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DSA2 Chapter 1 Math Revision

Chapter 1 covers fundamental mathematical concepts necessary for algorithm analysis, including logarithms, proof techniques (induction, counterexample, contradiction), and recursion. It illustrates these concepts through examples such as the sum of squares and Fibonacci numbers, and discusses the differences between recursion and iteration. The chapter also introduces the Towers of Hanoi problem as a practical application of recursion.

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2 views

DSA2 Chapter 1 Math Revision

Chapter 1 covers fundamental mathematical concepts necessary for algorithm analysis, including logarithms, proof techniques (induction, counterexample, contradiction), and recursion. It illustrates these concepts through examples such as the sum of squares and Fibonacci numbers, and discusses the differences between recursion and iteration. The chapter also introduces the Towers of Hanoi problem as a practical application of recursion.

Uploaded by

remadilyna20
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Chapter 1

Revision of Some Basic


Maths Concepts

1
Course Outline
• Mathematical Foundations
– Log function
– Exponentionals
• Proof By Induction
– Sum of squares
– Fibonacci numbers
• Proof By Counter Example
• Proof By Contradiction
• Recursion
• Recursion vs Iteration 2
Mathematical Foundations
– Needed for the analysis of algorithms complexities.

Series and summation:


(arithmetic series): 1 + 2 + 3 + ……. N = N(N+1)/2

(geometric series):
1 + r+ r2 + r3 +………rN-1 = (1- rN)/(1-r)
 1/(1-r), r < 1, large N
Sum of squares:
1 + 22 + 32 +………N2 = N(N + 1)(2N + 1)/6
3
Properties of a log Function
logxa = b iff xb = a
(we will use base 2 mostly, but may use other bases
occasionally)

Will encounter log functions again and again! log n bits


needed to encode n messages.

log (ab ) = log a + log b logba = logca/ logcb


log (a/b ) = log a - log b alog n = nlog a
log ab = b log a
4
amn = (am )n = (an)m

am+n = am an

(2n)0.5 (n/e)n  n  (2n)0.5 (n/e)n + (1/12n)

5
Proof By Induction

• Prove that a property holds for input size 1


(base case)
• Assume that the property holds for input size
1,…n.
• Show that the property holds for input size
n+1.
Then, the property holds for all input sizes, n.
6
Prove that the sum of 1+2+…..+n = n(n+1)/2
1(1+1)/2 = 1
Thus the property holds for n = 1 (base case)
Assume that the property holds for n=1,…,m,
Thus 1 + 2 +…..+m = m(m+1)/2
We will show that the property holds for n = m + 1, that is
1 + 2 + ….. + m + m + 1 = (m+1)(m+2)/2
This means that the property holds for n=2 since we have
shown it for n=1
Again this means that the property holds for n=3 and then
7
for n=4 and so on.
Now we show that the property holds for
n = m + 1, that is
1 + 2 + ….. + m + m + 1 = (m+1)(m+2)/2
Assuming that 1 + 2 +…..+m = m(m+1)/2
1 + 2 +…..+m + (m+1) = m(m+1)/2 + (m+1)
= (m+1)(m/2 + 1)
= (m+1)(m+2)/2

8
Sum of Squares
Now we show that
1 + 22 + 32 +………n2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)/6

1(1+1)(2+1)/6 = 1
Thus the property holds for n = 1 (base case)

Assume that the property holds for n=1,..m, thus


1 + 22 + 32 +………m2 = m(m + 1)(2m + 1)/6
and show the property for m + 1, that is show that
1 + 22 + 32 +………m2 +(m+1)2 = (m+1)(m + 2)(2m +3)/6
9
1 + 22 + 32 +………m2 + (m+1)2
= m(m + 1)(2m + 1)/6 + (m+1)2
= (m+1)[m(2m+1)/6 +m+1]
= (m+1)[2m2 + m + 6m +6]/6
= (m+1)(m + 2)(2m + 3)/6

10
Fibonacci Numbers
Sequence of numbers, F0 F1 , F2 , F3 ,…….
F0 = 1, F1 = 1
Fi = Fi-1 + Fi-2
F2 = 2
F3 = 3
F4 = 5
F5 = 8 11
Prove that Fn+1 < (5/3)n+1
Base case: F2 = 2 < (5/3 )2
Let the property hold for 1,…k
Thus Fk+1 < (5/3)k+1 ? Fk < (5/3)k
Fk+2 = Fk + Fk+1 ,
< (5/3)k + (5/3)k+1
= (5/3)k (5/3 + 1)
< (5/3)k (5/3)2
12
Proof By Counter Example
• Want to prove something is not true!
• Give an example to show that it does not
hold!
• Example: Is FN  N2 ?
No, F11 = 144 > 121!
• However, if you were to show that FN  N2
then you would need to show for all N, and
not just one number. 13
Proof By Contradiction
• Suppose you want to prove something.
• Assume that what you want to prove does not
hold.
• Then show that you arrive at an impossibility.
• Example: The number of prime numbers is not
finite!

14
Suppose the number of primes is finite, k.
The primes are P1, P2 , … , Pk
The largest prime is Pk
Consider the number N = 1 * P1 * P2 * ….. * Pk
N is larger than Pk , thus N is not prime (hypothesis)
So N must be the product of some primes.
However, none of the primes P1, P2 , … , Pk divide
N exactly. So N is not a product of primes.
(contradiction) 15
Recursion
• A subroutine which calls itself, with different
parameters.
• Need to evaluate factorial(n)
factorial(n) = n.(n-1)…2.1
= n  factorial(n-1)
• Suppose routine factorial(p) can find factorial of
p for all p < m. Then factorial(m+1) can be
calculated as follows:
factorial(m+1) = (m+1)  factorial(m)
Anything missing?
16
Factorial(m)
{
If m = 1 Factorial(m) = 1
else Factorial(m) = m  Factorial(m-1);
}
Basic rules of Recursion :
• There should be a base case for which the subroutine
does not call itself.
• For the general case: the subroutine does some
operations, calls itself, gets result and does some
operations with the result
• The subroutine should progressively move towards the
17
base case.
Printing numbers digit by digit
• We wish to print out a positive integer, n. Our routine
will have the heading printOut(n). Assume that the
only I/O routine available printDigit(m) will take a
single-digit number and outputs it.
void printOut( int n ) // Print nonnegative n
{
if( n >= 10 )
printOut( n / 10 );
printDigit( n % 10 );
}
See proof of algorithm correctness in the textbook. 18
Recursion Versus Iteration
• Factorial of n (n>0) can be iteratively computed
as follows:
factorial = 1
for j=1 to n
factorial  factorial  j
• Compare to the recursive version.
• In general, iteration is more efficient than
recursion because of maintenance of state
information. 19
Towers of Hanoi

• Source peg (A), Destination peg (C), Auxiliary


peg (B)
• At the start, k disks are on the source peg.
• Need to move all k disks to the destination peg
using the auxiliary peg, without ever keeping a
bigger disk on a smaller disk. 20
• We know how to move 1 disk from source to
destination.
• For two disks, move the top one to the auxiliary,
bottom one to the destination, then the first to the
destination.
• For three disks,
– move top two disks from source to auxiliary, using
destination.
– Then move the bottom one from the source to the
destination.
– Finally move the two disks from auxiliary to
21
destination using source.
• We know how to solve this for k=1
• Suppose we know how to solve this for k-1
disks.
• We will first move top k-1 disks from source to
auxiliary, using destination.
• Will move the bottom one from the source to
the destination.
• Will move the k-1 disks from auxiliary to
destination using source.
22
towerOfHanoi(k, source, auxiliary, destination)
{
If k=1 move disk from source to destination; (base
case)
else
{
towerOfHanoi(top k-1, source, destination,
auxiliary);
Move the kth disk from source to destination;
towerOfHanoi(k-1, auxiliary, source,
destination);
}
} 23

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