 Hinder settlement as it is restricted to aseismic areas.
 Cause violent motions of the earth’s surface.

Map Work
 Direction
o Methods of Showing Direction
o Bearing
 Location of Places
o Methods
 Methods of Representing Relief on Topographical Maps
o Spot Heights
o Trigonometrical Stations/Points
o Isohypes/Contours and Form Lines
o Pictorials
o Hachures
o Hill Shading
o Layer Tinting
Direction
- Course upon which something is pointing to.

Methods of Showing Direction

Traditional Methods
 Use of Stars

1. - E.g. use of groups of stars called plough to find northern direction by

locating the pole star and use of Southern Cross by using the brightest
star which is over South Pole to find northern direction.

18.Use of Shadows

a. E.g. morning, shadow of flag pole cast to your left you are facing north,
etc.

 Land Marks
a. Using conspicuous features such as hills, buildings even roads to get
direction.

Modern Methods

31.Land Marks
32.Compass Direction.
- Use of magnetic compass which has a needle which always points north.
- It has 16 cardinal points and 4 are basic.
Bearing

44.Expression of direction in degrees of an angle.

45.It’s measured from north in a clockwise direction.

Calculation of Bearing

 Draw N-S line through observation point.

 Join the two points. If it’s a feature the line should end at the centre of that
feature.
 Using a protractor measure the angle between the N-S line and the line
joining the 2 points in a clockwise direction.
 Bearing is expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds. 1◦=60’(min), 1
min=60” (sec)
 The degrees are always expressed in 3 figures e.g. 030◦

Types of Norths

 True North
o Position on the globe where all longitudes meet or the direction of N.
Pole.

 Grid North
o Point where Eastings meet at the N. Pole.

 Magnetic North
o Point which the magnetic needle rests when left to swing freely.
Types of Bearing
 Grid Bearing

o Bearing calculated from Grid North.

 Join the two points on the topographical map using a line.
 Measure the angle where the Eastings intersect the line joining
the two points e.g. 030◦.

 True Bearing
o Bearing calculated from True North. Its calculated when the type of
bearing isn’t specified.
o E.g. from our compass diagram true bearing will be 30◦-1’=29◦59’

 Magnetic Bearing
o Bearing calculated from Magnetic North.
o Position of Magnetic North changes slightly every year.

Steps
 Years which have elapsed × Annual change. (No need if annual
change is negligible). E.g. from our compass diagram annual
change =(2009-1991)×4.8’=18×4.8’’=86.4’’=1◦26.4’
 Add to the angle between the grid and magnetic bearing 1.e.
1◦26.4’+2◦30’=3◦56.4’
 Add to the Grid bearing (if change is towards E) or Subtract (if
change is towards W). 30◦ +3◦ 56.4’=33◦4’

Location of Places

 Showing of position of a place or feature on a topographical map.

Methods
Use of Place Names

 Locating a feature by using the name of the place it’s at e.g. a river in
Kisumu, Nakuru, etc or if it isn’t at a named place locate by the nearest name
place e.g. a meander near Garissa town.
Use of Direction, Bearing and Distance

19.This is from a stated position e.g. Locate Nakuru from Nairobi.

20.Nakuru is 157km N.W of Nairobi.

Latitudes and Longitudes

15.The main longitudes are I.D.L and Greenwich /Prime Meridian.

16.The main lines of latitudes:
 The equator/Great Circle (0◦) which is the longest.
 Tropic of Cancer (23½◦N) of equator.
 Tropic of Capricorn (23½◦) south of equator.
 The Arctic Circle (66½◦N).
 Antarctic Circle (66 ½ ◦ S).
17.They are marked at the margins. Latitude is stated first (N or S) and longitude
later (E or W) e.g. X◦N Y◦E
 Identify a place.
 Identify the nearest numbered latitude and longitude.
 Estimate to the nearest 1◦.

Grid Reference

 Grid lines: network of lines on topographical maps.

 Numbered in small and large numbers and the large ones are used.
 Eastings: N-S grid lines called so because they are numbered eastwards.
 Northings: W-E grid lines called so because they are numbered northwards.
 Grid reference is given in 4 figures or six figures. In 4 figure the nearest grid
line is stated while the 6 figure is estimated in fractions by dividing the space
between grid line into 10 equal parts.
 Easting is stated first followed by northing.
 In the example below the 4 figure grid references are:
o A-6856
o B-6856
o C-6857
 6 figure grid references are:
o A-675555
o B-680560
o C-682568
Methods of Representing Relief on Topographical Maps

 Relief is the nature of landscape e.g. plain, plateau, valleys, hills, etc.

Spot Heights
- Points on map whose positions and heights have been determined by surveyors.
They are shown by a dot and a figure e.g. (.1827).

20.Advantage-show actual heights

21.Disadvantage-can’t be used to identify landforms.

Trigonometrical Stations/Points

18.Carefully chosen points carefully chosen and their altitude determined which
---Are used as a basis for surveying an area.
19.They are marked on the ground by concrete pillar or slab.
20.They are indicated on topographical maps by:

Isohypes/Contours and Form Lines

 A contour is a line on a map joining all points of the same height above sea
level. They are browner in colour and have heights written on them.
 Form lines are lines drawn on a map joining places of approximately the same
height above sea level. They are less brown than contours and not all have
values written on them.
 Both contours and form lines are referred to as contours.

 Contour/Vertical interval is the difference in height between any two

successive contours.
 Advantages of contours:
1. They show actual heights.
2. Can be used to identify land forms.

Pictorials

 Showing relief by drawing landforms at approximate positions where they are

found e.g. mountains, hills, valleys, etc.

Disadvantages:
o They obscure details behind them.
o Don’t give height above sea level.
o Limited variety of landforms can be accommodated.

Hachures

17.Short lines drawn to represent direction of slope.

1. On steep land they are thick and close together.

2. On gentle slopes they are thin and wide apart.
18.Their disadvantage is that they can’t be drawn on flat land.

Hill Shading

 Showing relief by shading to show shadows where by steepest slopes which

are list lit have darker shade while hill tops, surfaces of plateaus and plains
and valley bottoms are well lit have lighter shade.

Layer Tinting

8. Colouring or shading land within a certain range of altitude or using a single

colour with varying tones where the colour gets darker with increasing
altitude. of Form

Photograph Work
 Definition
  Types of Photographs
 Parts of a Photograph
 Uses of Photographs
 Limitations in the Use of Photographs
 Interpretation of Photographs
o Determining the Title
o Estimating Time
o Estimating Season
o Determining Compass Direction
o Interpretation of Physical Features on Photographs
o Sketching Diagrams from Photographs

Definition

 A photograph is an image of an object, person or scene recorded by a camera

on a light sensitive film or paper.

Types of Photographs

19.Ground Photographs
- Taken from the ground. They are of 2 types:
a. Ground Horizontals- taken with the camera at the same level as the
object. They are of 2 types.
1. Ground close ups/particular view photographs - taken from the
ground with a camera focused on one particular object.
2. Ground General View Photographs-taken from the ground with
camera focused on general scenery.
b. Ground Obliques - taken from the ground with a camera slanting/held
at an angle.

 Aerial Photographs
-Taken from the air e.g. from aircrafts, balloons or satellites. They are of 2
types:
a. Aerial Obliques-taken from the air with camera tilted towards the
ground.
b. Vertical Aerial Photographs-taken from the air with the camera directly
above the object or scenery.
Parts of a Photograph
Left back ground Centre background Right background

Left middle
Centre middle ground Left middle ground
ground

Left foreground Centre foreground Right foreground

Uses of Photographs

33.Used in learning geography because they bring unfamiliar features in the

classroom enabling the students to understand them better.
34.Photographs showing vegetation and human activities can be used to deduce
the climate of an area.
35.Aerial photographs show vital information on land use.
36.Photographs showing land forming processes help us to understand those
processes.

Limitations in the Use of Photographs

46.Coloured photographs are generally expensive to produce.

47.Black and white photographs don’t show the real colours of objects or
scenery e.g. it’s difficult to distinguish ripe coffee berries from green ones.
48.Some aerial photographs have objects which are far away and hence unclear
which may lead to the wrong interpretation.
49.Vertical aerial photographs are difficult to interpret without special
instruments like stereoscopes.
50.Photographs are difficult to interpret if they are blurred because it’s difficult
to distinguish objects which look similar e.g. wheat and barley.

Interpretation of Photographs

 Means to explain the meaning of the objects or features on a photograph. It

involves the following:

Determining the Title

 Photographs show human activities, physical features, natural catastrophes

etc e.g. nomadic pastoralism, drought, flooding, etc.
 When determining the title examine the photograph carefully and apply the
knowledge you have learnt in geography.
Estimating Time

 In the tropics the shadows are short at noon and longest in the morning and
afternoon.
 If the camera is facing south and the shadow is cast to the right it’s in the
morning and if cast to the left it’s in the afternoon.

Estimating Season
Dry season

 Bright clear skies

 Dry vegetation
 harvesting
 Light clothes e.g. shirts and T-shirts since temperature is high (also an
indication of high temperature.

Rainy season

 Rain clouds
 Luxuriant vegetation
 Young crops
 Flowering plants
 Weeding
 Heavy clothing e.g. pullovers or jackets since temps are low (also an
indication of cool season).

Determining Compass Direction

 If it’s in the morning and the shadow of flag pole is cast to the left the
photographer is facing north and if cast to the right he was facing south.
 If it’s in the morning and the shadow is facing towards you the photographer
was facing east and it taken in the afternoon and the shadow is facing
towards you the photographer was facing west.

Interpretation of Physical Features on Photographs

Relief

 Flat land
o Rice crop
o Irrigation
o Combine harvesters
o Swamps
o Meanders
o Oxbow lakes
o Inselbergs (isolated hills)
 Hilly/Mountainous landscape/Highland Area
 o Steep slopes
o Terraced landscape
o Tea, wheat crops which grow at high altitude
o rapids
o Water falls
o Interlocking spurs

Drainage

 Youthful Stage
o Rapids
o Waterfalls
o Interlocking spurs
 Middle Stage
o Meanders
o Oxbow lakes
 Lower Stage
o deltas
o distributaries
o meanders and oxbow lakes
o flood plain

Vegetation

 Natural
o Indigenous species
o Dense undergrowth
o Trees grow haphazardly
o Different species of trees
o Not of the same height
 Planted
o Exotic species
o In rows
o Little undergrowth
o Same species
o Same heights
 Tropical Rain Forests
o Trees
o Broad leaves
o Umbrella shaped
 Marshes
o swamps
 Savannah Grassland
o Grass and short trees (woodland).
 Desert Vegetation
 o Thorny leaves
o Baobab and acacia
o Scrub-land covered with shrubs and underdeveloped trees (shrubs).

Climate

21.High Temperatures and low rainfall

 Sugar cane
 Grass
 Sisal
 Scrub and bush land vegetation
 Dense forests
 Light clothes
22.Cool Temperature and High rainfall (Sufficient, Reliable and well distributed)
 Tea
 Coffee
 Wheat
 Dairy farming

Soils

18.Acidic and Volcanic Soils

 Coffee
 Tea
19.Clay Soils
 Rice
20.Black Cotton Soils
 Cotton
 Rice
21.Loamy Soil
 Horticultural crops

Human Activities and Evidence

 Settlement
o Group of dwellings where people live.

Rural Settlements
o Semi permanent houses
o Farming or fishing activity
o Uneven distribution of settlements
o Presence of villages

Urban Settlements
o Permanent buildings
o Storied buildings
 o Heavy traffic presence
o Regular street patterns
 Agriculture/Farming

o Subsistence Farming
 Temporary and permanent houses
 Small pieces of land
 Mixed cropping
 Simple implements
 Local and exotic breeds of livestock
o Crop farming
 Crops
 People preparing land or weeding or Harvesting
o Commercial Crop Farming
 cash crops
 machinery
 feeder routes
 processing factories
o Plantation Farming
 Single crop on extensive piece of land e.g. tea, coffee, etc.
 Many labourers
 Nucleated settlement within farms
o Livestock Rearing

 Nomadic Pastoralism
- Cattle grazing in a grassland or semi-arid region
 Dairy Farming
- Zero grazing
- Cattle with big udders
 Ranching
-Paddocks
-Wind mills

 Mining
o Quarry
o Large open pits
o Large excavators
o Lorries carrying loads of rocks
 Industrial Manufacturing
o Buildings with large chimneys
o People engaged in a processing activity such as Jua kali artisans.
 Lumbering
o People cutting trees using power saws
o People loading timber into lorries
o Logs pilled near a saw mill
 o Forests with stumps
o Logs floating on a river
 Transport
Motor transport
o Vehicles on roads
 Railway Transport
o Railway line
o Trains
 Air Transport
o Flat tarmacked piece of land
o Aircraft
 Water Transport
o Boats
o Ships
o Ferries
 Communication
o Telephone lines
o Telephone booths
o Post office
o Satellite masts
o V and radio stations

Sketching Diagrams from Photographs

22.Draw a rectangle the same size as the photograph.

23.Divide it into squares using faint lines.
24.Subdivide the photograph into 9 sections.
25.Insert the features in their exact positions using simple lines being guided by
the squares.
26.Label the important features e.g. vegetation, land use, prominent buildings,
transport, and communication.
27.Give the sketch a suitable title.

Statistical Methods
 Statistical Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation
 Comparative/Group/Multiple Line Graph
 Comparative Bar Graph
 Divided Bars or Rectangles
Statistical Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation
Temperature and Rainfall for Thika

Month J F M A MJ J A S O N D

Temp(◦c) 24 24 23 22 19 17 17 18 19 20 22 23

12 12
Rainfall(mm) 109 130 76 52 34 28 38 70 108 120
2 1

Analysis and Interpretation

 The month with heaviest rainfall is May.

 The month with lowest rainfall is July.
 The hottest month was January and February.
 The months with lowest temperature were June and July.

Crop Production in Kenya in the Years 2001 and 2002

crop Amount in metric tonnes

2001 2002

Tea 300,000 500,000

Coffe
120,000 80,000
e

wheat 120,000 150,000

Maize 250,000 400,000

Value of export Crops from Kenya (ksh million)

Crop 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

2412 3306
Tea 32971 35150 34485
6 5

1685 1202
Coffee 12817 11707 7460
6 9

1375 1764
Horticulture 14938 21216 19846
2 1

20.If the data has large figures e.g. 195262 plot in 1000s=195, 184,988=185.
21.You can draw comparative/group/multiple line and bar graphs from the data.
Comparative/Group/Multiple Line Graph

Advantages

 Simple to construct
 Suitable when comparing trends or movements
 Comparison of items is easy because the graphs are drawn using common
axis
 It’s easy to read exact values from each graph

Disadvantages

37.Number of items which can be represented are limited

38.Crossing of lines may make interpretation and comparison difficult and
confusing.
39.Total amount of variable can’t be established at a glance.

Comparative Bar Graph

Advantages

51.Easy to construct
52.Easy to read and interpret
53.Easy to compare similar components within different bars.
54.Gives a good impression of totality.
55.Individual contribution made by each component is clearly seen.
56.Differences in quantity of components are clearly seen.

Disadvantages

 Doesn’t show trend of components over time.

 Not easy to compare components where bars are many
  Not suitable for many components

Divided Bars or Rectangles

Production of Sugarcane in 1000 tonnes of 5 major factories in Kenya

Factory Production(ooo tonnes) Length in cm

Sony 50 0.5

Nzoia 100 1

Chemilil 200 2

Muhoron
250 2.5
i

Mumias 400 4

Total 1000 10

Reported Visitor Arrivals by Continent for the Year 2000

Continen
No. of visitors Length of strip (cm)
t

Africa 153904 1.5

America 77271 0.8

Asia 58784 0.6

Europe 663906 6.6

Other 82672 0.8

Total 10.3
Look for a convenient scale say 1cm rep 100000 visitors

 Draw a divided rectangle 10 cm long to represent the data.

 Show your calculations.

- It should have the following:

 Title
 Different shades
 Key
 Width of 2 cm

Analysis and Interpretation

- To get the meaning of

 Factory leading in sugar production is Mumias.

 The 2nd leading is Muhoroni.
 Factory with the lowest production of sugar is Sony.
 Calculation of %s.

Advantages

 Easy to construct
 Easy to compare components because they are arranged in ascending or
descending order.
 Takes less space than when the data is presented using graphs.
 Each component proportion to the total can easily be seen at a glance.

Disadvantages

 Can’t be used for a large data.

 Only one unit of measurement can be used.
 Difficult to assess values of individual component
 The visual impression isn’t as good as pie charts.

Exercise

 Temperature and Rainfall for Kisumu

Month J F MA M J J A S O N D

Temp(◦c) 19 20 20 18 20 19 19 18 18 18 18 18

Rainfall(mm
18 38 66 127 114 84 112 104 69 56 38 31
)


o Draw a bar graph to represent rainfall figures.

o Calculate the mean monthly temperature for the place.
o Calculate the mean annual temperature range.
o Calculate the annual rainfall totals.


Tu Thur
Temp/Day Mon Wed Fri Sat Sun
e s

Max ◦c 28 27 28 26 29 29 26

Min ◦c 18 18 20 16 22 21 19

o Calculate the diurnal/daily temperature range for Tuesday.

o Calculate the mean daily temperature for Sunday.
 Suppose at 40 ◦c air can hold 60g/m3 of water vapour and the maximum
vapour it can hold is 70g/m3. Calculate the relative humidity.
 (a) Calculate the time at Lamu 70◦E when time at GWM is noon.
(b) Calculate the longitude of Watamu whose time is 6pm when time at GWM
is 9am.
 Students from a certain school obtained the following marks in their end of
term geography examination.
74, 52, 48, 60, 48, 32, 80, 67 and 85.
Calculate the following:
o Median
o Mode
o Mean
o State their advantages and disadvantages.
 (a) Calculate the scale given that the ground distance is 200km while the
distance on the map is 20cm.
(b) A student measured the length of a road on a map from point A to B and
found it to be 3.6 cm. Use a scale of 1:50000 calculate the actual/ground
distance in km.
 Students intend to carry out field study of a forest around their school.
o State two ways in which they’d prepare themselves.
o State 2 objectives they’d have formulated for their study.
o List two problems they’d have encountered in the field.
o State two follow up activities they would have after the field study.
 Climate
 Definition
 Factors Influencing Climate
 The Climatic Regions of Kenya
o Modified Equatorial Climate
o Modified Tropical Climate
o Tropical Continental/Desert Climate
o Tropical Climate
o Tropical Northern Climate
o Desert Climate
 World Climatic Regions
o Hot/Tropical Climates
o Warm Climates
o Cool Climates
o Cold Climates
o Mountain Climates
o Local/Micro Climates
 Aridity and Desertification
o Causes of Aridity and Desertification
o Effects of Aridity and Desertification
o Solutions to Aridity and Desertification
 Climate Change
o Causes of Climate Change
o Consequences of Climate Change
o Solutions to Climate Change

Definition

 Average weather conditions of a given place over a long period of time

usually 30-35 years.

Factors Influencing Climate

Latitude

22.It influences temperature whereby low latitudes have high temperature and
high latitudes have low temperature due to the angle at which the sun rays
strike the earth and the distance travelled by the sun’s rays.
 23.It also influences rainfall whereby places in the equator receive rainfall in two
seasons when the sun is overhead there while northern and southern tropical
areas receive rainfall when the position of the sun is overhead in those areas.

Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone

 It’s a low pressure belt around equator where trade winds converge.
 It influences rainfall in the following ways:
a. Places further from equator experience one rainy season when the sun
is overhead and a long dry season when the sun is in the S.
hemisphere.
b. Regions near equator have 2 seasons of heavy rainfall because they
experience passage of ITCZ twice.

Altitude

40.It influences temperature whereby at low altitude temperature is high while

at high altitude its lower due to the thickness of atmosphere determining the
number of particles to store heat and distance from space where terrestrial
radiation is lost.
41.It also influences rainfall whereby mountains on the path of rain winds
receive Orographic rainfall and the windward slopes receive heavier rainfall
than leeward slopes.

Distance from the Sea

57.It influences temperature whereby places in temperate regions near the sea
experience low temperature during summer onshore winds blowing over cold
ocean water and taking the cooling influence on adjacent land because the
water is heated at a slower rate than land.
58.Places near the sea also experience higher temperatures during the winter or
cool season due to sea breezes carrying warmer air to the land because
water loses heat at a slower rate than land.
59.Temperatures in the interior of continents tend to be high in summer and very
low in winter due to lack of marine influence.
60.It also influences rainfall whereby coastal regions receive a lot of rain when
the winds are onshore and the continental interiors receive less rain mainly in
summer because onshore winds will have dropped most of moisture along
the way.

Ocean Currents

 It influences temperature whereby coasts which are washed by warm ocean

currents are warmer while those washed by cold ocean currents are cooler
due to the onshore winds being either warmed or cooled and then taking the
warmth or coolness to the land.
  It influences rainfall whereby coasts washed by warm ocean currents
experience heavy rainfall when moist onshore winds are warmed by the
current and made to hold on to moisture which they release on reaching the
land.
 The coasts washed by cold ocean currents on the other hand experience low
rainfall as a result of moist winds being cooled and moisture in them
condensed resulting in rain falling over the ocean thereby bringing little or no
rain to the coastal areas. This is the cause of western margin deserts e.g.
Kalahari and Namib deserts.

Aspect

 Direction of slope in relation to sunlight and the rain bearing winds. Its effect
on temperature is more pronounced in the northern and southern
hemisphere.
o In the N and S hemispheres the slopes facing sun are warmer while
those facing away are cooler.
o The slopes in the direction of rain winds i.e. the windward slopes
receive heavier relief rainfall than the leeward side.

Winds and Air Masses

 Wind blowing from a warm region warms the region its passing over and if
blowing from a cool region cools the region it’s passing over since wind is a
medium of transfer of heat.
o Sea breezes take cooling influence on land during hot afternoons.
o Katabatic winds cause low night temperatures on valleys and foot of
mountains.
o Fohn and Chinook which are descending dry winds take dryness to the
leeward sides of Alps and Rockies.
 Winds influence rainfall in the following ways:
o Anabatic winds cause afternoon showers on mountainous regions.
o Moisture laden winds cause heavy rainfall.
o Persistent dry winds cause desert like conditions in the area they pass
over e.g. Harmattan winds from Sahara which blow over W. Africa.
o Regions around large water bodies experience high rainfall because of
the effect of land breezes.

Configuration of Coastline

 Coastal regions across the path of moisture laden winds receive higher
rainfall because winds deposit moisture on land e.g. Mombasa while those
lying parallel to the path of those winds receive less rainfall because moisture
is deposited on the sea e.g. Lamu.

Forests
  Forested areas experience a micro climate whereby:
o Temperature is lower due to shades of trees reducing solar insolation
reaching the ground.
o Rainfall is heavier due to high rate of evapotranspiration and friction
between trees and rain bearing winds.

Human Activities

 Man has caused deforestation in the process of creating room for settlement
and agriculture which has caused drop in rainfall amounts leading to semi-
arid conditions.
 Man has constructed dams across rivers and done afforestation which has
caused semi-arid regions to become wetland.
 Gases especially co2 emitted from burning fossil fuels and
chlorofluorocarbons layer cause global warming through the green house
effect and destruction of ozone layer respectively.

The Climatic Regions of Kenya

Modified Equatorial Climate

 Experienced along the coast and along the coast from Somali-Tanzanian
border and L. Victoria basin regions around the lake.

Along the Coast

Characteristics

 High temperatures throughout the year mean annual about 27◦c.

 Small mean annual range of temperature about 4◦c.
 Hottest months are December and January.
 Experiences rainfall throughout the year/ no real dry season.
 Double maxima rainfall regime (2 rain seasons) in May and October.
 High humidity due to high temperature causing high rates of evaporation and
nearness to the sea.

Victoria Basin
Characteristics

 Temperature is lower than the truly equatorial climate due to modifying

influence of the lake (mean annual range between 22-26◦c).
 There are no real dry months.
 Heavy rainfall ranging from 1000-600mm.
  Double maxima rainfall regime.
 Receives convectional type of rainfall which falls mainly in the afternoons.
 High relative humidity due to high temperature and nearness to the lake
which is a source of moisture.

Modified Tropical Climate

23.Experienced in central highlands E and W of R. Valley.

Characteristics

22.Mean annual temperatures averages between 17-24◦c.

23.Lower warmer slopes and cooler higher slopes due to modification by
altitude.
24.Receives rainfall throughout the year (1000-2000mm).
25.Receives Orographic rainfall caused by S.E Trade Winds.
26.Double maxima rainfall regime in eastern highlands and single maximum in
the W. highlands.
27.Humidity is moderate.

Tropical Continental/Desert Climate

 Experienced in about ½ of Kenya in most of N, N.E, most of E and S Kenya.

Characteristics

 High temperatures throughout the year with mean between22 and 27◦c.
 Generally dry with less than 500mm of unreliable rainfall.
 Large diurnal range of temperature.
 The skies are generally clear.
 Low humidity.
 Temperature has been modified by relief in some areas e.g. Voi-25◦c and
Garissa -28.5◦c.

Tropical Climate

28.Experienced in Narok, S. Taita and Kwale region.

Characteristics

21.High temperatures (mean annual temp-16.5◦c).

22.Temperature is modified by relief in some areas e.g. Loita, Taita and Narok
which has made the place suitable for human habitation.
23.Generally low rainfall amounts.
24.Rain falls in one season.
25.A long dry season lasting up to 6 months.
Tropical Northern Climate

 Experienced in a small area in the N. W part of Kenya bordering Uganda.

Characteristics

 High average temperatures.

 Temperatures are modified in some places by altitude.
 Low mean annual rainfall of about 850mm.
 Rain falls mainly in June and September.
 Experiences a long dry season of up to 6 months.

Desert Climate

19.Experienced in central northern Kenya where there are pure deserts such as
Chalbi, Karoli and Kaisut deserts.

Characteristics

 Temperatures are very high throughout the year averaging 30◦c due to
cloudless skies.
 Very low rainfall of less than 250mm per year.
 Characterised by diverging or descending winds which don’t bring any rain.
 Night temperatures are extremely low.
 Humidity is low.
 Sandstorms are common occurrences.

World Climatic Regions

Classifications

9. Hot climates
10.Warm climates
11.Cool climates
12.Very cold climates
13.Mountain climates
14.Micro/local climates

Hot/Tropical Climates

4. Experienced within the tropical latitudes.

5. Subdivided into:
1. Equatorial climate
2. Tropical monsoon climate
3. Savannah climate/Sudan type
4. Tropical desert climate
5. Tropical marine climate
Equatorial climate

 Experienced in the following areas:

o Amazon basin in S. America.
o Along west coast of Africa from guinea to Cote d’ Ivoire.
o Southern part of Nigeria through Cameroon, Gabon, Central African
Republic, Congo to Zaire.
o E Asia in Malaysia, Indonesia and a stretch between Burma and
Vietnam.

Characteristics

 High temperatures throughout the year (between 24-27◦c).

 Temperature neither rises nor drops too low due to thick cloud cover all year
round.
 Heavy rainfall throughout the year (mean annual of about 2000mm).
 Double maxima rainfall regime.
 Experiences convectional rainfall in low lands and relief rainfall in areas of
high relief.
 High relative humidity of over 80% due to convergence of moist air masses
and high evapotranspiration rates.
 Low pressure all year round.
 There are no seasons.

Tropical Monsoon Climate

 It’s found in the following areas:

o E Asia in parts of Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, S. china and Philippines.
o Along the northern coastal region of Australia.

Characteristics

10.High mean annual temperatures of about 28◦c.

11.Seasonal reversal of winds.
12.Heavy rainfall when monsoon winds are onshore (600-1300mm) climate.
13.Rain falls in a few months and the rest of the year is dry due to influence of
latitude.
14.Low pressure in summer when winds blow onshore.
15.High pressure in summer when winds blow offshore.
16.Cloudy skies in summer and clear skies in winter.

Tropical Marine Climate

 It’s found on windward slopes of islands and coastal areas on the east of
continents under the influence of S.E Trade Winds in the following areas:
 o America in S. Mexico through Guatemala, Nikaragua and Panama.
o Coast of S. America.
o Caribbean islands of Cuba, Haiti and Jamaica.
o Coastlands of E. Africa from Kenya, Tanzania through Mozambique and
E. Malagasy.

Characteristics

 Summer temperatures are very high approximately 30◦c.

 High rainfall totals in summer when winds are onshore (1000-2000mm).
 Orographic and convectional rainfall in summer.
 Dry winters due to winds being offshore.
 High humidity due to coastal location.
 Experiences tropical cyclones towards end of hot season.
 Winters are cool (about 21◦c).

Tropical Continental/Savanna/Sudan type

7. The largest natural climatic region in Africa.

8. It’s found in the following areas:
1. In Africa it extends fro Senegal through E. Africa to the northern part of
s. Africa.
2. Western Madagascar.
3. A broad belt in N. Australia.
4. W and S.E of Amazon Basin called Llanos and Campos.

Characteristics

5. Higher temperatures of up to 32◦in hot season.

6. Large diurnal range of temperature in dry season.
7. Convectional rainfall in summer averaging 765mm annually.
8. High humidity during the hot wet season.
9. Low humidity in cooler drier months.
10.Prevailing winds are mainly trade winds.

Types of Deserts

 Erg - Sandy deserts with large amounts of deposited sand.

 Hamada - Rocky deserts made of bare surfaces.
 Reg - Rocky deserts covered with angular pebbles, gravels and boulders.
 Hot continental interior deserts found on the interior of continents on the
leeward sides of high mountains e.g. Sahara and Arabian Desert.
 Coastal deserts of western margins characterised by offshore trade winds and
cold ocean currents e.g. Atacama of S. America, Namib in Namibia and
Arizona in U.S.A.
  Mid latitude deserts of continental interiors with high summer and low winter
like Gobi in C. Asia.
 Ice and snow deserts of polar lands like Greenland and Antarctica desert.

Tropical Desert Climate

 Found on the western coasts of continents washed by cold ocean currents.

 They are the following:
o Arabian Desert of the middle East
o Sahara, Kalahari and Namib deserts in Africa.
o Atacama Desert in S. America.
o Mohave and Colorado deserts of U.S.A. and Mexican deserts in N and C
America.
o Jordan, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Israel and Afghanistan.
o The great Australian desert in the greater western part of the
continent.

Characteristics

 High temperatures during the day and very low temperatures during the
night due to high terrestrial radiation.
 Large diurnal range of temperature.
 Clear/ cloudless skies.
 Receives less than 250mm of rainfall annually.
 Rainfall is localised, short and torrential and accompanied by storms which
cause flash floods.
 Rain falls for a short period and the rest of the year or even several years are
dry.
 High wind velocity due to little frictional force.
 Some areas experience temperatures below zero in winter with ice forming
on the oasis.
 Humidity is low and evaporation rate is high.
 Sand storms are very common i.e. sand being blown through the air by the
wind.

Warm Climates

e. They border tropical climates and they experience moderate temperatures

lower than of tropical climates.
f. They are situated in the zone of divergence of trade winds and westeries
(subtropical high pressure belt).
g. Subdivided into:
a. Warm Temperate Western Margin/Mediterranean Climate.
b. Warm Temperate Interior/Continental Climate.
c. Warm Temperate Eastern Marginal Climate.
d. Warm Temperate Deserts.
Warm Temperate Western Margin

 Also known as Mediterranean Climate.

 Found on the western margin or sides of continents in the following areas.
 Southern Europe and N. Africa in the lands bordering Mediterranean
Sea.
 W tip of Africa around Cape Town.
 Central Chile in S America.
 W and S Australia.

Characteristics

 Hot summers with temperatures of about 21◦c.

 Mild winters with temperatures of about 10◦c.
 Characterised by hot and cold local winds called Mistral and Sirocco.
 There is high sunshine duration and intensity in summer.
 Experiences cyclonic rainfall in winter when westeries are onshore.
 Rainfall decreases inland.
 Summers are dry due to trade winds blowing offshore.
 There are distinct seasons i.e. summer, autumn, winter and spring.

Warm Temperate Interior Climate

 Also called Steppe Type.

 It’s found in the interior of continents in the following areas (grasslands):
o Steppe Land of U.S.S.R.
o Veldt of S Africa.
o Prairie lands of Canada and U.S.A.
o Pampas lands of Argentina.
o Downs of Australia.

Characteristics

11.Warm short temperatures between 18-21◦c.

12.Long winters with extremely low temperatures due to continentality which
can fall up to -20◦c.
13.Precipitation is received all the year round.
14.Most rainfall is received in summer and snow precipitation in winter.
15.Rainfall is moderate with annual mean of 500mm.
16.Summer rainfall is caused by convection and depressions.
17.There is high humidity in summer.

Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate

n. Also known as China Type.

o. It’s experienced on the eastern margins of continents in the following areas.
 a. E China and S. Japan.
b. E Australia.
c. S and S.E states of U.S.A.
d. America in S. Brazil, Uruguay, E. Paraguay and coast of Argentina.

Characteristics

 Hot summers with a mean annual of about 26◦c.

 Mild to cool winters due to marine influence and local winds (4-13◦c).
 Receives rainfall throughout the year (about 1000mm).experiences
hurricanes and typhoons.
 Convectional rainfall is common in summer.
 Rainfall is moderate between 760 and1500mm.

Warm Temperate Deserts

 Also known as Mid-Latitude Desert climate.

 It’s experienced in the following areas:
o Nevada and Utah states of U.S.A.
o Pentagonia in S. America.
o Gobi Desert extensive desert area of southern Mongolia and northern
China and the largest desert in Asia.
o Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.

Characteristics

 High summer temperatures (27-37◦c).

 Cold winters as low as -7◦c.
 Very large diurnal and annual ranges of temperature.
 Low and unreliable rainfall due to great distance from the sea about 250 mm
annually.
 Most rainfall falls in late winter or early spring.

Cool Climates

 They differ from warm climates by having definite seasonal variations in

temperature.
 Subdivided into:
o Cool Temperate Western Margin
o Cool Temperate Continental Interior
o Cool Temperate Eastern Margin

Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate

 Also known as British Type.

 It’s under coastal influence.
  Found in the following areas:
o British Isles (Island)
o Central and N.W Europe
o W U.S.A. and British Columbia in Canada.
o Chile
o Tasmania in Australia

Characteristics

 Warm summers (13-15◦c).

 Cool winters (2-7◦c).
 Small temperature range.
 Well distributed rainfall throughout the year (760-2000mm).
 Cyclonic rainfall in the coastal lands and relief rainfall in mountainous areas.
 High humidity in winters.
 Long summer days with irregular thunderstorms.
 Convergence of sub-tropical and polar air masses.
 Onshore westerly winds are dominant.

Cool Temperate Continental Interior Climate

1. Also called Siberian type.

2. Found in the following areas:
1. Alaska and most of Canada
2. Eurasia covering Sweden, Finland, Poland, Germany, across former
U.S.S.R. up to Kamchatka Peninsula in the east.

Characteristics

1. Warm summers with temperatures of about 18◦c.

2. Generally short summers.
3. Extremely cold winter temperatures which go below 20◦c.
4. Long winters with long nights.
5. Precipitation is mainly in form of snow during winter (annual precipitation
400-500mm).
6. Convectional rainfall in summer is accompanied by thunderstorms.

Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate

1. It’s also known as Laurentian Type.

2. Areas:
1. U.S.A. and S Canada.
2. Argentina.
3. N & S Korea, N. China, C and N Japan and E. Siberia.

Characteristics
1. Long warm summers with temperatures of about 18◦c.
2. Cold winters (-40-0◦c).
3. Precipitation all year round (600-1000mm).
4. Snow precipitation in winter.
5. High humidity in summer.

Cold Climates

1. Also known as Polar Desert Climates or Arctic and Antarctic Climates.

2. Found beyond Arctic Circle i.e. 66 ½◦N and S of equator.
3. Classified into Tundra and Polar Climates.

Tundra Climate

1. Areas:
1. Coast of N. America bordering Arctic Ocean.
2. N part of America from Alaska through Canada to Greenland.
3. From N coast of Scandinavia to the N.E of Russia.
4. Baffin Island.

Characteristics

1. Short cool summers with average temperatures of about 10◦c.

2. Long cold winters (-29 - -40◦c).
3. Continuous days in winter and summer for several days.
4. Low annual precipitation of about 250mm.
5. Precipitation in form of rain and snow in winter.

Polar Climate

1. Experienced at the poles in the interior of Iceland, Green land and Antarctica.

Characteristics

1. Temperature is permanently below freezing point.

2. There is permanent snow cover and ice on the ground (permafrost).
3. Snow storms (blizzards) are common.
4. Continuous winter nights and summer days with exception of equinox when
sun rises above horizon.

Mountain Climates

1. Experienced on high mountain ranges of the world.

2. Areas:
1. Kenya (5199)
2. Ruwenzori (5109)
 3. Kilimanjaro (5895)
4. Everest (8848)
5. Atlas mountains in Africa
6. Rockies of N. America
7. Alps of Europe
8. Himalayas in Asia

Characteristics

1. Temperature decreases with increasing altitude.

2. Temperature ranges from cool to cold.
3. Experiences Orographic rainfall.
4. Rainfall increases with altitude up to 3000mm and starts to decrease because
air is cold and hence has poor capacity to hold moisture.
5. Windward slopes are wetter than leeward slopes.
6. Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude.
7. Local winds are common and blow up the slope during the day and down
slope at night.
8. In temperate regions slopes facing the equator are warmer than those facing
the poles.
9. Atlas mountains in Africa
10. Rockies of N. America
11. Alps of Europe
12. Himalayas in Asia

Local/Micro Climates

1. Climate experienced within a small area which is slightly different compared

to the general climate of the area.
2. It occurs on the immediate surroundings and within some phenomenon on
the earth’s surface.
3. Micro-climates can be found in the following areas:

Within and around a forest

1. Experience low temperatures due to trees preventing solar insolation from

reaching the ground.
2. Experiences high rainfall due to high rates of evapotranspiration.

Urban areas

1. Higher temperatures due to green house effect (situation where atmospheric

gases absorb heat that is given off by the earth (terrestrial radiation) before
its sent back to space causing the temperature of the lower atmosphere to
increase.
Around manmade lakes

1. Experience high convectional rainfall due to high moisture content.

2. Around natural lakes experiences land breezes which cause early morning
showers and sea breezes which lower temperatures during the hot season.

Aridity and Desertification

1. Aridity-state of land being deficient of moisture leading to little or no

vegetation.
2. Desertification-process in which desert like conditions slowly and steadily
encroach on formerly productive agricultural land.

Causes of Aridity and Desertification

1. Low and unreliable rainfall below 250mm per annum causing little or no
vegetation and absence of animal and biological life causing soil forming
processes to be incomplete.
2. High temperatures which cause high rates of evaporation which exceed
evaporation or low temperatures which reduces air capacity to hold moisture
causing a place to receive little or no rain..
3. Where a place is washed by ocean currents causing moist onshore winds to
cool and then drop moisture over the sea and reach the land as dry winds
e.g. Kalahari when onshore westeries cross the cold Benguela Current.
4. Where relief barriers such as hills or mountains cause some areas to lie on
the rain shadow hence rain winds drop most of their moisture on the
windward side and they drop on the leeward side, are warmed and hold onto
moisture causing dry conditions e.g. Kalahari and Namib on the rain shadow
of Drakensberg mountains.
5. Location of some places very far from the sea causing them to be far
removed from wet onshore winds e.g. Gobi Desert.
6. Where hot dry winds blow over a region causing drying effect on land e.g.
Harmattan over West Africa.
7. Where cool air descends causing no rain because cool air has to rise before
condensation takes place.

Human Activities

1. When people clear forests which causes runoff to exceed infiltration which
interferes with the water cycle.
2. Keeping large number of animals which exceed the carrying capacity of land
they eat vegetation leaving the land bear exposing the land to soil erosion.
3. Poor agricultural practices such as overcultivation, monoculture and slashing
and burning which lead to soil erosion.
4. Industrialisation which releases green house gases such as co2 to the
atmosphere which absorb more heat making the earth’s temperature to rise.
5. Reclamation of water logged areas which lowers the water table causing arid
conditions to set in plants when plants can’t access ground water.
6. Poor irrigation methods when evaporation takes place and salt from below
are brought to the surface and are deposited on the top soil making the soil
salty and hence unable to support plants.

Effects of Aridity and Desertification

1. Infertile soils which support little or no vegetation.

2. Low agricultural production due to insufficient rainfall leading to famine.
3. Shortage of water for domestic and industrial use which may also lead to
shutting down of my sons.
4. Migration of people from areas affected by aridity and desertification leading
to population pressure and eventually conflicts.
5. Destruction of vegetation which exposes land to soil erosion.
6. Can lead to extinction of some plants and animal species causing loss of
biodiversity.

Solutions to Aridity and Desertification

1. Afforestation and reafforestation because trees protect soil from erosion,

increase run off and release moisture to the atmosphere leading to increased
rainfall.
2. Adopting soil conservation measures such as terracing, contour ploughing,
planting cover crops etc.
3. Rearing a number of animals which is proportional to the carrying capacity of
land.
4. Irrigating dry lands.
5. Introduction of energy saving stoves to reduce demand for wood fuel which
will reduce deforestation.
6. Use of alternative sources of energy which don’t pollute the environment e.g.
solar and water.
7. Introducing drought resistant crops in the arid areas.
8. Controlling industrialisation by setting laws governing pollution.

Climate Change

1. Establishment of a new climatic state.

2. Continuous changes in climatic states such as temperature and precipitation
over time.

Causes of Climate Change

Natural Causes

 Variations in the Earths Orbital Characteristics

 o Changing or earths orbital characteristics within 1000 years from
elliptical (aphelion) to nearly circular (perihelion) when the earth is
nearest to the sun and receives maximum solar energy and back to
elliptical when the earth is farthest from the sun and receives least
solar energy.
 Variation in the Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
o When natural rise in temperature cause carbon dioxide held up in cold
ocean waters to be released to the atmosphere after oceans warmed.
 Volcanic Eruptions
o When large quantities of volcanic ash and dust thrown out of the
ground block some of the solar insolation from reaching the earth’s
surface causing temperatures on the earth’s surface to drop for a short
period.
o When sulphur dioxide given off during volcanic eruptions reacts with
water vapour forming a bright layer within stratosphere reducing the
amount of solar radiation reaching the surface by reflecting some of it
back which also lowers temperatures on the surface.
 Variation in Solar Output
o changes in the amount of solar energy given off by the sun whereby at
times its less causing drop of temperature on the earth’s surface and
at others its gives off more causing rise in temperature on the surface.

Human Causes

 Burning of fossil fuels in industries, transportation, electricity generation etc.

which contributes 65% of additional co2 in the atmosphere which is the main
green house gas.
 Burning of vegetation e.g. in shifting cultivation and forest fires which also
adds co2 in the atmosphere.
 Clearing large tracts of forests foe agriculture, settlement etc. which reduces
the main deposal system for co2 from the atmosphere by photosynthesis.
 industrial developments which add gases like methane, nitrous oxide and
those containing chlorine and chlorofluorocarbons which damages ozone
layer which filters a greater percentage of ultra violet radiation given off by
the sun which causes the average temperatures on the earth to rise.

Consequences of Climate Change

 Global warming due to green house effect by gases added in to the

atmosphere and destruction of ozone layer.
 Increased rainfall as a result of high temperatures causing high rates of
evaporation causing wet areas to become wetter and dry areas to become
drier.
 Effect on agriculture by causing crop growing areas to shift to cooler altitudes
and latitudes e.g. wheat growing areas of Canada shifting to the poles and
 causing dropping or failure of crop yields in area where temperatures have
increased.
 Water shortage when climate becomes drier causing less water to infiltrate
underground and hence less water to feed rivers.
 Submergence of coastal areas causing flooding when Antarctic and Arctic
glaciers melt and water is added to the oceans.
 Heat waves due to increased temperature which leads to death of people.
 Receding and disappearance of ice caps on mountains e.g. Mt. Ruwenzori.
 Abnormal growth of plants due to increased amounts of co2 causing
increased rate of photosynthesis which may lead to increased yields of major
crops, poor soils due to soils having to sustain high rates of plant growth.
 increased levels of ultra violet radiation which causes human diseases such
as skin cancer, lowering crop production by slowing photosynthesis and
germination, lowering fish population by damaging plankton which fish eats
and degradation of paint and plastics.

Solution to Climate Change

 Afforestation and reafforestation.

 Use of energy saving stoves to reduce the rate of deforestation.
 Use of alternative sources of energy which are environmentally friendly e.g.
solar and water instead of fossil fuels.
 Proper maintenance of vehicle to reduce emissions from their exhausts.
 Use of public transport to reduce the amount of fossil fuel used and hence the
amount of co2 added into the atmosphere.

Vegetation
 Definition
 Types of Vegetation
 Factors Influencing Types and Distribution of Vegetation
 Vegetation in Kenya
1. Forests
2. Savanna
3. Semi-Desert and Desert Vegetation
4. Heath and Moorland
5. Swamp Vegetation
 Vegetation Zones of the World
1. Forests
2. Grasslands
3. Desert Vegetation
4. Mountain Vegetation
  Significance of Vegetation

Definition

24.Plant cover on the earth’s surface.

Types of Vegetation

 Natural Vegetation
a. Which grows by natural means of seed dispersal without interference
and modification by man.

42.Semi- Natural/Derived Vegetation

1. Natural vegetation which is in the process of recovering from
interference by man.

61.Planted/Cultivated Vegetation
1. Vegetation planted by people e.g. forests of exotic trees, trees in
Agroforestry and plants used as hedges e.g. cypress.

Factors Influencing Types and Distribution of Vegetation

Topographical Factors

 Altitude
 Coniferous trees are found at high altitudes because they are adapted
to cool conditions.
 There is no vegetation on mountain tops because there are very low
temperatures which inhibit plant growth.

 Terrain
o Gentle slopes which have deep and well drained soils are best suited
for plant growth than steep slopes which have thin soils due to severe
erosion and less soil water to sustain plant growth due to high runoff.
o Flat areas have poor drainage hence are swampy and can only support
swamp plants.

 Aspect
o There are a wide range of plants on the slope facing the sun and in the
direction of rain bearing winds as they are warm and wetter.
o Grass lands are dominant on the leeward side because they are drier.

 Drainage
 o There is a large variety of plants on well drained soils while water
logged soils have swamp plants such as reeds and papyrus.

Climatic Factors

 Temperature
o Plants in warm areas are large in number and grow faster e.g. in the
tropical lands. Also there are deciduous trees which shed leaves to
reduce the rate of transpiration.
o In areas with low temperatures there is slow growth of plants and
coniferous forests are found there.

 Precipitation
o There are a large number of plants in areas with high precipitation and
these areas are dominated by forests which are broad leaved to
increase the rate of transpiration.
o Areas with moderate rainfall are dominated by grasslands and those
with little rainfall have scanty vegetation of scrub and desert types.

 Sunlight
o There is large number of plants in areas experiencing long sunshine
duration.
o There is little undergrowth in tropical rain forests because the canopy
prevents sunlight from reaching the ground.

 Wind
o There is heavy rainfall in areas where warm moist blow to and hence a
large number of plants which may be broad leaved to increase the
surface area for transpiration.

Edaphic/Soil Factors

 Fertile soils have a larger number of plants while infertile soils have scanty
vegetation.
 Soil pollution e.g. oil spillage cause drying up of plants.
 Deep soils have deep rooted plants such as trees while shallow rooted soils
have shallow rooted plants such as grasses and shrubs.

Biotic/Biological Factors

24.Living Organisms
 Bacteria, earth warms and burrowing animals improve soil fertility
resulting into more vegetation growth.
 Insect and birds pollinate plants enhancing their propagation.
 Bacteria and insects cause plant diseases of plants resulting in death
of some e.g. aphids which affected cypress in late 80s.
 Large herds of wild animals can destroy vegetation through

overgrazing and can turn grasslands into deserts.
25.Human Activities
 Clearing of natural vegetation for settlement, agriculture etc. can lead
to desertification.
 Bush fires such as burning grasslands for the grass to sprout can cause
extinction of some plant species.
 Overstocking can lead to overgrazing turning grasslands into deserts.
 Rehabilitation of deforested areas can stop the spread of deserts.

Vegetation in Kenya
Forests

28.The area under forest is less than 7%.

29.The bulk is found in Central Highlands

Plateau Forests

 It used to cover extensive areas around L. Victoria but today there are few
patches around the lake in Maragoli, Kakamega, Kaimosi, Malava, Turbo and
Tinderet forests.
 They are tropical rain forests with tall trees standing among shorter trees
intertwined with creepers.

Lowland Forests

 Found along the Kenyan coast.

 The main types are:
o Mangrove forests which grow in shallow waters and
o Tropical rain forests in Shimba hills in Kwale District and Arabuko
Sokoke in Kilifi.

Highland/Mountain Forests

29.Found on the slopes of Mt. Kenya, Aberdare forests, Iveti, Mbooni, Kilala and
Marsabit forests.
 30.Indigenous hardwoods are olive, Meru oak, mvule, Elgon teak and camphor
while indigenous softwoods are podocarpus and African pencil cedar and
bamboo.
31.They have been planted with exotic hard wood trees e.g. eucalyptus and
silver oak and exotic softwoods such as pines, cypress, fir and wattle.

Savanna

26.Most widespread vegetation covering about 65% of the total area.

Wooded/Tree Grassland

 Found along the coastal strip and on the plateau bordering highlands east of
rift Valley.
 Consists of grass of 1m mixed with thorny acacias.
 Where rain decreases trees become fewer and shorter and the grassland
becomes more open.
 There are many large trees along water courses due to abundant moisture
(riverine or gallerie forests).
 The trees shed leaves during the dry season to reduce the loss of water by
transpiration.

Bushland and Thicket

 Covers about 48% of savannah.

 Found between coastal land and Machakos and extends into Kitui, Mwingi,
Garissa, Wajir and Mandera districts.
 Consists of a mixture of thorny acacias and shorter thorny shrubs between
forming thorn bush with gaps between bushes which are bare or covered by
scattered varieties of grasses.
 Plants are adapted by:
o Having thin leaves and hard cuticle to reduce transpiration rate.
o Baobab has large trunk to store water for use during long dry period.
o Shedding of leaves to conserve water.

Highland Grassland

20.Found on the undulating slopes of grasslands.

21.Grasses are such as red oat, wire, Manyatta and Kikuyu grass where forests
have been cleared.
22.Clover grows along kikuyu grass where rainfall is over 1000mm.

Semi-Desert and Desert Vegetation

 Covers about 21% of Kenya.

  It’s found on the parts of N.E and N Kenya including Marsabit and Turkana
districts.
 It receives insufficient rainfall of less than 380mm annually.
 It has mainly scrub type of vegetation (covered with underdeveloped trees or
shrubs). A shrub is a plant lower than a tree with a small woody stem
branching near the ground.
 The shrubs are up to 1m and grasses are up to 3m and in between there is
bare ground.
 Tree species are acacia and comiphora.
 Real deserts hardly have any vegetation.

Adaptations Plants (Xerophytes)

15.Some have thick leaves to store water.

16.Long tap roots to access water from rocks below.
17.Needle like leaves to conserve water.
18.Shedding of leaves to conserve water (deciduous).

Heath and Moorland

6. Vegetation found towards the mountain tops.

1. At lower altitudes there is groundsel, lobelia and heather.
2. Where there is poor drainage there is mountain swamp vegetation
referred to as bogs.
3. At high altitudes there is tussock grasses, flowering plants and
alchemilla shrubs. This vegetation is adapted to cold windy conditions
towards the summit.

Swamp Vegetation

 Vegetation found in areas with flat relief in wet areas along river courses and
areas experiencing periodic flooding e.g. along the course of R. Tana, Lorian
swamp in Isiolo, Wajir and Garissa and the mangrove belt along he coast.
 Vegetation found there are marshes, grasses with smooth surfaces and long
blades and papyrus which is dominant.

Vegetation Zones of the World

Forests

 A forest is a continuous growth of trees and undergrowths covering large

tracts of land.

Tropical Rain Forests

 Known as Selvas in S. America.

 It’s found in the following areas:
 o Congo Basin
o Amazon Basin
o Western sides of India, Burma and Vietnam.
o Coastal land of Queensland Australia.

Characteristics

17.Closely set trees with three distinct canopies.

18.There is less undergrowth on the forest floor due to light being obstructed by
canopies.
19.Trees take long time to grow.
20.Trees have large trunks with buttress roots (radiating wall like roots).
21.Trees have broad leaves to increase the surface area for efficient
transpiration due to high precipitation.
22.There is varied number of plants species over a small portion.
23.Trees are tall, have smooth stems and straight trunks.
24.Some trees are evergreen shedding a few leaves at a time while others shed
leaves and are left bare.
25.Some trees are very heavy and don’t float on water.
26.Trees take very long time to mature between 70-100years.
27.Types of trees present are mahogany, ebony, ironwood, rose wood, camphor
and Sapele.
28.Tree creepets and parasites are found around tall main trees.

Uses of Tropical Rain Forests

 Trees are valuable sources of timber for furniture, building and construction.
 Oil palms are for production of palm oil.
 Cacao crops for production of cocoa beans used to make cocoa used to make
chocolates and beverages.
 Chicle from the bark of Zabote tree is used to make chewing gum.
 Ivory nuts are used for making buttons.
 Fibres from torquilla palm are used for making hats, mats, baskets and
thatching materials.
 Cinchona tree’s bark contains quinine used in malarial treatment.

Mangrove Forests

 Found in low lying muddy coasts of tropical seas with shallow salty waters.

Areas

9. Along the east coast of Africa.

10.Near the estuary of Amazon River in S. America.

Characteristics
 11.Dominated by mangrove trees and 30 other species of trees.
12.Mangrove trees have special roots which are partly aerial to aid breathing.
Some grow horizontally and then vertically downwards into mud while some
grow horizontally in mud and bend upwards to aid breathing and others have
net work of roots resembling stilts.

Uses of mangrove Forests

 Mangrove trees provide tannin used for tanning leather.

 Mangrove poles are used for building and construction because they are very
strong.
 Mangrove trees are also used for firewood.
 Mangrove forests are habitats for marine life used for tourist attraction.

Tropical Monsoon Forests

Location

 W and S coast of Mexico

 parts of India, Bangladesh, Burma, Vietnam and Indonesia
 Monsoon lands of Australia

Characteristics

 Most trees shed leaves during dry season and grow during hot wet season.
 Smaller number of tree species than tropical rain forests.
 Tall species of trees rising up to 30m.
 Trees don’t grow together.
 Trees have more branches because of light penetrating at lower levels.
 Denser undergrowth than tropical rain forests.
 Particular species of trees dominate an area (pure/definite stands) e.g.
o Leak in Burma
o Sal in India
o Eucalyptus in Queensland Australia
o Bamboo in S.E Asia

h. Dominant tree species are leak, bamboo, acacia, camphor, ebony, Sapele and
Pyinkaido.

Uses of tropical Monsoon Forests

 Teak in Burma and Thailand is used for building houses and boats because it’s
hard and resistant to termites.
 Bamboo and rattan creeper are used for making furniture, baskets and
weaving.
 Young tender shoots of bamboo are consumed as vegetables.
Mediterranean Forests
Areas

 Europe and N. Africa areas bordering Mediterranean Sea.

 Around Cape Town on S.W end of Africa.
 Central coast of California.
 Around Perth in S.W Australia.

Characteristics

 Forests are open woodlands.

 Many trees are deciduous.
 Some trees are evergreen e.g. oak
 There is woody scrub vegetation in areas which are dry and with poor soils
which is called marquis in France, Chaparral in California and Machia in Italy.
 Many plants are sweet smelling (aromatic) e.g. rosemary, lavender, oleander,
broom and myrtle.
 Many trees are xerophytes e.g.
o Trees have long tap roots to reach the water deep below during long
dry spells.
o Waxy leaves to reduce transpiration
o Storing water in their thick leaves or stems
o Small spiny leaves

18.Types of trees are olive, sweet chestnut, beech, cedar, cypress, sequoia,
eucalyptus

Uses

p. Cork oak is used to make corks for bottling wine.

q. Olive tree fruits are used for cooking and extraction of olive oil.
r. Timber from sweet chest nut, beech, cedar, cypress and pine is used for
building houses and making furniture.
s. Shrubs and grasses are used as pasture for goats.

Temperate Evergreen Forests

 Found in areas experiencing warm temperate eastern margin or China

Climate.

Areas

 Along Natal coast in S. Africa

 china and S. Japan
 E Australia
 E and S. states of U.S.A.
Characteristics

 Evergreen because of abundant rainfall throughout the year.

 Most trees have broad leaves to increase the surface are for efficient
transpiration.
 Many evergreen trees are hardwoods.

Uses

 Hard woods such as oak and iron wood are used for furniture and building
materials.
 Soft woods such as cypress and pines are used for furniture.
 Wattle trunks are used in the coal mines of natal.
 Bamboo is used for making furniture and building in China and Japan.
 Walnuts provide nuts used for making chocolate.
 Ivory nuts are used for making buttons.
 Young shoots of bamboo are eaten as vegetables in china and Japan.

Temperate Deciduous Forests

 Found in areas experiencing cool temperate western marginal climate.

Location

 and W. Europe.
 Most of E. states of U.S.A.
 Chile in S. America.

Characteristics

3. Trees are deciduous and shed leaves in autumn and become green in
summer.
4. Individual species of trees are scattered and their density per unit area is
small.
5. Trees are smaller in size.
6. Trees are broad leaved.
7. Most of the trees are hardwoods
8. There is rich undergrowth because of being fairly open.
9. Trees grow in pure stands in some regions and at others they are mixed.
10. Trees are easier to exploit than tropical hardwoods.
11. Trees include eucalyptus (blue gum), olive, birch, walnut, elm and ash.

Uses

12. Hardwoods such as oak and birch are used for timber, wood fuel and
charcoal.
13. Chestnut and walnut nuts are edible.
14. Oak tree fruits are used for feeding pigs.
15. Tung tree yields oil for making paint and furnish.
16. Maple sap is used for making maple syrup.

Coniferous Forests

17. It’s dominant in cool climates. It’s known as Taiga and Boreal in Russia.

Location

18. coast of Canada.

19. Scandinavia across Russia to the Pacific coast.

Characteristics/of soft woods in Canada

20. Their seeds are cone shaped.

21. Most trees are softwoods and are light in weight.
22. Trees mature faster than hardwoods of tropical regions.
23. Trees have big proportion of stem compared to leaves.
24. Most tree species are evergreen with few shedding leaves e.g. larch and fir.
25. Tree species occur in big pure stands.
26. Very little undergrowth due to acidic humus from leaf fall.
27. Trees have straight trunks.
28. Trees mature after a long period of time (50-70 years) due to the cold
conditions especially in winter.
29. Species of trees found here are pines, Fir, spruce, larch and Hemlock.

Adaptations

30. Needle-like leaves to reduce transpiration.

31. Leaves with tough waxy skin to protect them from winter cold.
32. Tree crowns are cone shaped and flexible crowns to allow snow to slide off to
prevent it from accumulating on the branches.
33. Trees are evergreen to have maximum utilisation of sunlight during the short
summers.
34. Flexible tree trunks to allow swaying so as to allow swaying so as not to break
during strong winter winds.
35. Widely spread root system for maximum utilisation of moisture from top soil
because sub soil is permanently frozen.

Uses

36. Soft woods such as spruce, fir, pine and larch are used for construction, wood
pulp used in paper manufacture.
Mixed Forests

37. Found at the zone of transition between temperate deciduous and coniferous
forests.

Location

38. Saskatchewan and Alberta provinces of Canada

39. Scottish regions in Europe
40. low lying Mediterranean regions

Characteristics

41. A mixture of broadleaved deciduous and coniferous trees.

Uses

42. Cedar and hazel are used for fencing posts.

43. Grazing activities are carried out where forests are open.
44. Softwoods such as spruce, fir and pine are used to make wood pulp used for
paper manufacture.
45. Hardwoods such as oak and birch are valuable sources of timber, wood fuel
and charcoal.
46. Maple tree syrup is used for making maple syrup.

Grasslands

47. Found in climatic regions where a seasonal pattern occurs with a prolonged
drought of about 5-7 months.

Tropical Grasslands/ Savanna

48. Found in areas experiencing tropical continental climate.

Areas

49. N and S of Congo Basin.

50. Between Sahel and equatorial forests in E. Africa plateau.
51. E of Australian Desert.
52. Brazilian highlands

It’s divided into:

53. Open grasslands where grass is dominant and

54. Woodlands in areas which receive more rainfall.
Characteristics

55. Grasslands with widely spaced trees such as acacias.

56. Grasses die in dry season and sprout quickly when it rains.
57. Grasses are tall (up to 3m with stiff blades and elephant grass is tallest
reaching up to 4m.
58. Trees are of medium size up to 13m
59. Tree crowns are umbrella shaped to provide shade around roots to reduce
evaporation.
60. Most trees are deciduous and shed leaves during dry season.
61. Trees have small leaves and thick barks to reduce transpiration.
62. Trees have long tap roots to reach the water deep below during long dry
spells.

Uses

63. Grass is for grazing and commercial ranching though it’s of low nutritional
value due to lack of phosphorous.
64. Cereals e.g. wheat farming because the soil is rich in humus resulting from
the grass cover.
65. Vegetation acts as soil cover to reduce soil erosion.
66. Homes of wild animals which attract tourists e.g. E. and C. African savannas.
67. Trees are habitats for bees which provide honey.
68. Some shrubs and herbs are used for medicine.
69. Trees such as acacia provide fuel wood and charcoal.

Temperate Grasslands

70. Found in continental interiors of temperate grasslands where rainfall isn’t

sufficient to sustain forests.

Location
The Prairies
Areas

71. Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and neighbouring

states of U.S.A.

Characteristics

72. Continuous tuft grass

73. Grasses are nutritious.
74. Grass is short
75. Grass is interspersed with bulbous and leguminous plants.
76. Grass is mixed in some areas with species such as stipa, buffalo and gamma
grasses.
77. Tall grasses in areas with rainfall of over 500mm.

The Steppes

78. Found in Eurasia- temperate interiors of Europe and Asia.

Characteristics

 True Steppes-rich carpet of grass and some flowering plants.

 Desert steppes-Coarse grass growing in tufts
 Grass doesn’t form a continuous cove on the ground.
 Short grass which grows very close to the ground.

The Pampas

 Found in Argentina.

Characteristics

 Feather-like grass
 Grass forms individual tussocks with patches of bare soil.
 Forests are present in some areas due to increased moisture.
 Xerophytic or drought resistant plants are present in some areas.

The Veldt

 Found in S. Africa.

Characteristics

 Grasses are extensively spread.

 There is little or no mixture of trees or shrubs.
 There is a uniform cover of grass on high plateaus.

The Downs

 Found in Australia and New Zealand.

Characteristics

 Tall grass mixed with trees.

 Semi desert areas have patches of dominant grass.
 Mixture of temperate and tropical grass species.
 Grass is nutritious and nutritious for livestock.
  Natural grasses of Argentina have been replaced by Alfalfa and in New
Zealand British meadow grasses now dominate.

Uses of Temperate Grasslands

 For grain cultivation e.g. wheat which requires as low as 325mm of rainfall.
 For cultivation of other crops e.g. oil seeds, Soya beans, vegetables and millet
and sorghum widely grown in the Veldt.
 For livestock farming e.g. cattle, sheep, goats and horses. There are
scientifically managed ranches called Estancias in Argentina.

Desert Vegetation
Tropical Desert Vegetation

 Found in tropical deserts.

Characteristics

 Vegetation is present except in bare rock and sand covered areas.

 There are more plants on oasis e.g. date palms and a variety of shrubs.
 Some plants are succulent to have high water storage capacity.
 Some have spines to protect them from animals.
 Some have thorn-like leaves to reduce rate of transpiration.
 Some have long roots to enable them to tap water from deeper parts of
rocks.
 Some shed leaves during dry season and grow new leaves during wet periods
to reduce water loss.
 Some are salt tolerant (halophytic) by having many water storing cells to
counter soil salinity or alkalinity.

Temperate and Arctic Desert Vegetation

7. Found in warm temperate deserts and arctic climates.

Characteristics

 Grasses and woody plants.

 Woody plants which are Xerophytic and halophytic.
 Shrubs have shallow roots due to permafrost.
 Plants flower and produce fruits within short wet season.
 There is scarce vegetation in Tundra.
 Plants present in arctic deserts are such as lichens, mosses and flowering
plants such as anemones and marsh marigold.

Uses of Desert Vegetation

  Bilberries in temperate deserts bear edible fruits.
 Small trees are source of fuel foe Eskimos who live in arctic region.
 Vegetation in tropical deserts is important in arresting sand dunes to prevent
them from burying oasis and settlements.
 In tropical deserts fringes vegetation is valuable food for animals.
 Date palm is cultivated for its fruit.

Mountain Vegetation

 Vegetation found towards the top of the mountain.

Uses of Mountain Vegetation

 Grasslands are used for grazing.

 Alpine meadows in temperate regions provide summer grazing pastures.
 Mountain forests provide timber, building materials, fuel wood and charcoal.
 Mountain forests are habitats for wild animals e.g. elephants.
 Mountain vegetation makes mountains to be water catchment areas.
 Mountain forests help to purify air by absorbing carbon dioxide and providing
oxygen.
 Mountain vegetation is used for research.

Significance of Vegetation

 Forests add beauty to country’s landscape.

 Vegetation protects soil from erosion by wind and rainwater.
 Vegetation partly decays forming humus making the soil fertile.
 Some plants roots, barks and leaves are used for medicine.
 Forests modify the climate of the surrounding area by increasing rainfall and
reducing temperatures.
 Some plants such as bamboo shoots and wild fruits are consumed as food.
 Some fibrous plants such as sisal and jute are used for making ropes, sacks,
mats, etc.
 Latex from rubber tree is used for manufacture of rubber used in tire
manufacture.
 Forestry
 Definition
 Type of Forests
 Factors Influencing Types and Distribution of Forests
 Importance of Forests to Kenya
 Importance of Forest Products
 Problems Facing Forestry in Kenya
 Management and Conservation of Forests
1. Conservation Measures
2. Management Measures
3. Importance of Forest Management and Conservation
 Softwood Forests in Kenya and Canada
1. Factors Favouring the Development of Softwood Forests
2. Mode of Exploitation
3. Planted Soft Woods in Kenya
4. Products
5. Economic Significance of Softwood Forests in both Countries
6. Problems in Kenya and Canada
7. Comparison of Softwood forests in Kenya and Canada

Definition

25.Forestry is the science of developing and managing forests including

cultivating them.

Type of Forests

 Natural forests-which grow by natural means of seed dispersal.

 Semi-natural/derived/cultivated forests-which is in the process of recovering
from interference by man.
 Planted/cultivated forests-which have been planted by man.
 Indigenous forests-which are native to a region or which have grown in a
region from the beginning.
  Exotic forests-which have trees which have been introduced to a place from
other countries.
 Other types have been discussed in the chapter of vegetation.

Factors Influencing Types and Distribution of Forests

Temperature

43.High temperature causes fast growth of trees while low temperature causes
slow growth.
44.Rain forests are found at low altitudes which are warmer while coniferous
forests are found at high altitudes which are cooler.

Aspect

62.Dense forests are found on windward slopes of mountains because they are
wetter than leeward slopes and they start at a lower level than on the
leeward slopes.
63.In temperate region slopes facing equator have dense forests because they
are warmer while those facing the poles have coniferous forests which are
adapted to low temperatures.

Precipitation

 There are dense forest where there is heavy precipitation while there is less
forest cover consisting of stunted trees in areas with little precipitation.
 Coniferous forest have cone-shaped crowns to allow snow to slide off so as
not to accumulate on the branches and cause them to break off.

Soil

 Deep soils support huge tropical trees while shallow soils support coniferous
trees which have shallow and wide spread root system to be able to
maximally utilise water on the top soil since the sub soil is permanently
frozen.
 Poor or infertile soils have stunted trees.

Human Activities

 Deforestation and shifting cultivation- man has cleared forests to create room
for agriculture settlement etc. which has reduced forest cover on the earth’s
surface.
 Afforestation and Agroforestry-man has planted trees in areas where they
never existed establishing forests there.
  Reafforestation-man has replanted forests which he has cleared with
indigenous and exotic trees causing natural forests to become
semi-natural/secondary or derived forests.

Importance of Forests to Kenya

 Forests are water catchment areas which supports agriculture and H.E.P.
generation.
 Forests provide us with wood fuel e.g. firewood, charcoal and saw dust.
 Forests prevent soil erosion by their roots binding the soil together, reducing
run off thereby reducing incidents of flooding and dam siltation.
 Forests are habitats of wild animals which are a tourist attraction which
brings foreign exchange used to import goods and services and fund
development projects.
 Forests are a disposal system for carbon dioxide which they use in
photosynthesis and release oxygen thereby purifying air and reducing global
warming.
 Forests increase soil fertility when leaves fall and rot forming humus.
 Forests regulate the climate of an area by creating a micro climate causing
heavy and frequent rain by evapotranspiration and lowering temperatures.
 Forests are a source of timber for construction and furniture making.
 Forests beautify the environment by flora (plants) and fauna (animals).
 Some forest’s trees are a source of medicine.
 Presence of forests has led to the development of infrastructure as roads
have been constructed to make forests accessible.
 Forests provide employment to people e.g. forest guards, forest officers,
lumberjacks, carpenters and timber merchants.

Importance of Forest Products

 Forests are a source of food e.g. fruits, honey, mushrooms and bamboo
tender leaves which are used for vegetables.
 Forests provide wood used for manufacture of paper, soft boards, ply wood
etc.
 Animals in forests are hunted for food, skins and horns.
 Leaves of trees and forest undergrowth are used as livestock fodder.
 Forests provide wood which is used in cottage industries for making carvings
and wooden utensils which are sold locally and exported.
 Forest flora and fauna are a rich reservoir for research.

Problems Facing Forestry in Kenya

 Encroachment by people by clearing them to create room for agriculture and

settlement, grazing etc. which puts some plants and animal species in danger
of extinction.
  Destruction especially of young trees by herbivorous wild animals such as
elephants due to rapid increase in the population.
 Destruction of huge tracts of forests by fires caused by poachers, honey
harvesters etc. especially during the dry season.
 Pests and diseases outbreak which can result in destruction of large tracts of
land with valuable tree species e.g. there was an outbreak of aphids in 1980s
which destroyed cypress.
 Overexploitation whereby the trees are harvested at a higher rate than which
they are being replaced naturally and also harvesting of immature trees.
 Excision of forests e.g. by converting some parts of forests into private land,
government land like Nyayo Tea Zones and public utilities like Agricultural
Show Grounds which has resulted into reduction of the area under forests.
 Poor management of forests e.g. clear cutting which may lead to harvesting
of immature trees in future, government officials carrying out illegal logging
and government in the past having not been strict in forest conservation of
forests which led to destruction of large areas of forests.

Management and Conservation of Forests

 Conservation of forests is protection of forests against interference and

destruction by man while forest conservation is effective planning and control
of forests and forest resources.

Conservation Measures

 Creation of forest reserves to protect indigenous forests from extinction e.g.

Mt. Kenya forest, Shimba Hills and Arabuko Sokoke.
 Setting of forest guard posts in the forests to protect forests against illegal
logging (tree felling).
 Setting Nyayo Tea Zones to act as protective belts to prevent people from
trespassing into the forests. They are also a source of employment and
foreign exchange.
 Afforestation and reafforestation.
 Agroforestry (intercropping of various crops with trees) which:
o Supplies wood resources
o Provides animal fodder
o Provide food e.g. fruits e.g. mangoes and avocadoes for good health
and nutrition
o Acts as wind breakers and
o Shade for crops.
Management Measures

 Research to determine which tree species are suitable for which area and
how to combat pests and diseases outbreak.
 Carrying out public campaigns through mass media on the importance of
forests.
 Use of alternative sources of energy e.g. sun, wind, biogas and water to
reduce the rate of tree felling.
 Use of energy saving stoves to reduce the rate of overexploitation of wood
fuel.
 Improvement on cutting practices by selective falling of trees and replanting
more trees than those cut.
 Control of pests and diseases which affect trees.

Importance of Forest Management and Conservation

26.Are a source of utility products e.g. firewood for fuel and food from fruits and
nuts.
27.For ecological reasons in that they help in the following ways:
 To preserve flora and fauna
 It’s a water catchment area
 Moderating the flow of water reducing soil erosion and floods which
also prevents siltation of dams.
28.For posterity i.e. so that the future generation will have forest resources
available for their use.
29.Industrial reasons because forest products are used as raw materials in the
industries such as furniture, paper making, etc.
30.Forests are important for scientific research such as on herbal medicine and
genetic mapping of the species of plants and animals which haven’t been
identified.

Softwood Forests in Kenya and Canada

Factors Favouring the Development of Softwood Forests
Kenya

30.Cool climate of Kenya highlands which enables coniferous forests to thrive

e.g. Mt. Kenya and Aberdares.
31.Heavy rainfall received in Kenya highlands and low evaporation rates which
supports forest growth.
32.Ruggedness and steepness of some parts of Kenya highlands making them
unsuitable for settlement thereby leaving forests to thrive.
33.High demand for timber and wood products locally and outside the country
which encourages tree farming.

Canada
  Cool and cold climate which favours growth of coniferous forests.
 Very low average temperatures in the interior which favours the growth of
coniferous forests.
 Ruggedness and steepness such as of British Columbia which discourages
agriculture and settlement leaving forests to thrive.
 Very low population density leaving a lot of land available for forests.
 Heavy rainfall on the windward slopes of mountain ranges of British Columbia
and low evaporation in the east giving sufficient moisture to sustain forests.

Mode of Exploitation
Kenya

 Workers are transported daily to logging sites in Kenya while in Canada

settlement is set for workers within forests.
 Power saws are used in both countries to fell trees but axes are used to a
limited extent in Kenya.
 In Kenya transportation of logs is by tractors and lorries while in Canada
rivers are widely used to transport logs by floating.
 In both countries logging is systematic and it is done in blocks.

Factors Favouring Exploitation of Softwoods

Kenya

32.Doesn’t experience winter so logging can go on throughout the year.

33.Soft wood forests in Kenya are easier to exploit because trees are planted in
rows unlike in Kenya where they are natural and trees grow haphazardly.
34.In Kenya forests are accessible throughout the year unlike in Canada where
forests in the north are inaccessible during severe winter and ruggedness.
35.In Kenya logging can go on throughout the year because there is no winter.
36.Availability of water from R. Nzoia for pulp and paper manufacture at Webuye.
37.Ready market due to high demand for wood products locally and outside in
COMESA.

Canada

27.Mild winters in British Columbia which makes it possible to transport logs

throughout the year.
28.Availability of water from many rivers providing plenty of water for paper and
pulp manufacture.
29.Cheap H.E.P. for factories from many rivers in Canada.
30.Cheap and efficient land and water transport system easing transport of logs
to factories and to markets.
31.Coastal location of major producing areas making exportation of timber to
U.S.A. and Japan easy.
 32.High demand for forest products in the neighbouring U.S.A. and locally due to
high purchasing power.
33.Existence of natural coniferous forests in pure stands (one tree species
covering a large area) making exploitation easy.
34.Absence of undergrowth which makes exploitation easy (due to dead leaves
resulting in acidic humus.

Planted Soft Woods in Kenya

 Planted in clear rows.

 Clear cutting
 Mature at the same time.

Products

 In Kenya and Canada products are poles sawn timber, pulp, paper, block
board, ply wood, clip board etc.

Economic Significance of Softwood Forests in both Countries

23.Provides employment to people e.g. lumberjacks, tree farmers and in timber

related industries.
24.Has led to development of timber/wood related industries e.g. furniture,
paper manufacture etc.
25.A foreign exchange earner when in Canada timber is exported to U.S.A. and
when products in Kenya are exported to COMESA.
26.Saving some foreign exchange when the country produce wood products to
cater for their needs on which they’d otherwise spend foreign exchange.
27.Infrastructural development when roads are constructed to ease
transportation of logs to industries and products to markets.
28.Provide income to tree farmers.

Problems in Kenya and Canada

 Forest fires which destroy large tracts of land where in Canada the greatest
number of fires are caused by lighting while in Kenya they are caused by
illegal loggers, poachers, etc.
 Pests and diseases e.g. aphids which destroyed cypress in 1980s.
 Overexploitation leading to soil erosion as trees takes long time to mature
and provide sufficient cover to the soil after planting.
 Canada’s trees take long time to mature (50-60 years due to severe winters
which slow their growth. In Kenya they take 12-35 years.
 In Canada there is problem of inaccessibility of forests in the northern part in
winter and due to rugged terrain while in Kenya they are planted and easily
accessible.
Comparison of Softwood Forests in Kenya and Canada
Similarities

19.Soft wood forests in both countries experience the problems of pests and
diseases, fires, soil erosion and overexploitation.
20.Softwood forest products are similar e.g. sawn timber, wood pulp, paper,
poles, etc.
21.Softwood forests in both countries grow in places with heavy rainfall, cool
temperatures, heavy rainfall and rugged terrain.
22.Forest products earn foreign exchange in both countries.
23.Tree species are similar e.g. there is pine in both countries.

Differences

7. Species of trees differ e.g. in Kenya there is Kenya cedar and podo while in
Canada there is Douglas fir and white pine.
8. Canada’s soft woods are mainly natural while Kenya’s are mostly planted.
9. Kenya’s softwood forests are found in highlands while Canada’s are found in
lowlands due to cool temperatures.
10.Canada’s softwood forests cover large tracts of land than Kenya’s.
11.In Kenya softwood forests are propagated by afforestation while in Canada it’s
by leaving some trees uncut so that they produce seeds to be dispersed
naturally.
12.Canada’s softwood forests take longer to mature than Kenya’s due to severe
winter temperatures.
13.Kenya’s softwood forests are planted in rows and easily exploitable unlike
Canada’s which grow naturally and haphazardly.