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Research on Intelligent Manufacturing

Dunbing Tang
Kun Zheng
Wenbin Gu

Adaptive Control
of Bio-Inspired
Manufacturing
Systems
Research on Intelligent Manufacturing

Editors-in-Chief
Han Ding, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
Ronglei Sun, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

Series Editors
Kok-Meng Lee, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
Yusheng Shi, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
Jihong Liu, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Beijing, China
Hanwu He, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
Yuwang Liu, Shenyang Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Shenyang, China
Jiajie Guo, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University
of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
Haibin Yin, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China
Junzhi Yu, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
Wenfeng Li, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China
Jingjing Ji, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
Research on Intelligent Manufacturing (RIM) publishes the latest developments
and applications of research in intelligent manufacturing—rapidly, informally and
in high quality. It combines theory and practice to analyse related cases in fields
including but not limited to:
Intelligent design theory and technologies
Intelligent manufacturing equipment and technologies
Intelligent sensing and control technologies
Intelligent manufacturing systems and services
This book series aims to address hot technological spots and solve challenging
problems in the field of intelligent manufacturing. It brings together scientists and
engineers working in all related branches from both East and West, under the
support of national strategies like Industry 4.0 and Made in China 2025. With its
wide coverage in all related branches, such as Industrial Internet of Things (IoT),
Cloud Computing, 3D Printing and Virtual Reality Technology, we hope this book
series can provide the researchers with a scientific platform to exchange and share
the latest findings, ideas, and advances, and to chart the frontiers of intelligent
manufacturing.
The series’ scope includes monographs, professional books and graduate
textbooks, edited volumes, and reference works intended to support education in
related areas at the graduate and post-graduate levels.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15516

Dunbing Tang Kun Zheng Wenbin Gu
• •

Adaptive Control
of Bio-Inspired
Manufacturing Systems

123
Dunbing Tang Kun Zheng
College of Mechanical and Electrical School of Automotive and Rail Transit
Engineering Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced
Nanjing University of Aeronautics Numerical Control Technology
and Astronautics Nanjing Institute of Technology
Nanjing, China Nanjing, China

Wenbin Gu
College of Mechanical
and Electrical Engineering
Hohai University
Changzhou, China

ISSN 2523-3386 ISSN 2523-3394 (electronic)

Research on Intelligent Manufacturing
ISBN 978-981-15-3444-7 ISBN 978-981-15-3445-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3445-4
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
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Singapore
Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No. U1637211, 51805244, 51875171), National Key Research and Development
Program of China (No. 2018YFE0177000), the Fundamental Research Funds for the
Central Universities (No. 2019B21614), National Defense Basic Scientific Research
Program of China (No. JCKY201805C003), Jiangsu Province 333 Project, Scientific
Research Fund of Nanjing Institute of Technology (No. YKJ201622 and
KXJ201606). The authors would like to thank the referees for their helpful com-
ments and suggestions.

v
Contents

1 Bio-Inspired Manufacturing System Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction and Synopsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Biological Background of BIMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.3 Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.4 Neuroendocrine-Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Bio-Inspired Manufacturing System (BIMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Control Model of BIMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.1 Biologic Hormone Regulation Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.2 Hormone Regulation Model of BIMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 Hormone Regulation Based Algorithms for Production Scheduling
Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Introduction and Synopsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 The Job-Shop Scheduling Problem Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Hormone Modulation Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 An IAPSO for Job-Shop Scheduling Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.1 Traditional PSO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.2 IAPSO Based on the Hormone Regulation Mechanism . . . 25
2.5 An IAGA for Job-Shop Scheduling Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5.1 Traditional GA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5.2 An IAGA for Job-Shop Scheduling Problem . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6 Application of Neuroendocrine-Inspired Optimization
Algorithms for Production Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
2.6.1 Application of the IAPSO for the JSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34
2.6.2 The Application of the IAGA for JSSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39

vii
viii Contents

2.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3 Hormone Regulation Based Approach for Distributed
and On-line Scheduling of Machines and AGVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1 Introduction and Synopsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2 On-line Scheduling Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2.1 On-line Scheduling Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2.2 Information Processing Mechanism in Endocrine
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 50
3.2.3 On-line Scheduling Model Inspired by the Principle
of Hormone Diffusion and Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 52
3.3 Allocation Mechanism Based on Hormone Regulation
Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3.1 Hormone Regulation Mechanism Background . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3.2 Time Parameters in Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3.3 Allocation Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4 Distributed Cooperation Mechanism for On-line Scheduling . . . . . 60
3.5 Experimental Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4 Production Control Strategy Inspired by Neuroendocrine
Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.1 Introduction and Synopsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3 General Principle of Neuroendocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.3.1 Negative Feedback Mechanism of Hormone Regulation . . . 76
4.3.2 Hill Functions of Hormone Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4 Control Model of Production System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4.1 Hormone Regulation Model of Production System . . . . . . 77
4.4.2 Design of Controllers Based on Hill Function . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.5 Performance Analysis with Numerical Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.5.1 Operation of the Control Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.5.2 Analysis of the Control Model Under Normal State . . . . . . 83
4.5.3 Analysis of the Control Model Under Extreme State . . . . . 85
4.6 Conclusions and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5 Neuroendocrine-Immune Regulation Based Approach
for Disturbance Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.1 Introduction and Synopsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.2 Disturbance Handling of BIMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.2.1 Disturbance Handling Mechanism of BIMS . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Contents ix

5.2.2 Monitoring and Scheduling Functions of BIMC . . . . . . . . 96

5.2.3 Disturbance Handling Processes of BIMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.3 Disturbance Detection and Diagnosis of BIMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.3.1 Disturbance Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.3.2 Diagnosis of Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.4 Disturbance Handling Strategies of BIMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.5 Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.5.1 Experimental Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.5.2 Experiment Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.5.3 Performance Indicator Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6 Development of Simulation Platform for BIMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.1 Introduction and Synopsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.2 Simulation Platform Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.3 Physical Simulation Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.3.1 Physical Simulation Platform Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.3.2 Quasi-hormone Communication Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.3.3 Physical Simulation Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.4 Software Simulation Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.4.1 Software Simulation Platform Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.4.2 Function Modules of Software Simulation Platform . . . . . . 122
6.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Chapter 1
Bio-Inspired Manufacturing System
Model

1.1 Introduction and Synopsis

Nowadays manufacturing enterprises are facing more complex and significant trends
of cultural diversification, lifestyle individuality, activity globalization, and environ-
mental consideration. These trends can be summarized as growing complexity and
dynamics in manufacturing environments [1], and manufacturing companies are
forced to have manufacturing systems that exhibit innovative features to support the
agile response to the emergence and changing conditions [2, 3]. In order to meet the
new requirements, several manufacturing paradigms have been proposed for the next
generation manufacturing, such as agent-based manufacturing system [4–6], fractal
manufacturing system [7, 8], holonic manufacturing system [9–11]. These types of
architectures are considered to be suited for developing distributed intelligent sys-
tems in an open and dynamic environment. However, some problems still remain
regarding the complexity of the manufacturing system.
The agent technology and the multi-agent system paradigm have been considered
over more than a decade as an important approach for developing and implement-
ing the software components of the intelligent manufacturing system. Multi-agent
systems for manufacturing systems appear to provide adequate response to abrupt
disturbances on the shop floor. Since there is no central controller, the agents are
empowered to manage most of the activities related to their own goals and tasks
through intensive inter- and intra-agent communication [12]. The agent participants
must know who are in the community and how to communicate with them in advance,
therefore, the MAS is likely to be only suited to the well-structured problem and there
is no theoretical guarantee that the agent interactions process will ever converge,
especially for the large-scale and complex manufacturing system.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

D. Tang et al., Adaptive Control of Bio-Inspired Manufacturing Systems,
Research on Intelligent Manufacturing,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3445-4_1
2 1 Bio-Inspired Manufacturing System Model

Holonic manufacturing system (HMS) is another distributed control paradigm

that promises to cope with frequent changes and disturbances. HMS is characterized
by holarchies of autonomous and cooperative entities, called holons, which represent
the entire range of manufacturing entities. The introduction of the holonic paradigm
allows a new approach to the manufacturing problem, bringing the advantages of
modularity, decentralization, autonomy, and scalability [13]. Fractal manufacturing
system (FrMS) has been discussed as a potential candidate for the next genera-
tion of manufacturing systems. A FrMS is a new manufacturing concept derived
from the fractal factory introduced by Warnecke [14]. It is based on the concept of
autonomously cooperating multi-agents referred to as fractals. Most researches of
HMS and FrMS still use the agent technology to model holons or fractals, such as
[8, 11, 15], and these researches have been performed under the similar banner of
“agent-based manufacturing”. Therefore, HMS and FrMS cannot avoid the prob-
lems of the multi-agent system, and especially how to achieve global optimization
in decentralized manufacturing systems is still an open question.
Although multi-agent manufacturing system, HMS and FrMS have different
underlying operational principles, there is a common character that they advance
an organization of autonomous modules that try to be capable of self-organizing and
adaptive behaviors to carry out the necessary functions in the changing environment.
Based on the common sense that biological organisms naturally can be capable of
adapting to environmental changes, researchers have begun to pay attention to the
Bionic Manufacturing System (BMS) [1, 16]. One typical type of BMS research is
focused on imitating the biological evolution through generation (DNA-type) using
evolutionary computation algorithms. Another kind of arresting BMS research is to
make use of pheromone-like techniques (such as pheromones deposited by ants) to
build the biologically inspired manufacturing system [17]. It is no doubt that current
BMS researches have gained some meaningful results, while the achievements leave
an important question open: can we mimic the advanced controlling, regulating,
and modulating mechanism of biological organism for bio-inspired manufacturing
systems?
In a biological body, the neuroendocrine system is commonly regarded as one
of the major physiological systems and has some special modulating mechanism
for better control adaptability and stability [14, 18, 19]. The neuroendocrine sys-
tem exhibits neuro-control and hormone regulation behaviors. By referencing the
neuroendocrine mechanism, a new Bio-Inspired Manufacturing System (BIMS) is
proposed. The aim of this research is to improve the intelligence, controllability,
and adaptation of the manufacturing system by utilizing the mechanism of neuro-
control and hormone regulation, thus consolidating and deepening the BMS theory
and fundamentals.
1.2 The Biological Background of BIMS 3

1.2 The Biological Background of BIMS

Nervous system, endocrine system, and immune system are important physiological
systems used by biological organisms to adjust bodies to changes in the internal and
external environment. Take the human body system as an example, three sub-systems
and their mutual adjustment relations are introduced in the following sub-sections.

1.2.1 Nervous System

The Nervous system is the dominant system of the human body. It is a vast complex
network that controls every aspect of human life and behavior. This system is inter-
woven all over the body, receiving, decoding, and taking actions to the information
obtained from the outside and itself, so as to maintain the homeostasis and balance
of the internal environment of the body. The nervous system can be divided into two
categories: peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS), as
shown in Fig. 1.1.
Due to the dominance of the nervous system, the other organs are subordinate.
The nervous system innervates and regulates the activities of each organ through
the nervous reflex. The human body is full of various nerve cells that can receive
stimulation and transmit excitement, which is the basic unit of the nervous system.
Environmental changes outside the body can stimulate these nerve cells to produce
stimulus signals, known as nerve impulses. Nerve impulses travel through neurons
to the nerve center. After analysis, the nerve center produces nerve signals that travel
through neurons to the effectors and act on the corresponding organs.

Fig. 1.1 Composition of the ⎧ ⎧High-level Central

nervous system ⎪ ⎪ Neural System:
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ Brain
⎪ Central Nervous System ⎨
⎪ ⎪ Low-level Central
⎪ ⎪ Neural System:
Nervous System ⎨
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎩ Spinal Cord
⎪ ⎧ Cranial Nerve
⎪ ⎪
⎪ Peripheral Nervous System ⎨ Spinal Nerve
⎪ ⎪Vegetative Nerve
⎩ ⎩
4 1 Bio-Inspired Manufacturing System Model

1.2.2 Endocrine System

The endocrine system is a chemical messenger system and can secrete some chemical
substances into the body, which affect the functions of certain tissues. The chemical
substances are called hormones; the tissues that secrete chemical substances are
called endocrine glands; the tissues inside the body that can receive and be affected
by hormones are called target organs; and hormones are transmitted through the blood
circulation system. Hormones play an important role in the normal functioning of
the body, among which growth hormones, sex hormones, and thyroid hormones are
the common hormones. For instance, thyroid hormones can rapidly absorb sugar,
promote the synthesis of proteins in the body and regulate the excitability of the
nervous system.
The endocrine system secretes hormones including endocrine, neuroendocrine,
paracrine, and autocrine. Endocrine is a process of hormone secretion by glands,
afterward hormones enter the blood circulation system and are acted on target organs.
The process of neuroendocrine secretes neurohormones which stimulate endocrine
glands to perform corresponding endocrine activities. Paracrine is a process of hor-
mone secretion by glands that stimulates target organs nearby. Autocrine is a process
of hormone secretion by endocrine glands that spreads around glands and feeds back
into themselves for secreting hormones.
The endocrine system consists of various types of endocrine glands. Endocrine
glands consist of receptors and effectors. Different endocrine glands have their
own receptors, which can sense the stimulation of certain hormones in the body-
environment then promote or inhibit the release of hormones through effectors. The
endocrine system utilizes the interactions between endocrine glands and adapts to
changes in internal and external environments through the regulation of hormone
environment.

1.2.3 Immune System

The immune system is the main system performing defense functions inside the
human body that can protect antigenic foreign bodies (such as bacteria, viruses,
tumors, etc.), and produces specific physiological responses. The system can recog-
nize antigenic foreign bodies and exclude or eliminate them to protect the body’s
health.
The Immune system is a complex adaptive system composed of immune tissues
and organs, immune cells and molecules, which is shown in Fig. 1.2.
Immune organs are places where immune cells get activated and mature, including
the thymus and bone marrow. Peripheral immune organs are the places where T and
B cells settle and develop immune responses, including lymph nodes, spleen, and
mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue. The main functions of the immune system are
as follows:
1.2 The Biological Background of BIMS 5

Fig. 1.2 Components of the ⎧ ⎧ Central Immune Organs

immune system ⎪ Immune organ ⎨
⎪ ⎩Peripheral Immune Organs
⎪ ⎧ Hematopoietic Stem Cell
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ Lymphocyte
Immune system ⎨ Immune Cell ⎨
⎪ ⎪ APC(Antigen Presenting Cell)
⎪ ⎪⎩ Other immune Cells
⎪
⎪ ⎧ Membrane Type Cell
⎪Immune Molecule ⎨
⎩ ⎩ Secretory Cell

(1) Immune defense: a function of the body is to recognize and eliminate antigenic
foreign bodies and maintain health. In the process of immune defense, if the
immune response is too strong or lasts too long, it will cause damage to its own
tissue. If the immune response is too weak or immunodeficient, it will make
it difficult for the immune system of the body to remove the antigenic foreign
body.
(2) Immune surveillance: it refers to a function of the body to recognize and exclude
abnormal mutant cells. During the metabolism of cells, some cells may be
mutated or distorted due to various factors. If these mutant cells cannot be
excluded in time, there is a possibility of mutant cells becoming a tumor.
(3) Immune self-stabilization: it refers to the body’s recognition and exclusion of
damaged or thrown out of its own cells through immune regulation to maintain
the stability of body functions
In addition to the above three functions, the immune system also includes immune
learning, immune recognition, immune memory, and other functions.

1.2.4 Neuroendocrine-Immune System

In the human body, the nervous system, endocrine system, and immune system
exist bidirectional transmissions and acting mechanisms among each other. Their
interactions are mainly realized through chemical signal molecules and receptors in
the nervous system, endocrine system, and immune system. Here, chemical signal
molecules refer to neurotransmitters, hormones, and immune factors. The three sys-
tems work together, regulate each other, maintain the internal balance of the human
body, and make the body work in a normal state, and their mutual relations are shown
in Fig. 1.3.
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 Contents.
List of Illustrations
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THE STORY
OF DUTCH PAINTING
 MAN WITH A FUR CAP REMBRANDT
THE MUSEUM OF THE HERMITAGE, ST. PETERSBURG

THE STORY OF
DUTCH PAINTING
BY

CHARLES H. CAFFIN

AUTHOR OF
“HOW TO STUDY PICTURES,” ETC.

NEW YORK
THE CENTURY CO.
1911

Copyright, 1909, by
The Century Co.
——
Published November, 1909
 THE DE VINNE PRESS

TO THE PRESENT AND FUTURE ART

OF THE NEW REPUBLIC OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
THIS STORY OF THE ART OF THE OLD DUTCH REPUBLIC
IS DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR

New York, November, 1909

 CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
I The End of the Old 3
II The Old Order Changes 19
III Beginning of the New 35
IV Frans Hals 49
V Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn 71
VI The Influence of Hals and Rembrandt 96
VII Dutch Genre 107
VIII Gerard Terborch, Jan Vermeer, and Jan Steen 127
IX Biblical Subjects and Portraiture 150
X Landscape 169
XI Van Goyen and Hobbema 187
XII Jacob van Ruisdael 193
Index: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T,
U, V, W, Y. 201
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Man with a Fur Cap Rembrandt Frontispiece
From a photograph by Braun, Clément &
Cie.
FACING PAGE
Couple Drinking Jan Steen 21
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
Portrait of the Artist Gerard Terborch 28
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
Landscape with Fence Jacob van Ruisdael 37
Landscape with Oak Jan van Goyen 44
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
The Jolly Toper Frans Hals 54
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
Portrait of Nicolaes van der Frans Hals
Meer 59
Reunion of the Officers of St. Frans Hals
Andrew 67
The Syndics of the Cloth Guild Rembrandt 78
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
Sortie of the Banning Cock Rembrandt
Company 81
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
Portrait of Elizabeth Bas Rembrandt 87
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
Portrait of Hendrickje Stoffels Rembrandt 90
The Supper at Emmaus Rembrandt 96
From a photograph by Braun, Clément &
Cie.
Peasants Round a Hearth Adriaen van Ostade 110
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
Old Woman Spinning Nicolaes Maes 114
Old Woman in Meditation Gabriel Metsu 116
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
Lady at the Clavichord Caspar Netscher 125
The Despatch Gerard Terborch 127
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
Officer Writing a Letter Gerard Terborch 129
Girl at the Window Johannes (Jan) Vermeer 132
Head of a Girl Johannes (Jan) Vermeer 135
The Cook Johannes (Jan) Vermeer 138
The Artist in His Studio Johannes (Jan) Vermeer 141
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
The Inn Jan Steen 144
Portrait of Paul Potter Bartholomeus van der
Helst 163
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
Family of Admiral Pieter Pietersz Thomas de Keyser 166
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
The Young Bull Paul Potter 179
The Avenue, Middelharnis, Meindert Hobbema
Holland 190
View of Haarlem Jacob van Ruisdael 193
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
Oak-wood Jacob van Ruisdael 194
The Mill near Wyk-By- Jacob van Ruisdael
Duurstede 199
From a photograph by Franz Hanfstaengl.
The Jewish Cemetery Jacob van Ruisdael 200

THE STORY
OF DUTCH PAINTING
 CHAPTER I

THE END OF THE OLD

O N the 25th of October, 1555, Charles V abdicated the imperial crown,

ceding Spain and the Netherlands to his favorite son, Philip II. The
event proved to be the prologue of a drama, which in its immediate
aspects involved the decay of Spain and the growth of Holland, but in its
wider significance was to be the beginning of a new era.
For the modern world dates from the seventeenth century, and its
pioneers were the Hollanders of that period. Practically everything that we
recognize to-day as characteristic of the modern spirit in politics, religion,
science, society, industry, commerce, and art has its prototype amid that
sturdy people; being either the cause or the product of their struggle for
independence and their self-development. Nor, in paying honor to the
Dutch, need we attempt to suggest that they were the inventors of these
characteristics. Most of the latter were, so to say, in the air. In the progress
of things they had been evolved. But our debt to the Hollanders is that they
attracted them and gave them practical application, and thus set the world
upon a definite path of new progress. It is particularly with the newness of
their art that we are here concerned, but we will try to study it in its relation
to the material and mental environment of the nation itself, of whose
newness it was so immediate a product and so manifest an expression.
For it is in this way that the art of every country may be studied with
most interest and profit. Although there will appear from time to time
certain individual artists, whose genius cannot be satisfactorily correlated to
its environment, but will indeed, as in the case of Rembrandt’s, seem to be
actually contradictory to it, yet even they can be more fully comprehended
through the very contrast that they offer to the mass of their contemporaries,
whose relation to their environment is readily discernible. Apropos of this
customary connection between the artist and the spirit of his time, may be
quoted that phrase of Richard Wagner’s, that all great art is produced in
response to a common and collective need on the part of the community. It
may serve as an excellent touchstone for testing the quality of this new
Dutch art which we are to study, so let us for a moment examine its face
value, leaving the fuller application of its meaning to all the subsequent
pages of this book.
In Wagner’s mind great art, as he conceived it, stood out in clear contrast
against a background of less art, of art which is produced in response to
some more restricted impulse than that of a common and collective need of
the people; for example, in catering to the whims of fashion. Such was the
major part of the art of France produced in the last days before the
Revolution. The great mass of the people were too abased by ill rule and
exactions to have any consciousness but that of hunger, any common
collective need but to fill their bellies. The only articulate demand to reach
the artists was from the ephemeral swarm of courtiers, sycophants, and, as
we should say to-day, “grafters,” who buzzed in splendor and profligacy at
court. For a moment the glamour of this life inspired a great artist, Watteau,
who, however, it is to be noted, was a foreigner. What he himself was he
owed to Flanders. To him the glamour of the French court was but a
pageant, a spectacle passing before his eyes, leaving his heart and
conscience untouched. When, however, artists of French birth, reared in the
home environment, followed in his steps, they revealed nothing of
Watteau’s idealistic detachment from the grossness of the theme, but
became purveyors to the shallow profligacy of their patrons. And to this day
Van Loo, Boucher, and Fragonard have no place with other old masters in
the hearts of the people; they are still the favorites of fashion. Nor was it
until the upheaval of the Revolution had precipitated the gathering
consciousness of a common and collective need on the part of the people,
that French art in the nineteenth century began to develop a vital response.
Moreover, what was characteristic of French art during the eighteenth
century was generally symptomatic of the art of the whole of Europe. The
latter had little or no creative force, was essentially an art of more or less
feeble and perfunctory imitation. For the age itself was non-creative; a
period of exhaustion after the strenuousness of the seventeenth century, or
of the slow forming of new alinements after the shattering of the old ones;
of speculation and doubts rather than of convictions.
So the artists, feeling no spur in the needs of the moment, fell to
imitating the Renaissance artists of Italy. Among them, if we may anticipate
the end of our present story, were the Dutch. They, too, had exhausted the
immediate impulse of their own environment. War had made them a world-
power, and peace brought them the foreign entanglements that maintenance
of such a position entailed. They were no longer under the compulsion of an
immense centripetal energy, a nation concentrated upon its own self-
reliance. They began to spread themselves as cosmopolitans, aping the
fashions of the rest of the world; and, as the fashion of the period was to be
Italianate, so the artists of Holland, lacking at home the momentum of a
common and collective need, ceased to be a school of great original
painters, and became instead clumsy imitators of the splendors and
elevation of the Italian masters of the Renaissance.
After this glance at the nature and cause of decline of Dutch art in the
eighteenth century, we may return with a better appreciation of what is
ahead of us in our study—the establishment in Holland in the seventeenth
century of a new art, the product of a new nation; of a group of original and
distinguished painters who formed, as Fromentin says, “the last of the great
schools, perhaps the most original, certainly the most local.”
The course of our story, therefore, spreads before us. It is to discover in
what respect the Dutch School of the seventeenth century was great, how it
was original, and in what way its genius grew out of and responded to the
common and collective need of the Dutch people of the period. Meanwhile
there are the previous fifty years of the sixteenth century to be accounted
for, which brings us back to the prologue of the drama, the abdication of
Charles V.
That monarch, born in Ghent and educated in Flanders, had a special
feeling of regard for his “dear Netherlanders.” Incidentally, they were the
richest jewel in the imperial crown, and he had drawn from them annually
two fifths of the enormous revenue that he squandered in wars of ambition
elsewhere. He had, moreover, proved his love for them by systematic
slaughtering of dissenters, that the remnant might be preserved within the
fold of the Catholic Church. It was Brussels, therefore, that he selected as
the scene of his abdication. Formerly the capital of the Dukes of Burgundy,
it had been under imperial rule the seat of government of the vice-regents of
the Netherlands; a city of royal and princely palaces, immediately
surrounded by parks and game-forests, and fields and gardens, teeming with
opulence; the royal center of a group of cities. Of these Antwerp was the
commercial chief, the greatest emporium of trade in Europe, with an
exchange in which five thousand merchants daily congregated, and a port
where five hundred vessels daily made their entrance or departure. It was
the distributing-point for the imports from the East and for the products of
the Netherlands: textiles of most sumptuous fabrics as well as of plain
cloths and linens, works of gold and silver craftsmanship, agricultural and
dairy produce from the rich polders of the northern provinces, and fish from
a hundred thriving towns and villages along the coast.
So when the emperor, enfeebled by excesses of action and appetite, felt
his grip of power slackening, and determined to transfer this people of three
million souls, the most industrious, versatile, and liberty-loving in the
world, from his own pocket to that of his son, he saw to it that the
proceeding should be conducted with a pageantry of ceremonial worthy of
the occasion.
It was enacted in the hall of the renowned Order of the Knights of the
Golden Fleece, the walls of which were hung with superb tapestries from
the looms of Arras, representing the Biblical story of Gideon. The floor was
occupied by official representatives of the provinces, clad in the sumptuous
bravery of costume that distinguished this country and the times. Upon the
dais at one end, beneath a splendid canopy, three chairs awaited the
principals in the drama. Precisely at the stroke of three, the emperor entered
from the adjoining chapel. Strange whim of Fate, he supported his gout-
ridden body by leaning on the arm of the man who was eventually to be
chief in undoing the policy that this day inaugurated—William, Count of
Orange. Behind the emperor came Philip, and the regent, Queen Mary of
Hungary, the “Christian widow” admired by Erasmus, who on one occasion
had written to her brother, the emperor, that “in her opinion all heretics,
whether repentant or not, should be prosecuted with such severity as that
error might be at once extinguished, care being only taken that the
provinces were not entirely depopulated.” Following the principals,
appeared the Knights of the Fleece in full regalia, and a retinue of nobles,
many of them, Egmont, Brederode, Berlaymont, Aerschot, and others,
destined to figure in the subsequent drama of the Netherlands.
After a long oration by a member of the Privy Council, depicting the
bodily infirmities of the emperor, his great zeal for his people’s welfare, and
the particulars of the cession he was about to make, Charles himself read a
long recapitulation of his wars and triumphs, dwelt upon his failing
strength, and commended his successor to the good will and allegiance of
his “dear Netherlanders.” At the conclusion of the speech the whole
audience was melted to tears and the emperor himself wept like a child.
Philip knelt in reverence, as his father made the sign of the cross above his
head and blessed him in the name of the Holy Trinity. Then, while the
assembled host applauded he rose to his feet, ruler by the grace of God, vice
the emperor, of the Netherlands, Spain, and her American possessions. But
he could not speak the language of the Netherlands; his acceptance of their
allegiance and his own promises of regard for their interests had to be made
through an interpreter.
Philip, as he assumed possession of the lives of millions, is characterized
by Motley[A] as “a small meager man, much below middle height, with thin
legs, a narrow chest, and the shrinking, timid air of an habitual invalid. In
face, he was the living image of his father, having the same broad forehead
and blue eye, with the same aquiline, but better-proportioned, nose. He had
the same heavy hanging lip, with a vast mouth and monstrously protruding
lower jaw. His complexion was fair, his hair light and thin, his beard yellow,
short, and pointed. He had the aspect of a Fleming, but the loftiness of a
Spaniard. His demeanor in public was still, silent, almost sepulchral. He
looked habitually on the ground when he conversed, was chary of speech,
embarrassed and even suffering in manner. This was ascribed partly to a
natural haughtiness which he had occasionally endeavored to overcome,
and partly to habitual pains in the stomach, occasioned by his inordinate
fondness for pastry. Such,” adds Motley, “was the personal appearance of
the man who was to receive into his single hand the destinies of half the
world; whose single will was, for the future, to shape the fortunes of every
individual then present, of many more in Europe, America, and at the ends
of the earth, and of countless millions yet unborn.”
Yet it may be doubted whether in the assembly present on that
memorable occasion there was a single person who even dimly perceived
the enormity of this idea. That a nation, without being consulted, should be
transferred like a herd of cattle from one owner to another, for his own use
and emolument and even to be slaughtered at his will, probably seemed a
natural and right proceeding. The fact emphasizes the immense and
profound change that during the ensuing fifty years was to take possession
of men’s imagination. The seventeenth century was to see a new idea of the
rights of nations and of the relations that should govern a people and its
rulers; the commencement, in fact, of a new era of thought in its bearing on
life. But as yet the minds of all engaged in the ceremony were possessed
with the old thought, the brute survival of Roman imperialism and of the
medieval conflict of rival autocrats; the claim of a pope to exercise supreme
sway over the consciences of innumerable millions, and the contention of
temporal potentates for absolute control over the souls and bodies of their
subjects. Thought and life had been, and still were, based upon the
supremacy of the favored individual.
Let us note the effect which this idea had had upon the art of painting,
that we may better appreciate the change which is to come over the latter, as
the new idea begins to penetrate life and thought. How did painting, notably
the fullest expression of it in Italian art, respond to the common and
collective need of men’s lives and thoughts? In what way did it embody the
idea of the propriety and desirableness of the subordination of all to the will
of one individual?
In the first place, the idea was fostered by the Church. This is no place to
attempt to discuss, on the one hand, how far the Church in upholding this
doctrine was actuated by the desire of saving souls or, on the other hand, to
what degree it benefited the world. It is sufficient to recall what an immense
hold the Church had over the lives and thoughts of men, and that to
establish and maintain it she employed painting as a handmaiden. Thus, in
response to the common and collective need of the people, the favored
subjects of painting were the doctrines and story of the Christian faith. The
interiors of churches were converted into vast picture-books for the
edification of the people, as well as into sumptuous shrines for the
celebration of the mystic drama of the Mass. And, corresponding to the
stately ceremonial of the latter, its superb accompaniments of lights and
vestments, and its imposing spectacle of ordered ritual, the altarpieces grew
to be miracles of stately composition; arrangements of form and color, light
and shade, built up with an artifice as imposing and moving in its effects as
that which had elaborated the Mass itself. So closely is the genius of these
paintings a product of the Catholic Church’s particular mode of
emphasizing its faith that it is evident, when men shall separate themselves
from such exposition of the faith, their common and collective need will not
demand pictures of this character. This will be exemplified in the case of the
Dutch. They will need religious pictures, but neither of a ceremonial
character, nor, in view of their idea of worshiping in spirit and in temples
not made with hands, for the purposes of decorating their houses of God.
Their religious pictures will be of a kind to affect the thoughts and lives of
the people in a simpler and more unpretentious way, perhaps more
intimately and personally.
 But, while the splendor and dignity of the Italian religious pictures were
inspired by the religious fervor that had continued from medieval times,
they also reflected the new impulse which had made possible the
Renaissance: the New Learning, the study of the classics, particularly of
Hellenic culture, preëminently of Plato. From the latter, scholars and artists
alike had learned to think in terms of the abstract. To the artists had been
revealed the abstract idea of beauty—of beauty as at once the symbol and
the expression of the highest good in life and thought. They were no longer
satisfied simply to represent the sacred story and doctrines; they would have
their pictures beautiful, independently of the subject; they would give the
subject itself a higher significance through the abstract beauty of the
compositions in which it was embodied. Hence the principles of technical
distinction that began to sublimate their pictures, until they reached a
degree of abstract as well as material elevation that has never been, and, one
imagines, will never be surpassed. For it was the offspring of two motives
that may never again be found in wedlock—the religious need and the need
of expressing the enthusiasm for the cult of the classics. The former may
still be operative, but the latter has been dissipated in the spread of the
democratic idea.
And what was the principle upon which was based the classic ideal of
abstract beauty, as it expressed itself in Italian painting? It was the supreme
motive of the human form, as being, in its harmony of proportions and its
rhythm of movement, the symbol and expression of abstract beauty. Again
it happened that the teaching of the Church conjoined with the speculations
of scholars. This world was thought to be the center of the universe; man
was the axis of the world. Even God was interpreted as concerned chiefly in
the rewarding or punishment of man, while to man all other created things
were subordinate. To the imagination of the Renaissance, as of the Middle
Ages, man towered up supreme against the mere background of the
universe. Small wonder if some men, seizing the logic of this, aspired to be
the owners of the bodies and souls of their fellows, and scarcely less that
the others acquiesced! It was a rôle not only for popes, emperors, and kings
to play upon the stage of the world, but for every princeling and duke to
strut through on some smaller platform of a municipality. It justified the
Medici in their own eyes, and made them almost of necessity the patrons of
artists who had accepted the supremacy of such as they for the leading
motive of their art. The painters, in fact, accepting the exclusive aristocracy
of the human figure, adopting as their prime motive its ideal perfection, and
building up compositions in which the figures were arranged in conformity
with the rhythms and proportions derived from such ideal perfection,
necessarily achieved an art that was essentially aristocratic, fitted for the
temples of an aristocratic church and the palaces of the lay aristocracy. Yet,
to repeat, it was also inspired by a great religious need, so that it was fitted
for the masses as well as for their rulers.
Such was the great art of the world at the period when Charles V
abdicated. Yet even by 1555 the tide has begun to ebb. Of all the great
Florentines Michelangelo alone remains, and he has ceased from painting
and sculpture. The giant brood survives only in the persons of Titian, Paolo
Veronese, and Tintoretto. The last named will live out nearly the remainder
of the century, after which the art of Italy will be in the hands of
“mannerists” and “eclectics,” groups whose very names suggest that they
are but fanning a flame already dead. Only the “naturalists” will have
something in them of the modern spirit.
Meanwhile among the painters of the Netherlands there is as yet little or
nothing of the distinction that will grow between Hollander and Flemish.
The principal seat of painting is Antwerp, and its school has already been
Italianized. Even Lucas van Leyden, the personal friend of Dürer, and at
first an original genius inclined toward Gothic feeling, had before his death
in 1533 gone over to Italian influence. Admirably representative of this
influence is the large triptych by Barend van Orley, now in the Antwerp
Museum. Its central panel shows The Day of Judgment. In the vault of the
sky Christ appears, enthroned upon a rainbow, his feet resting on a globe.
He is encircled by clouds, below which a ring of angels supports a cross,
while to the right and left are seraphs sounding their trumps, and all the
distant air is aquiver with angelic forms. Hovering midway between earth
and sky is St. Michael, the archangel. Down on the earth are the myriads of
the risen: the good on one side, in orderly bands, lifting hands and heads
toward heaven, and on the other the lost souls in a tumult of flames and
smoke. In the side panels the works of mercy are represented; grave
personages ministering to the sick and the halt and the blind and the dying,
in a spot dignified by monumental architecture, above which, seated on
clouds, are ranged the Madonna and the saints. The superb composition,
unquestionably suggested by that of the Disputá, is one which Raphael
himself need not have been ashamed to design. But the figures that appear
large in the foreground exhibit a realism of nudity and an individuality of
separate characterization that bespeak the artist’s Flemish origin.
Notwithstanding his Italian training he had still retained his racial instincts
for naturalism. But this fine work was finished in 1525, and the artist died
in 1542.
At the date we have selected as our starting-point, the leading artists
were Jan van Scovel, Antonio Moro, and Pieter Pourbus; the last of Flemish
birth, the others born in the northern provinces. Though Pourbus essayed
religious subjects, the finest examples of which are in Bruges, he is best
known as a portrait-painter, in which branch Moro also excelled. The latter,
after studying under Scovel, visited Italy, and upon his return was
recommended to Charles V, who despatched him to Madrid and Portugal,
and later to England to make a portrait of Queen Mary, the wife of Philip II.
Subsequently he was in the latter’s service in Spain, but returned to
Brussels, where he found a patron in the Duke of Alva. His portraits are
distinguished by evidence of truth to life as well as by their masterly, if
somewhat careful, handling. But it was Scovel himself whose life best
illustrated the tendencies of the time.
Born in Alkmaar in 1495, he studied in Haarlem, Amsterdam, and
Utrecht; then in Cologne, Speyer, Strasburg, Carinthia, and Venice, from
which last he went to Jerusalem. Returning to Europe, he lived for a while
in Rome, where he was appointed superintendent of the Vatican Gallery by
his countryman, Pope Adrian IV. On the latter’s death he returned to the
Netherlands, living by turns in Utrecht and Haarlem, in one of which cities
he died in 1562. Greatly influenced by his sojourn in Rome, he was the first
of the strictly Dutch painters to absorb the Italian influence. Among several
examples of his style in the Municipal Museum of Haarlem the most
remarkable is a portrait group of twelve Knights Templars, with palm
branches in their hands, indicating that they have made the pilgrimage to
Jerusalem. It is noteworthy both for its characterization and as an early
instance of what was to be a special feature of Dutch art—the portrait
group. His subject pictures, mostly on religious themes, have the elegant,
non-committal character of work that was inspired by outside impulse,
though possibly in the landscape backgrounds one may find a foretaste of
the Dutch regard for truth of natural surroundings. His work, indeed, like
his life, exemplifies the lack of originality and conviction in the temper of
the times. It was a period of suspense, succeeding to the vigorous realities
of old ideals, scarcely ready for the development of the new. It was a
prologue to a new era.
The new art, when it arrives, will be in response to a new common and
collective need of a people, the product, in fact, of a new attitude of thought
toward life. In place of the aristocratic it will be democratic, concerned with
the rights of all instead of the privileges of the few. It will no longer set man
in a pose of artificial supremacy against the background of the universe, but
will begin to take account of his environment and to discover his true
relation to it. It will be an era, not of magnificent mendacity and superb
hypotheses, but of patient inquiry into the facts of life and of resolute
adjustment of life to the facts. It will, indeed, be the dawning of the
scientific era. And so firmly will it have taken hold of the thought and life
of the then separated provinces of the north, that, even as they have parted
absolutely from the old religion and politics, still adhered to by the southern
states, so they will be impervious to the influence of the art by which the
latter continue to be represented. When, fifty years from our opening date,
Rubens shall return from Italy to give a brief lease of lustier life to the
Italian motive by the vigor of his Flemish genius, the Hollanders of the
seventeenth century will be absolutely unaffected by his influence. Their art
will be as closed to the invasion of his masterful genius as their country is
to the inroads of the German Ocean. Theirs will be an art not only new and
original, but certainly most local.
 CHAPTER II

THE OLD ORDER CHANGES

T HE forty-five years, following the abdication of Charles V, yielded no

indication of the harvest of painting that was to signalize the succeeding
century. The earlier half of the period embraces the work of Pieter
Aertz, first of the distinctively Dutch genre painters, and the latter half sees
the growth to manhood of the portrait-painters Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt
and Jan Anthonisz van Ravesteyn, while the whole period covers the active
life of Jan de Bray. He, like the other two, was an honest but entirely
uninspired portrait-painter; and it was not until nearly the end of the century
that three men were born who were subsequently to become notable. These
are Frans Hals, Jan van Goyen, and another landscape-painter, less well
known, Hercules Seghers.
It was a period, indeed, solely of upheaval and preparation, during which
the ground was plowed, harrowed, and fertilized, while its old landmarks
were being removed, new boundaries established, and a new proprietorship
asserted and exercised. It covered, moreover, the whole of Philip the
Second’s miserable reign.
This monarch, tiring of the atmosphere of the Netherlands, soon
withdrew to Spain, whence for the remainder of his life he attempted to
govern the distant provinces as a satrapy, through vice-regents, military
commanders, and bishops. His aim, as became his father’s son, was
autocracy over the lives, fortunes, and consciences of his subjects. But, to
do him justice, it was their own good, as he saw it, that he labored and
intrigued for: to purge them of heresy and retain them within the fold of the
Roman communion. For nothing is to be gained in the way of
understanding the temper and conditions of that day by regarding Philip as
an inhuman monster. Judged by the manner of our own time, he may seem
to have been; but, judged by the tenacity and unscrupulousness with which
men still cling to what they believe to be their rightful privileges and pursue
what they are convinced is the dictate of their conscience, he is seen to be
but a natural product of the mental and social conditions of his day. He was
a recognizable and for a time even tolerated part of a system that men as yet
had not thought of disturbing.
It was so, at first, that the citizens of the Netherlands, even William,
Prince of Orange, regarded him. They held his overlordship sacred, even
while they opposed the acts of his official representatives. They expected to
be roundly taxed, but at the same time to have the machinery of their local
government of free cities and Estates-General unimpeded; and it was
against the interference with this on the part of Philip’s mercenaries that
they first remonstrated. For, in the pursuance of his policy of riveting
Roman Catholicism upon the Netherlands, Philip had induced the Pope to
create more bishops and archbishops, to uphold whose hands in the
extirpating of heresy four thousand Spanish troops were to
 COUPLE DRINKING JAN STEEN
RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM

be retained in the country at the expense of the Estates. The latter and the
cities remonstrated, and the troops were withdrawn, though the Inquisition
continued its fell work. So matters drifted until 1566, a memorable year in
the story of the rise and growth of Holland.
The Flemish nobles, though Roman Catholic to a man, drew up a
“Compromise” and pledged themselves to resist the Inquisition. William of
Orange, also a Catholic, though he had married a Protestant princess, Anna
of Saxony, and would later change his profession of faith, instituted a secret
system of espionage in Madrid over the acts and counsels of Philip. Then
the League of Nobles, Orange assisting in the wording of the document,
presented a “Request” to the vice-regent, praying that the edicts against
heresy and the Inquisition might be withdrawn and the management of
affairs restored to the Estates-General. Its presentation drew from one of the
vice-regent’s counselors, Berlaymont, the expression: “Is it possible that
your Highness can be afraid of these beggars?”
Three days later the dissentient nobles were entertained at a feast by
Brederode. When the enthusiasm was at its height, and the guests were
debating on a name and a watchword, the host let drop among them
Berlaymont’s contemptuous phrase. At the same moment he produced a
beggar’s wallet and bowl; and, slinging the one over his shoulder and filling
the other with wine, called upon all present to drink to the Beggars. The
word was caught up, and from man to man the wallet and bowl were passed
round, until all had enrolled themselves in the Beggars’ ranks. Then, at the
height of the excitement, the counts Orange, Horn, and Egmont entered the
room. They were compelled to drink to the pledge and, although they
immediately retired, were henceforth marked for Philip’s special revenge.
Later in the same year the “Image-breaking” occurred in Antwerp. It was
unpremeditated and in its occurrence unguided: the spontaneous explosion
of latent passions smoldering in the mob; the spark that kindled it, the
annual procession and parade of the image of the Virgin. Scoffs and ribaldry
were succeeded by horse-play, which involved a rough-and-tumble fight
among some of the mob that filled the cathedral. The excitement grew. The
mob, surging in and out of the building, began to mock an old woman who
sold images of the Virgin at the cathedral door. She retaliated in kind, and
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