Digital Electronics

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Chapter 2 [Complementary]
➢ SN: Texas Instruments
➢ DM: National Semiconductor
➢ HD: Hitachi
➢ MC: Motorola

Suffixes, identifies the packaging.

N : Plastic DIP (dual in-line
package)
P : Plastic DIP
J : Ceramic DIP
W : Ceramic flat package.
D : Plastic ‘small outline’ package
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Chapter 2 [Complementary]

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 Chapter 2 [Complementary]
➢ Task: design an alarm system for a 4-door house. The alarm will
sound when any one or all of the door-mounted push-button switches
are released (closed) by a door opening.

OUT = (A+B+C+D) 7
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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification

➢ Key points:
- Logic variable, Logic expression, truth table, SOP
and POS,
- Truth table and standard forms.
- Boolean Algebra and Rules.
- Logic simplification using Boolean Algebra
- Karnaugh map (K map), simplification using K map.

How many gates/ICs?

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Boolean Addition

In Boolean algebra, a variable is a symbol used to represent

an action, a condition, or data. A single variable can only
have a value of 1 or 0.
The complement represents the inverse of a variable and is indicated
with an overbar. Thus, the complement of A is A.

Addition is equivalent to the OR operation. The sum term is 1 if one or

more of the literals are 1. The sum term is zero only if each literal is 0.

Example
Determine the values of A, B, and C that make the sum term
of the expression A + B + C = 0?

Solution Each literal must = 0; therefore A = 1, B = 0 and C = 1.

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Boolean Multiplication

In Boolean algebra, multiplication is equivalent to the AND

operation. The product of literals forms a product term. The
product term will be 1 only if all of the literals are 1.

Example What are the values

. .
of the A, B and C if the
product term of A B C = 1?
Solution Each literal must = 1; therefore A = 1, B = 0 and C = 0.

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Commutative Laws

The commutative laws are applied to addition and

multiplication. For addition, the commutative law states
In terms of the result, the order in which variables
are ORed makes no difference.
A+B=B+A

For multiplication, the commutative law states

In terms of the result, the order in which variables
are ANDed makes no difference.
AB = BA

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Associative Laws

The associative laws are also applied to addition and

multiplication. For addition, the associative law states
When ORing more than two variables, the result is
the same regardless of the grouping of the variables.
A + (B +C) = (A + B) + C

For multiplication, the associative law states

When ANDing more than two variables, the result is
the same regardless of the grouping of the variables.
A(BC) = (AB)C

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Distributive Law

The distributive law is the factoring law. A common

variable can be factored from an expression just as in
ordinary algebra. That is
AB + AC = A(B+ C)
The distributive law can be illustrated with equivalent
circuits:
A
AB
B B
B+ C
C X
X A
A AC
C
A(B+ C) AB + AC

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Rules of Boolean Algebra

1. A + 0 = A 7. A . A = A
2. A + 1 = 1 8. A . A = 0
=
3. A . 0 = 0 9. A = A
4. A . 1 = A 10. A + AB = A
5. A + A = A 11. A + AB = A + B
6. A + A = 1 12. (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Rules of Boolean Algebra
Rule 12, which states that (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC, can
be proven by applying earlier rules as follows:
(A + B)(A + C) = AA + AC + AB + BC
= A + AC + AB + BC
= A(1 + C + B) + BC
= A . 1 + BC
= A + BC

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 Example
Prove that A + AB = A

12. (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC (A + B)(A + C) = AA + AC + AB + BC

= A + AC + AB + BC
= A(1 + C + B) + BC
= A . 1 + BC
= A + BC

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
DeMorgan’s Theorem

DeMorgan’s 1st Theorem

The complement of a product of variables is
equal to the sum of the complemented variables.
AB = A + B
Applying DeMorgan’s first theorem to gates:
A A
AB A+B Inputs Output
B B
A B AB A + B
NAND Negative-OR 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
DeMorgan’s Theorem

DeMorgan’s 2nd Theorem

The complement of a sum of variables is equal to
the product of the complemented variables.
A+B=A.B
Applying DeMorgan’s second theorem to gates:
A A Inputs Output
A+B AB
B B
A B A + B AB
NOR Negative-AND 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
DeMorgan’s Theorem

Example Apply DeMorgan’s theorem to remove the

overbar covering both terms from the
expression X = C + D.

Solution To apply DeMorgan’s theorem to the expression,

you can break the overbar covering both terms and
change the sign between the terms. This results in
=
X = C . D. Deleting the double bar gives X = C . D.

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits

Combinational logic circuits can be analyzed by writing

the expression for each gate and combining the
expressions according to the rules for Boolean algebra.
Example Apply Boolean algebra to derive the expression for X.

Solution Write the expression for each gate:

A (A + B )
C (A + B )
B
C X = C (A + B )+ D
D
Applying DeMorgan’s theorem and the distribution law:
X = C (A B) + D = A B C + D

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
SOP and POS forms

Boolean expressions can be written in the sum-of-products

form (SOP) or in the product-of-sums form (POS). These
forms can simplify the implementation of combinational
logic, particularly with PLDs. In both forms, an overbar
cannot extend over more than one variable.
An expression is in SOP form when two or more product terms are
summed as in the following examples:
ABC+AB ABC+CD CD+E
An expression is in POS form when two or more sum terms are
multiplied as in the following examples:
(A + B)(A + C) (A + B + C)(B + D) (A + B)C

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
SOP Standard form

In SOP standard form, every variable in the domain must

appear in each term. This form is useful for constructing
truth tables or for implementing logic in PLDs.
You can expand a nonstandard term to standard form by multiplying the
term by a term consisting of the sum of the missing variable and its
complement.

Example Convert X = A B + A B C to standard form.

Solution The first term does not include the variable C. Therefore,
multiply it by the (C + C), which = 1:
X = A B (C + C) + A B C
=ABC+ABC+ABC

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 Example
Standard SOP

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
POS Standard form

In POS standard form, every variable in the domain must

appear in each sum term of the expression.
You can expand a nonstandard POS expression to standard form by
adding the product of the missing variable and its complement and
applying rule 12, which states that (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC.

Example Convert X = (A + B)(A + B + C) to standard form.

Solution The first sum term does not include the variable C.
Therefore, add C C and expand the result by rule 12.
X = (A + B + C C)(A + B + C)
= (A +B + C )(A + B + C)(A + B + C)

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Expression → Truth Table

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Karnaugh maps
The Karnaugh map (K-map) is a tool for simplifying
combinational logic with 3 or 4 variables. For 3 variables,
8 cells are required (23).
The map shown is for three variables
labeled A, B, and C. Each cell ABC ABC
represents one possible product
ABC ABC
term.
Each cell differs from an adjacent ABC ABC
cell by only one variable.
ABC ABC

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Karnaugh maps

Cells are usually labeled using 0’s and 1’s to represent the
variable and its complement.
C The numbers are entered in gray
AB 0 1
code, to force adjacent cells to be
00 different by only one variable.

Gray 01 Ones are read as the true variable

code and zeros are read as the
11
complemented variable.
10

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Karnaugh maps

Alternatively, cells can be labeled with the variable letters.

This makes it simple to read, but it takes more time
preparing the map.
CC CC
Example Read the terms for the AB ABC
AB ABC
yellow cells.
AB ABC
ABC ABC
Solution
AB

The cells are ABC and ABC. AB ABC

AB ABC

AB ABC
AB ABC
ABC

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Karnaugh maps
K-maps can simplify combinational logic by grouping
cells and eliminating variables that change.
Example Group the 1’s on the map and read the minimum logic.

C 0 1 Solution
AB
1 1. Group the 1’s into two overlapping
00
B changes groups as indicated.
across this 01 1 1 2. Read each group by eliminating any
boundary variable that changes across a
11
boundary.
10 C changes
3. The vertical group is read AC.
across this 4. The horizontal group is read AB.
boundary
X = AC +AB
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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Karnaugh maps
A 4-variable map has an adjacent cell on each of its four
boundaries as shown.
Each cell is different only by
CD CD CD CD
one variable from an adjacent
AB
cell.
AB Grouping follows the rules
AB
given in the text.
The following slide shows an
AB
example of reading a four
variable map using binary
numbers for the variables…

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Karnaugh maps
Example Group the 1’s on the map and read the minimum logic.

Solution
C changes across
outer boundary
CD
AB
00 01 11 10 1. Group the 1’s into two separate
00 1 1 groups as indicated.
B changes 2. Read each group by eliminating
01 1 1 any variable that changes across a
11 boundary.
1 1
B changes 3. The upper (yellow) group is read as
10 1 1 AD.
4. The lower (green) group is read as
C changes
AD.
X
X = AD +AD
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Karnaugh Map Simplification of SOP
Expressions

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Note that

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X=

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(b)
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X= AB’C’+AB’C+ABC’+ABC
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FIVE-VARIABLE KARNAUGH MAPS

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Hardware Description Languages (HDLs)
A Hardware Description Language (HDL) is a tool for
implementing a logic design in a PLD. One important
language is called VHDL. In VHDL, there are three
approaches to describing logic:
1. Structural Description is like a schematic
(components and block diagrams).

2. Dataflow Description is equations, such as

Boolean operations, and registers.

3. Behavioral Description is specifications over

time (state machines, etc.).

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 Boolean Algebra and logic
Simplification
Hardware Description Languages (HDLs)
A standard HDL is Verilog. In Verilog, the I/O and the logic is described
in one unit called a module. Verilog uses specific symbols to stand for
the Boolean logical operators.
The following is the same program as in the previous slide, written
for Verilog:

module BCDInv (X, B, C, D);

input B, C, D;
output X;
assign X = (B | C)&D;
endmodule

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 Selected Key Terms

Variable A symbol used to represent a logical quantity that

can have a value of 1 or 0, usually designated by
an italic letter.
Complement The inverse or opposite of a number. In Boolean
algebra, the inverse function, expressed with a bar
over the variable.
Sum term The Boolean sum of two or more literals equivalent
to an OR operation.
Product term The Boolean product of two or more literals
equivalent to an AND operation.

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 Selected Key Terms

Sum-of- A form of Boolean expression that is basically the

products (SOP) ORing of ANDed terms.

Product of A form of Boolean expression that is basically the

sums (POS) ANDing of ORed terms.

Karnaugh map An arrangement of cells representing combinations

of literals in a Boolean expression and used for
systematic simplification of the expression.

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1. The associative law for addition is normally written as
a. A + B = B + A
b. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
c. AB = BA
d. A + AB = A

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© 2008 Pearson Education
2. The Boolean equation AB + AC = A(B+ C) illustrates
a. the distribution law
b. the commutative law
c. the associative law
d. DeMorgan’s theorem

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© 2008 Pearson Education
3. The Boolean expression A . 1 is equal to
a. A
b. B
c. 0
d. 1

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© 2008 Pearson Education
4. The Boolean expression A + 1 is equal to
a. A
b. B
c. 0
d. 1

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© 2008 Pearson Education
5. The Boolean equation AB + AC = A(B+ C) illustrates
a. the distribution law
b. the commutative law
c. the associative law
d. DeMorgan’s theorem

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© 2008 Pearson Education
6. A Boolean expression that is in standard SOP form is
a. the minimum logic expression
b. contains only one product term
c. has every variable in the domain in every term
d. none of the above

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© 2008 Pearson Education
7. Adjacent cells on a Karnaugh map differ from
each other by
a. one variable
b. two variables
c. three variables
d. answer depends on the size of the map

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© 2008 Pearson Education
8. The minimum expression that can be read from
the Karnaugh map shown is
C C
a. X = A
AB

b. X = A AB

c. X = B AB 1 1

d. X = B AB 1 1

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© 2008 Pearson Education
9. The minimum expression that can be read from
the Karnaugh map shown is
C C
a. X = A
AB 1 1

b. X = A AB

c. X = B AB

d. X = B AB 1 1

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© 2008 Pearson Education
Answers:
1. b 6. c
2. c 7. a
3. a 8. a
4. d 9. d
5. a

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