COMMUNICATION

DEFINITION
Communication is a process through which the
use of verbal or non-verbal symbols, a message
is sent through a channel, (by a sender), to a
receiver, in an effort to share information in an
understandable form.
Elements of Communication
(a) Sender: Communication starts with the
sender creating an idea or choosing a fact to
communicate. This is the basis of the message.
This idea or fact is then encoded (organised in a
series of symbols) in a way that can be understood
by the intended receiver. It could be in spoken or
written words, or perhaps a gesture of some sort.
(b) Transmission
This encoded message is then linked to the
receiver through a channel e.g. print media, a
computer , telephone, television or a telegraph.
It is the channel that links the sender with the
receiver. In some cases, two or more
channels can be used at the same time. The
proper selection of the media and timing is
crucial for effective communication. The sender
also tries to keep the messages free of barriers
or interference, so that they can reach the
receiver and hold his attention.
(c) Receiver
The receiver is the decoder of the message and
is to whom it was targeted. Receivers decode
(interpret) the message in the light of their individual
experiences or frames of reference. Effective and
reliable communication can only be said to have
occurred when the receiver and the sender attach
the same or at least similar meaning to the symbols.
In other words, the closer the decoded message is to
its encoded form (assuming it was encoded fully and
accurately), the more effective the communication is.
A message coded in English requires a receiver
who understands English. Understanding is in
the mind of the receiver; therefore he must have
an open mind and be prepared to receive the
message.
(d) Feedback
After the receiver has decoded the message,
whether he understands the message fully or
not, he will however, react in some way. His
reaction may be positive or negative depending
upon his level of understanding and the effect
the message has on him.
Feedback is essential, because, by evaluating the
receiver’s words or actions, the sender can judge
how well the message got through. It also
indicates whether individual or organisational
change has taken place as a result of the
communication.
(e) Noise
Noise tends to be present in every stage of the
communication process. Noise is a technical
term for all forms of obstacle to effective
communication – hinders the sender, the
transmission or the receiver. It tends to distort
the message at any stage in the system.
The Communication Process
Model
Encode Decode
Sender Transmission Receiver

Feedback
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION
Without communication, it will not be
possible for organisations to achieve their
goals. Managers are the nerve centers
of their organisations and effective
communication is the crucial tool a manager
has at his disposal for effective management.
It is by means of communication that people
are linked together in an organisation to
achieve a common purpose.
Communication is essential for the internal
functioning of the enterprise. The manager
needs communication for developing and
sustaining a smooth, functioning work team.
It is through communication that he directs
the employees while coordinating and
controlling their activities towards the
accomplishment of corporate goals and
objectives, as well as satisfying the aspirations
and expectations of the employees.
Communication also relates to the external
environment of the organisation. It is
through communication that organisations
interact and conduct required relationship
with stakeholders i.e. customers,
shareholders, communities, governments etc.
With this, the organisation becomes an open
system which interacts with its environment.
 Types of Communication
Communication falls into two broad
categories. They are: Verbal and Non-Verbal.

1. Verbal Communication
This is the type of communication that may
take an oral (spoken) form in which human
speech organs are used to produce
sounds. This includes face-to-face discussion
and interviews, using the telephone,
addressing a meeting, talking in groups.
Verbal communication may also take a written
form in which human muscles are used to
produce symbols (letters of the alphabet and
words). It includes memoranda, letters,
notices, statements, orders, invoices and
other types of messages.
(a) Oral Communication
Oral Communication is used in intra-personal,
interpersonal and group communication situations.
(i) Intra-Personal Communication
This is the process of information transfer which goes
on within an individual. Ideas and thoughts that are
generated are first of all weighed, tossed here and
there, then we decide how best to put it before we
allow it to escape within us. During this process, we
unconsciously verbalise (say aloud) what is going on
within us. In such situations, no particular receiver is
intended.
 (ii) Interpersonal Communication
This is the type of communication that is often referred
to as face- to– face communication. It is the
exchange of ideas and information between two
people - you and your friend, patient, boss, secretary,
clerk, doctor, or any other person. Ideas and thoughts
are not kept within one self but shared directly with
someone else face-to-face, by phone or other gadgets
of communication. Face-to-face communication has an
advantage of immediate answer and more impact than
the written word, but you are left with no record of
what has taken place.
(iii) Group Communication
Members within a group share ideas and
information with one another. As a member
of group, you take part in group
communication. It involves the exchange
of ideas and information among members.
(b) Written Communication
This refers to the translation of oral messages
into alphabetic symbols. These symbols are
then organised together to convey ideas,
messages, or information between those
who encounter or participate in the
communication
 Written communication is normally used in
the following situations:
(i) for personal and business letters;
(ii) queries (for disciplinary purposes);
(iii) for writing reports;
(iv) for circulars and memos;
(v) for essays, compositions and all forms of
collecting information;
(vi) for questionnaires and forms designed for
collecting information;
(vii) telegrams and telexes.
2. Non-Verbal Communication
This type of communication is the way we show our feelings
through our movements, gestures and postures. It comprises
body movement, the space or distance put between people and
the manner in which we speak. It can be discussed under the
followings: body language, paralanguage and distance.
(i) Body Language
Information, ideas, feelings and attitudes can be conveyed by
the positions of our body as well as the movement of some parts of
it. Body language are gestures, body shape, or facial expressions.
Body language does not involve the use of vocal symbols; rather it
involves the use of the whole body or part of it. Sometimes by
doing, not doing or saying anything at all, we can communicate a
lot.
 (ii) Paralanguage
Ideas, information, attitude and feelings can be
conveyed by the way something is said rather
than by what is actually said. A hiss at
someone for example is a message of scorn or
dissatisfaction to him. In paralanguage,
information is conveyed by the tone of the
speaker’s voice and his countenance rather than
any specific word choice.
 (iii) Distance
This refers to the gap created between people. It
is used as a means of communication in both
formal information situations. Distance, territory
or space, building design, room and seating
arrangements, and artifacts and objects take on
unique significance in the context of
organisational communication. Other variants of
this type of communication include, personal
distance, business distance, social distance and
public distance.
Non-verbal communication often
reinforces verbal communication, helps to
emphasise the point being made. Also, it can
sometimes give a much clearer idea of what
we are thinking and how we are responding
than the words we use.
3. Organisational Communication
In all organisations, there are two established systems -
the formal communication system and the informal
communication system. The size of an organisation, its
structure and the quality and attitudes of management
all influence the communication process of
organisations.
A. Formal Communication
Formal communication is the officially recognised route
for task related messages in organisations. Formal
communication may be vertical, horizontal or semi-
vertical, depending on the direction of information flow.
(i) Vertical Communication
This refers to the flow of messages from those at
the top of the hierarchy to the person at the
bottom, and from most senior officers to the
most junior workers. It also refers to the flow of
messages from those at the bottom to the
persons at the top; hence, vertical
communication could be downward or upward.
 Downward Communication Flow
Here information flows from the top management i.e.
from the board of directors, through the general
manager, assistant managers and supervisors to
factory hands. Essentially, downward communication
originates from the person with the greatest authority
in the organisation to the person with the least.
The communication load carried down usually
consists of policies, plans, targets, directives, queries,
instructions and orders. These are necessary
information for task performances as employees work
to achieve the goals set for the organisation.
 Upward Communication Flow
This type of communication refers to that information
sent from those at the bottom of the organisation chart
to the higher ranking officers in the organisation. It is
more of a feedback device which supplies information
about how people have reacted or responded to
the communication passed to them by mangers. It is
made up of messages containing clarifications and
directives, suggestions on how some activities can be
carried out or opinions of employees on some
company plans and policies.
ii. Horizontal Communication Flow
This refers to the exchange of messages, ideas
and information between colleagues or workers
on the same level or of the same rank, about the
tasks which they perform within their
organisation. The exchange is done through face
to face interpersonal communication, in
meetings and committees as well as through
memos. Exchange of this nature often occurs
during informal contact occasions such as in
canteens and clubs.
iii. Semi-Vertical Communication Flow
With the advent of trade unions, a new system of
formal communication has emerged. Trade unions
whether approved by management or not are
recognised by law as the official mouthpiece of
the workers and therefore constitute a separate
official communication system between workers
and the management .
Unions take up matters concerning the welfare of
workers with the management after consulting
with workers. When agreement is reached on the
issue being discussed, they report these directly to
the workers without following the hierarchy as
established by the organisational chart.
B. Informal Communication
Systems
This type of communication carries unofficial
information about matters within the
organisation or pertaining to it. In other
words, it is the unofficial channel in
processing official information.
Informal communication by-passes all official
channels of authority.
The main channels of informal
communication are rumour and the
grapevine.
(i) Rumour
This refers to unofficial and unconfirmed
information sent through interpersonal
channels. There is no clear-cut evidence to
buttress the message carried nor can anyone
pinpoint the source; you will always hear that
somebody else told the person who told
you.
Rumour is usually inaccurate and often
malicious. Most of the time, it is fabricated and
circulated by persons who are antagonistic to a
cause or to the target of the rumour.
Rumour is bad for people and for
organisations.
Rumours are signs that human relations
within the organisation have for some reason,
degenerated. It is also a sign that there is a
gap in communication between
management and employees.
It is very important for management to be
sensitive and prevent this situation from
arising.
The grapevine is the positive side of
rumour in an informal communication system.

The grapevine has an origin which is well

founded but the person giving out the
information or circulating is not easily found
nor will any person claim responsibility.
This information is always related to some
aspects of the life of the organisation. It may
also relate to social affairs. Grapevine
information is usually fairly accurate though
often incomplete.
 Sources of grapevine include:
(a) new information
(b) excitement
(c) loyalty
(d) informal conversation
(e) insecurity
Grapevine information cannot be easily
controlled nor stopped and it tends to spread
horizontally.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Structural, human or technological constraints have
been found to be responsible for communication not
to be effective. These barriers affect the sender,
transmission and receiver – the whole communication
process.
(a) Structural Constraints
The architectural plan and location of the buildings,
the physical facilities within each building, and the
geographical location of subsidiary units or
departments in relation to the parent company or to
the headquarters are factors that can facilitate or
impede the free flow of communication.
(b) Human Constraints
i. Semantic Barrier
This could arise as a result of a great disparity in
the level of language usage between different
categories of workers. It makes information to
be unclear to the receiver due to the symbol
used.
ii. Information overload
Too much access to information within a given
time makes the worker to be forgetful,
disorganised and ineffective.
Human attitudes, feelings and biases pose
serious communication barriers.
People whose experiences are negative in life
have been found to reflect the same about
interpersonal relationship.
iii. Gate –keeping
A gatekeeper is one who because of his access
to information vets them. He could impound
and suppress information to which he is
unsympathetic or hostile while allowing that
from which he will benefit or to which he is
sympathetic to go through.
iv. Rumours
It creates communication problems by adding or
subtracting from what actually is obtained.
(c) Technological Constraints and Departmental
Barriers
Specialisation comes with its communication
problems. Each professional and department
develops their jargons, making communication
with other departments and the head office
difficult. The awareness of these barriers is of
utmost importance to managers, as it presents
the best opportunity of taking actions that
avoid or eliminate them, thereby enhancing
effective communication.