Network Essentials

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CONTENTS

Introduction to Networking 1

Purpose of Network 5

Types of Network 7

Networking Terminology 10

Topology 14

Architecture 17

OSI 19

Network Cabling 21

MAC Address 29

IP Address 30

DHCP 31

Domain Name System 35

Ethernet Standard 44

How CSMA/CD works 47

CSMA/CA 49

Hub 50

Switch 52

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Router 56

What is NAT 58

Firewall 62

VPN 63

Dynamic DNS 64

Logical Ports 65

TCP and UDP 66

Port Forwarding and Triggering 68

DMZ 71

Question & Answer 72

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 Introduction to Networking
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Introduction to Networking

The idea of networking is like telecommunications, an easy way to copy, move and share data,
resources and information from one computer to another.

These are the basic things that you need to establish a computer network:

Computer NIC Cables Switch

 Computer - Programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data,
and provides output in a useful format.

 Network Interface Card - Acts as the physical interface or connection between the
computer and the network medium/cable

 Network Cables - Used to connect and transfer data between computers and a network

 Switch - A computer networking device that connects network segments

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network, commonly called as a network, consists of two or more computers that
are interconnected to each other in order to share resources and allow electronic
communications. Computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, Radio
waves, satellites or infrared light beams

Other devices such as printers, scanners, storages, cameras and IP phones can also be joined in
a computer network using network appliance like hubs, switches and routers.

There are different types of network, common network used nowadays are Local Area Network
and Wide Area Network.

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Local Area Network is a computer network covering a small physical area, like a home, office, or
small groups of buildings, such as a school, or small office. While Wide Area Network is a
computer network that covers a broad area.

Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet
Protocol to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of
millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global
scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic and optical networking technologies

Through Networking computers connected to the network can send and receive electronic
messages to each other.

Electronic communications that can be used are:

Email – is a method of exchanging digital messages over the Internet or other

computer networks

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Instant text/video messaging – real time direct text/video-based communication

between two or more people using computers or other devices over the Internet or other
computer networks.

Video/Audio streaming – means taking the video/audio and broadcasting it live

over the Internet or other computer networks.

Online Banking – also known as Internet Banking, allows users to conduct

financial transactions on a secure website over the Internet.

Through Networking computers connected to the network can access, share, edit and modify
data and information that are shared from other computer and/or server.

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Through networking, it is also possible to exchange data and information even if the
destination is in a remote locations, this can be done if both networks are connected to the
Internet. Most companies that have different sites usually have this type of setup.

Through Networking, computers connected to the network can access network devices such as
storage, scanner and printer that are shared from the computer and/or server.

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Network devices that can be shared are:

Printers – a peripheral which produces a hard copy of documents stored in

electronic form, usually on physical print media such as paper or transparencies.

Storage devices – a device that is use to store data, hold and process information.

Cameras – device that records/stores images. These images may be still

photographs or moving images such as videos or movies

Scanners – device that optically scans images, printed text, object, and converts it to
digital image

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Purpose of Networking

 Share data and information

In a network environment like companies, schools, hospitals, government, authorized

user may access data and information stored on other computers on the network. The
capability of providing access to data and information plays a very important role in
networking world. The Internet is a good example; it is a place where all computers are
interconnected to share resources.

 Sharing network devices

Network devices that are commonly shared in the network are printers, storages,
scanners and network drives. Computer connected on a network may access and use the
network devices shared on the network.

 Electronic communications and businesses

People can communicate efficiently and easily via e-mail, video/audio conference,
telephone via VoIP, online banking and video/audio streaming.

 Sharing software

Users connected to a network may run shared application or programs on a remote

computer. Through this, everyone can work from home and access shared application as
if they are working in their workstation.

Advantages of Networking

 Speed

Sharing and transferring files within Networks is faster compared to file transfer without
the use of computer networking. This will save time and will still maintain the integrity
of the data.

 Cost

Individually licensed copies of many popular software programs can be costly. Deploying
multiple computers with identical applications can turn into multiple computers that
shares one application. This can be done in a network environment that has an
application server.

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 Security

Valuable data and applications on a network are password protected. Only authenticated
users are allowed to access valuable data and applications shared in a network
environment. A domain server is needed to implement securities and policies in a
network environment.

 Centralize

Software can be loaded on one computer, commonly known as server, to centralize the
updates and easily track files using a computer connected to the server. There are
different servers that can be deployed in a network environment; these servers are file
servers, print servers, proxy servers, domain servers, web servers, ftp servers,
application servers and the like.

 Flexibility

Access to resources are not just in the local network but can also be done in a remote
location.

Disadvantages of Networking

Although Networking is known to its flexibility and efficiency, there are disadvantages:

 Server failure can cause applications and resources to stop working; this may cause data
and performance loss.
 System that lacks security is vulnerable to hackers that allow them to steal valuable data
and information.
 Users work dependent on Network that may cause inefficient and poor performance in
case the network goes down

Disadvantages can be avoided if the network has:

 Consistent monitoring
 Maintenance and schedule backup
 Strong security and redundancy
 Up to date software and hardware
 Knowledgeable Network Engineers
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Types of Network

Internet it is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic,

business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of
electronic and optical networking technologies. Below are the types of network that are part of
the Internet:

 Local Area Network

Also known as LAN, a computer network covering a small physical area, like a
home, office, or small groups of buildings, such as a school, or small office.

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 Wide Area Network

Also known as WAN, a computer network that covers a broad area.

 Metropolitan Area Network

A Metropolitan Area Network is a large computer network that usually spans a

city or a large campus. A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area
networks (LANs) using a high-capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-
optical links, and provides up-link services to wide area networks (or WAN) and
the Internet.

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 Wireless Local Area Network

A LAN, local area network based on wireless network technology mostly referred
as Wi-Fi. In WLAN no wires are used, but radio signals are the medium for
communication. Wireless network cards are required to be installed in the
systems for accessing any wireless network around. Mostly wireless cards
connect to wireless routers or wireless access points for communication among
computers or accessing WAN, internet.

 Storage Area Network

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Also known as SAN, is use for data storage and it has no use for most of the
organization but data oriented organizations.

 Personal Area Network

Also known as PAN, a computer network used for communication among computer
devices, including telephones and personal digital assistants, in proximity to an
individual's body

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Networking Terminology

IEEE - INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS

IEEE is the world’s largest professional association, formed in 1963, dedicated to advancing
technological innovation and excellence for the benefit of humanity. IEEE and its members
inspire a global community through IEEE's highly cited publications, conferences, technology
standards, and professional and educational activities.

IEEE 802 is a family of IEEE standards that deals with Local Area Networks (LAN), Metropolitan
Area Networks (MAN). The image below shows different IEEE standards and its description.

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Bandwidth - The rated throughput capacity of a given network media or protocol. It is also the
amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time.

Backbone - A high-speed link joining together several networks.

Bit - A unit of information having just two possible values, as either of the binary digits 0 or 1.

Byte - A series of consecutive binary digits that are operated upon as a unit. There are 8 bits in
a byte.

Category 5 - A type of twisted pair network wiring in which there is a certain number of twists
per foot. It is the most commonly used network cabling.

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Coaxial Cable - A type of cable consisting of two insulating layers and two conductors most
commonly used in older networks.

Collision - An attempt by two devices to transmit over the network at the same time usually
resulting in the data being lost.

DNS (Domain Name System) - An internet service that translates domain names into IP
addresses. For example www.google.com translates to 66.102.7.99.

Dynamic DNS - A method of keeping a domain name linked to a changing IP address using a
pool of available IP addresses so you can use applications that require a static IP address.

Domain - A group of computers and devices on a network that are administered as a unit.

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) - A TCP/IP protocol that dynamically assigns an IP
address to a computer. Dynamic addressing simplifies network administration because the
software keeps track of IP addresses rather than requiring a network administrator to do so.

Ethernet - is the most widely installed local area network technology. It was developed during
the late 1970s through a partnership of DEC, Intel, and Xerox.

Fiber Optic - A cable technology that uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to transmit data; it
is a very fast technology

Gateway - A device on a network that serves as an entrance to another network and routes
traffic

Hardware (MAC) address - A unique address associated with a particular network device

Hub - A common connection point for computers and devices in a network that takes an
incoming signal and repeats it on all other ports

Internet - Term used to refer to the world's largest internetwork, connecting thousands of
networks worldwide. Also known as the World Wide Web (www)

IP address - A 32-bit address assigned to hosts using the TCP/IP protocol. Each
computer/device on the public internet has a unique IP address. An example of an IP address is
192.168.1.

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LAN (Local Area Network) - Computer/data network which is confined in a limited geographical
area.

MAC Address (Media Access Control) - A unique identifier attached to most forms of
networking equipment. It is burned into the device and cannot be changed

Megabit - A measure of data transmission speed – 1 million bits per second or approximately
125,000 characters per second

Megabyte - A unit of measure for memory or hard disk storage capacity. 1024 megabytes = 1
gigabyte.

Network - A group of computers and devices that can communicate with each other and share
resources.

Network Interface Card (NIC) - A hardware device inside a computer or other network device
that enables communication with a network.

Packet - The unit of data sent across a network. Data is broken up into packets for sending
over a packet switching network.

PING (Packet Internet Groper) - A command used to test connectivity to a device over a TCP/IP
network.

Protocol - Rules determining the format and transmission of data over a network

Proxy Servers - Proxy servers contain a repository of internet sites recently visited and cached
for quicker access at a future date.
 Proxy servers can be configured with firewall software. This helps protect the
network from attack by hackers.
 Files can be filtered for computer viruses before being passed on to the network.
 Organizations can control access of users to outside sites.
 Since there is only one point of communication, there is a large saving on line
costs.

RJ-45 - Standard connectors used for unshielded twisted-pair cable. Most commonly used with
Cat5 network cabling.

Route - A path through an internetwork.

Router - A device that routes/forwards data across a networks.

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Server - A computer that handles requests for data, email, files, and other network services
from other computers (clients)

Subnet - A portion of a network that shares a common address component but is on a different
segment than the rest of the network.

TI Line - A high speed dedicated data line that supports a transmission rate of 1.544 Mbps

TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, a suite of protocols used as the basis
of the nation's internetwork (Internet). It can also be used on internal networks.

UNC (Universal Naming Convention) Path - A UNC provides a naming convention for identifying
network resources.UNC names consist of three parts, a server name, a share name, and an
optional file path.

WAN (wide area network) - A network linking together networks located in other geographic
area

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Topology

In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices. Network topologies
may be physical or logical.

Physical topology means the physical design of a network including the devices, location and
cable installation. Logical topology refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as
opposed to its physical design

Common Network topologies:

Bus Topology

Bus networks use a common backbone to connect all devices. The backbone functions as a
shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A
device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message
onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and
processes the message

Ring Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All
messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise").
A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.

To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology. Ring
topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses

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Star Topology

A star network features a central connection point called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or
router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.

Tree/ hierarchical Topology

Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form,
only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the "root" of a tree
of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much
better than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or
a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.

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Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies,
messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to
destination A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh.

Extended Star Topology

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Is a star network that is expanded and an additional networking device is connected to the
central or main networking device.

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Architecture

The term architecture can refer to either hardware or software, or to a combination of hardware
and software. The architecture of a system always defines its broad outlines, and may define
precise mechanisms as well.

 Open Architecture

An Open architecture allows the system to be connected easily to devices and programs
made by other manufacturers. Open architectures use off-the-shelf components and
conform to approved standards.

 Close Architecture

A system with a closed architecture, on the other hand, is one whose design is
proprietary, making it difficult to connect the system to other systems.

Peer-to-Peer Architecture

It is a method in which the individual computers are linked to share programs/files. Often
referred to as peer-to-peer or P2P, this type of architecture allows you to connect two or more
computers in order to pool their resources. Individual resources such as disk drives, CD-ROM
drives, scanners and even printers are transformed into shared resources that are accessible
from each of the computer.

In this architecture, communication takes the following form:

 Here each machine/program is both a client and server.

 It is a type of network in which each workstation has equivalent capabilities and
responsibilities.
 Computers are not dedicated to serving other computers.
 Users download files directly from other user’s computers, rather than from a central
server.
 Generally, P2P networks are used for sharing files.

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- is one of the most popular peer-to-peer file sharing protocols used on

the Internet and it accounts for a significant amount of traffic on the Internet.

Client Server Architecture

Client server architecture is a network setup in which the clients are separate from servers. In a
client-server environment like Windows NT, files are stored on a centralized, high speed file
server computer that is made available to client computers. Network access speeds are usually
faster than those found on peer-to-peer networks, which is reasonable given the vast numbers
of clients that this architecture can support. Nearly all network services like printing and
electronic mail are routed through the file server, which allows networking tasks to be tracked.

In this architecture, communication takes the following form:

 Client sends a request message to the server for some work to be done

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 Server processes the request and send a reply back to the client
 Client server architecture is also known as two-tier architecture.

- is an open source application to build an FTP server. The FTP server

application should be installed into the computer that will act as FTP server. A FTP client
software can be installed into one of the client computers to access the FTP server.

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Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model released in 1984 was the descriptive
network model that the ISO created. It provided vendors with a set of standards that ensured
greater compatibility and interoperability among various network technologies produced by
companies around the world.

Benefits of OSI

 Reduces complexity
 Standardizes interfaces
 Ensures interoperability between different vendors

Descriptions and functions of each layer

Application Layer
 Provides network services to application processes
 Also known as network process to applications

Presentation Layer
 Ensure data is readable by receiving system
 Format of data
 Data structures
 Negotiates data transfer syntax for application layer
 Also known as data representation

Session Layer
 Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications
 Also known as Interhost communication

Transport Layer
 Concerned with transportation issues between hosts

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 Data transport reliability

 Establish, maintain, terminate, virtual circuits
 Fault detection and recovery information flow control
 Also known as End-to-End Connections

Network Layer
 Logical addressing
 Best effort delivery
 Also known as best path determination

Data Link Layer

 Provides reliable transfer of data across media
 Physical addressing, network topology, error notification, flow control
 Also known as access to media

Physical Layer
 Wires, connectors, voltage, data rates
 Also known as Binary Transmission (0’s and 1’s only)

Encapsulation is a process where in it starts in Application Layer to Physical Layer while

Decapsulation is a process where in it starts in Physical Layer to Application Layer.

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Protocols are needed to make the computers understand one another. TCP/IP is the common
network protocols used in Networking. TCP/IP consists of four layers these are:

 Application - Layer in TCP/IP that works the same as Application, Presentation and
Session layer in OSI model when combined
 Transport - Layer in TCP/IP that works that same as Transport layer in OSI model
 Internet - Layer in TCP/IP that works that same as Network layer in OSI model
 Network Access - Layer in TCP/IP that works that same as Data Link and Physical layer
in OSI model when combined

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Network Cabling

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to
another. Various networks use a variety of cable types.

The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size.
Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to other
aspects of a network is necessary for the development of a successful network.

Types of Network cables

 STP - shielded Twisted Pair Cable

STP cabling includes metal shielding over each individual pair of copper wires. This type
of shielding protects cable from external EMI (electromagnetic interferences)

 UTP – Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

UTP cable is a medium that is composed of 4 pairs of wires. UTP cable is used in a
variety of networks. Each of the eight individual copper wires in UTP cable is covered by
an insulating material. In addition, the wires in each pair are twisted around each other.

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Category type, Data Rate and usage of different UTP:

 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable is a type of cable for high bandwidth data transmission use that typically
consists of a single copper wire that is surrounded by a layer of insulation and then by a
grounded shield of braided wire or an extruded metal tube. The whole thing is usually
wrapped in another layer of insulation and, finally, in an outer protective layer.

Coaxial cable consists of a central copper core surrounded by an insulator, a braided

metal shielding, called braiding, and an outer cover, called the sheath or jacket

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EG : Cable TV network and Cable Modem use the coaxial cable

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 Thicknet (10Base5)

Thicknet cabling, also called thick wire Ethernet, is a rigid coaxial cable approximately
1-cm thick used for the original Ethernet networks. Thicknet is also called ―yellow
Ethernet‖ or ―yellow garden hose.‖

IEEE designates Thicknet as 10Base5 Ethernet.The ―10‖ represents its throughput of 10

Mbps, the ―Base‖ stands for baseband transmission, and the ―5‖ represents the
maximum segment length of a Thicknet cable, which is 500 m. You may find this on
older networks.

 Thinnet (10Base2)

Thinnet, also known as thin Ethernet, was the most popular medium for Ethernet LANs
in the 1980s. Thinnet is rarely used on modern networks, although you may encounter
it on networks installed in the 1980s or on newer small office or home office LANs

IEEE has designated Thinnet as 10Base2 Ethernet, with the ―10‖ representing its data
transmission rate of 10 Mbps, the ―Base‖ representing the fact that it uses baseband
transmission, and the ―2‖ representing its maximum segment length of 185 (or roughly
200) m.

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 Fiber Optic Cable

Is a technology that uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to transmit Data. They consist
of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is capable of transmitting messages
modulated onto light waves.

A fiber-optic system is similar to the copper wire system that fiber-optics is replacing.
The difference is that fiber-optics use light pulses to transmit information down fiber lines
instead of using electronic pulses to transmit information down copper lines.

Offers bandwidth of up to 100s of Gbps with distances of 100+ KM

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Types of Fiber Optic Cable

 Single Mode cable

Also known as mono-mode optical fiber, single-mode fiber, single-mode optical

waveguide, and uni-mode fiber is a single strand (most applications use 2 fibers) of
glass fiber. Carries higher bandwidth than multimode fiber, but requires a light
source with a narrow spectral width.

 Multi-Mode cable

Has a little bit bigger diameter. Multimode fiber gives you high bandwidth at high
speeds over medium distances. Light waves are dispersed into numerous paths, or
modes, as they travel through the cable's core.

Types of Connectors

 RJ-45

Known as Registered-Jack 45, is a standard type of connector for network cables.

RJ45 connectors are most commonly seen with Ethernet cables and networks. This is
a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector. RJ45
connectors feature eight pins to which the wire strands of a cable interface
electrically. Standard RJ-45 pin outs define the arrangement of the individual wires
needed when attaching connectors to a cable

 RJ11

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Known as Registered-Jack 11, is a telephone connector that holds up to six wires.

RJ-11 is the common connector used to plug a telephone into the wall and also plug
the handset into the telephone. As described it can hold six wires, but jacks and
cables typically have four, which accommodates two-line phones. When two lines are
used, the jack is technically an RJ-14. When all six wires are used for three telephone
lines, the jack is an RJ-25.

 BNC Connector

The basic BNC connector is a male type mounted at each end of a cable. This
connector has a center pin connected to the center cable conductor and a metal tube
connected to the outer cable shield. A rotating ring outside the tube locks the cable
to any female connector.

Ethernet Cabling

It uses a twisted-pair wiring configuration in which the manufacturer twists pairs of

wires together. This twisting helps reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) bleeding
into individual wires. Most of the time, the twisted pairs involve wires from the same
pins — pins 1 and 2, 3 and 6, 4 and 5, and 7 and 8 — although a few other pairings are
possible, depending on the manufacturer. If you look inside an Ethernet cable, you
might see that the sheaths covering the wires for these matching pairs are color-coded.

With the Ethernet cabling standard, you can have two wiring configurations. First, the
cable can be wired straight across, with pin 1 at one connector directly wired to pin 1 at
the other connector. In this configuration, each of the eight pins is wired directly to each
other. Second, the cable can be wired so that some pins are receivers on one end and
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transmitters on the other end of the Ethernet cable For each Ethernet Standard, there
may be a separate category of cable. Ethernet uses these types of UTP cables:

 Straight Through

A straight through cable has similar type of wiring on both ends. If the color coding on
both the ends is same, it is a straight through cable. It is usually use to connect different
devices. This is used when connecting 2 different kinds of category device (DTE and
DCE).

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In a UTP implementation of a straight-through cable, the wires on both cable ends are in
the same order. You can determine that the wiring is a straight-through cable by
holding both ends of the UTP cable side by side and seeing that the order of the wires
on both ends is identical

 Crossover

A crossover cable has similar type of wiring on both ends. If the color coding on
both the ends is different, it is a crossover cable. This is commonly used to connect
same devices, like DTE connected to another DTE or DCE connected to another DCE.

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Comparison:

T568A and T568B are the two wiring standards for an 8-position modular connector, permitted
under the TIA/EIA-568-A wiring standards document. The only difference between T568A and
T568B is that the orange and green wire pairs (pairs two and three) are interchanged

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MAC Address

The Media Access Control address (MAC) can be equated to the serial number of the NIC. Every
IP packet is sent out of your NIC wrapped inside an Ethernet frame which uses MAC addresses
to direct traffic on your locally attached network.

MAC addresses therefore only have significance on the locally attached network. As the packet
hops across the Internet, its source/destination IP address stays the same, but the MAC
addresses are reassigned by each router on the way using a process called ARP.

 MAC addresses are usually written in one of the following two formats:
00:13:21:0F:83:DF 00-13-21-0F-83-DF
 MAC address is a 48 bit address
 MAC address are 12 digit Hexadecimal {0-9} {A- F} Address
 The First Octet of the MAC Address is known as Group Unique 00 : 13 : 21 : 0F : 83 : DF
 The Second and Third Octet of the MAC Address is known as Organization Unique
Identifier (OUI)
00 : 13 : 21 : 0F : 83 : DF

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IP Address

Internet Protocol Address, a unique identifier of a node in a TCP/IP network. This is a layer 3
address which is composed of 32 bits and considered to be a Logical address, which can be
represented by numbers starting from 0 to 255, 8 bits per octet.

Descriptions about IP address:

 An identifier for a computer or device on a TCP/IP network

 Consists of 4 octets separated by periods. These octets are in decimal form converting it
into hexadecimal format will result to bits, each octet consists of 8 bits.

 Each number can be zero 0 to 255. Example, 124.83.33.254

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 In an isolated network, IP address should be unique; computers in a single network that

has the same IP address will cause conflict.

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DHCP
 Allows client machines to receive an IP address, DNS information, etc automatically
 Before DHCP users had to type in all this information by hand, which is bad:
o Easy to mistype something when entering by hand
o Manually changing network configuration every time you move your laptop is a
pain
o Bootp resolved some of these issues and DHCP still uses the same port as bootp
 DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
 DHCP is a protocol for assigning dynamic IP addresses to devices on a network
 With dynamic addressing, a device can have a different IP address every time it
connects to the network. In some systems, the device's IP address can even change
while it is still connected
 DHCP also supports static and dynamic IP addresses

DHCP Basics
 A client leases an IP address from a DHCP server for a given amount of time
 When lease expires, the client must ask DHCP server for a new address (clients attempt
to renew lease after 50% of the lease time has expired)
 Typical leases may last for 30 seconds, 24 hours, or longer.
 Several messages are sent back and forth between a client and the DHCP server before it
can successfully obtain an IP address
 Dynamic addressing simplifies network administration because the software keeps track
of IP addresses rather than requiring an administrator to manage the task. This means
that a new computer can be added to a network without manually assigning it a unique
IP address
 DHCP is a Client-Server networking Protocol
 DHCP uses the concept of a ―lease‖ or amount of time that a given IP address will be
valid for a computer. The lease time can vary depending upon the network configuration
 Four phases of DHCP are IP lease request, IP lease offer, IP lease selection and IP lease
acknowledgement

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Four Stages of DHCP Transaction (DORA)

1. DHCP Discover
 D  A client sends out a DHCP DISCOVER packet. This is usually a broadcast packet. It
will contain only the client's hardware address (MAC)
 The server receives the DHCP DISCOVER packet and responds by sending a response to
the client
 Discover packet contains only MAC Address of the PC
 Hardcoding the addresses of DHCP servers kind of defeats the purpose of automatic
configuration
 Solution: A client using DHCP will broadcast a DISCOVER message to all computers on
its subnet (addr 255.255.255.255) to figure out the IP address of any DHCP servers
 Most routers are configured to pass this request within the campus or enterprise

2. DHCP Offer
 O The client receives the DHCP OFFER packet
 The client might receive more than one offer if you have more than one DHCP server on
the network. If the client likes the offer, it sends a DHCPREQUEST packet to the server.
This indicates a formal request to lease the IP address offered by the server
 (Optionally) sent from server in response to a DISCOVER
 Contains an IP address, other configuration information as well (subnet mask, DNS
servers, default gateway, search domains, etc)
 Note that all DHCP servers that receive a DISCOVER request may send an OFFER; since a
client typically does not need > 1 IP address, more messages needed

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3. DHCP Request
• R  The DHCP server receives the DHCPREQUEST packet and grants the client its
request to lease the IP address. The server sends a DHCPACK to the client. This is the
official notification that the address has been granted
• Sent by client to request a certain IP address
– Usually the one sent by an OFFER, but also used to renew leases. Also can be
sent to try to get same address after a reboot
• This message is broadcast
• Most OSs by default will send a REQUEST for the first OFFER they receive – this means
that if there is a rogue DHCP server on your subnet, most clients will ignore the OFFERs
from the campus DHCP servers (since the OFFER from the rogue server gets to the user’s
PC first)!

DHCP ACK / NACK

• A  Before the lease time expires, the DHCP client requests to extend the lease by
sending a DHCPREQUEST packet to the server. The server then updates and extends the
lease time.
• It sends a DHCPACK to the client to notify it that the lease has been extended. These
updates and lease extensions continue as long as the client is powered on. If the lease
expires and the client is not powered on, and not able to request an extension on the
lease, the IP address is recycled
• Sent by server in response to a REQUEST
• ACK: Request accepted, client can start using the IP it REQUESTed
• NACK: Something is wrong with the client’s REQUEST (for example they requested an IP
address they’re not supposed to have)

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The DORA Transaction

DHCP Release
• Sent by client to end a lease
• Not strictly required, but is the ―polite‖ thing to do if done with the IP (could just let the
lease expire)
• Some clients may not send RELEASEs in an attempt to keep the same IP address for as
long as possible

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Domain Name System

• People prefer to use easy-to-remember names instead of IP addresses
• Domain names are alphanumeric names for IP addresses e.g., neon.ece.utoronto.ca,
www.google.com, ietf.org
• The domain name system (DNS) is an Internet-wide distributed database that translates
between domain names and IP addresses

Resolver and Name Server

1. An application program on a host accesses the domain system through a DNS client,
called the resolver
2. Resolver contacts DNS server, called name server
3. DNS server returns IP address to resolver which passes the IP address to application
• Reverse lookups are also possible, i.e., find the hostname given an IP address

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Design Principle of DNS

• The naming system on which DNS is based is a hierarchical and logical tree structure
called the domain namespace.
• An organization obtains authority for parts of the name space, and can add additional
layers of the hierarchy
• Names of hosts can be assigned without regard of location on a link layer network, IP
network or autonomous system
• In practice, allocation of the domain names generally follows the allocation of IP
address, e.g.,
– All hosts with network prefix 128.143/16 have domain name suffix virginia.edu
– All hosts on network 128.143.136/24 are in the Computer Science Department
of the University of Virginia

DNS Name Hierarchy

• DNS hierarchy can be represented by a tree

• Root and top-level domains are administered by an Internet central name registration
authority (ICANN)

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• Below top-level domain, administration of name space is delegated to organizations

• Each organization can delegate further

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• Each node in the DNS tree represents a DNS name

• Each branch below a node is a DNS domain.
– DNS domain can contain hosts or other domains (subdomains)

Example:

DNS domains are

., edu, virginia.edu, cs.virginia.edu

• Hosts and DNS domains are named based on their position in the domain tree
• Every node in the DNS domain tree can be identified by a unique Fully Qualified Domain
Name (FQDN). The FQDN gives the position in the DNS tree.

• A FQDN consists of labels (―cs‖,―virginia‖,‖edu‖) separated by a period (―.‖)

• There can be a period (―.‖) at the end.
• Each label can be up to 63 characters long
• FQDN contains characters, numerals, and dash character (―-‖)
• FQDNs are not case-sensitive
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Top Level Domains

• Three types of top-level domains:
– Organizational: 3-character code indicates the function of the organization
• Used primarily within the US
• Examples: gov, mil, edu, org, com, net
– Geographical: 2-character country or region code
• Examples: us, va, jp, de
– Reverse domains: A special domain (in-addr.arpa) used for IP address-to-name
mapping

• The resolution of the hierarchical name space is done by a hierarchy of name servers

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• Each server is responsible (authoritative) for a contiguous portion of the DNS

namespace, called a zone.
• Zone is a part of the subtree
• DNS server answers queries about hosts in its zone

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Authority and Delegation

• Authority for the root domain is with the Internet Corporation for Assigned Numbers
and Names (ICANN)
• ICANN delegates to accredited registrars (for gTLDs) and countries for country code top
level domains (ccTLDs)
• Authority can be delegated further
• Chain of delegation can be obtained by reading domain name from right to left.
• Unit of delegation is a ―zone‖.

• Each zone is anchored at a specific domain node, but zones are not domains.
• A DNS domain is a branch of the namespace
• A zone is a portion of the DNS namespace generally stored in a file (It could consists of
multiple nodes)
• A server can divide part of its zone and delegate it to other servers

• For each zone, there must be a primary name server and a secondary name server
– The primary server (master server) maintains a zone file which has information
about the zone. Updates are made to the primary server
– The secondary server copies data stored at the primary server.
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Adding a host:

• When a new host is added (―gold.cs.virginia.edu‖) to a zone, the administrator adds the
IP information on the host (IP address and name) to a configuration file on the primary
server
• The root name servers know how to find the authoritative name servers for all top-level
zones.
• There are only 13 root name servers
• Root servers are critical for the proper functioning of name resolution

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Root Servers

Domain Name Resolution

1. User program issues a request for the IP address of a hostname

2. Local resolver formulates a DNS query to the name server of the host
3. Name server checks if it is authorized to answer the query.
a) If yes, it responds.

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b) Otherwise, it will query other name servers, starting at the root tree
4. When the name server has the answer it sends it to the resolver.

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Types of Queries:
 Recursive query: When the name server of a host cannot resolve a query, the server
issues a query to resolve the query
 Iterative queries: When the name server of a host cannot resolve a query, it sends a
referral to another server to the resolver

Recursive Queries

• In a recursive query, the resolver expects the response from the name server
• If the server cannot supply the answer, it will send the query to the ―closest known‖
authoritative name server (here: In the worst case, the closest known server is the root
server)

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• The root sever sends a referral to the ―edu‖ server. Querying this server yields a referral
to the server of ―virginia.edu‖
• … and so on

Iterative Queries

• In an iterative query, the name server sends a closest known authoritative name server a
referral to the root server.
• This involves more work for the resolver

Caching
• To reduce DNS traffic, name servers caches information on domain name/IP address
mappings

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• When an entry for a query is in the cache, the server does not contact other servers
• Note: If an entry is sent from a cache, the reply from the server is marked as ―un-
authoritative‖

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 Ethernet
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Ethernet Standard

Ethernet is a type of cabling commonly used in high-speed wired computer networks. You'll
find Ethernet cabling in Local Area Networks (LANs). It's also commonly used with broadband
Internet, connecting the cable modem or DSL modem to a wired router or a wireless router. To
use Ethernet with your computer, it will need an Ethernet card, which is an expansion card that
provides an Ethernet jack and the hardware and software needed to transmit over the Ethernet
network.

Ethernet referred to as IEEE 802.3, but that designation refers to the standard by which Ethernet
works. Sometimes, Ethernet is called 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, or 1000BASE-T, depending on
the maximum speed of a particular cable.

Modes of Channel operation

There are three modes of channel operation between the devices. Each type is suited for a
particular type of application and has its own advantages and disadvantages.

 Simplex

Data in simplex channel is always one way. Simplex requires only one channel. Simplex
channels are not often used because it is not possible to send back error or control
signals to the transmit end.

Following are the examples for the simplex mode of communication:

 Data sent from Keyboard to CPU - CPU never sends data to keyboard but the
keyboard sends characters to CPU. Only a one way communication is possible.

 Print command sent from Computer to Printer – Printer never sends data back to
computer, once a command is been sent from the printer that page will be printed.
Only a one way communication is possible.

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 Half Duplex

A half-duplex channel can send and receive, but not at the same time. Only one end
transmits at a time, the other end receives. In addition, it is possible to perform error
detection and request the sender to retransmit information that arrived corrupted.

Examples for the Half Duplex mode of communication:

 Walkie-Talkie – Communication is possible from both the sides but one person
speaks at one time and once completed the other person speaks

 Messengers - Yahoo Messenger or MSN etc, In any of the messengers

communication is possible from both the sides though after sending the
message the person waits for a reply from the other side.

 Full Duplex

In full duplex data can travel in both directions simultaneously. Unlike half duplex, there
is no need to switch from transmit to receive mode. However, like half duplex mode it is
possible to perform error detection and request the sender to retransmit information
that arrived corrupted. In this mode chances of collision are more. Example for the Full
Duplex mode of communication:

 Telephone – both the parties are open to speak at any time.

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To summarize the modes of channels:

 Simplex allows raw bits that comprises of 0's and 1's to be transmitted in one direction
only for e.g. computer A to computer B only

 Half duplex allows the raw bits to be transmitted in both directions but one way at a
time for e.g. from computer A to computer B and then from computer B to computer A

 Full duplex allows data to be transmitted in both directions simultaneously for e.g. from
computer A to computer B and from computer B to computer A at the same time

Collision Domain
 The domain, where the effect of collision is immediately hit upon, is defined as the
collision domain
 It is typically confined to a subnet, i.e., a LAN segment
 Collision management is done in the Data Link Layer

Broadcast Domain
 The portion of a network that is reachable by a network broadcast, which is a request
for an address resolution or an announcement of availability
 Unlike a collision domain, a broadcast can be initiated at various protocol layers
 Thus the domain can be within a LAN segment or routed across LAN segments

Media Access Protocols

 Media Access Protocols are needed for a multi-access network.
 Since multiple devices cannot talk on the network simultaneously, some type of method
must be used to allow one device access to the network media at a time.
 This is done in two main ways -
o carrier sense multiple access / collision detect (CSMA/CD)
o token passing.

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A Collision is an event that happens on an Ethernet network when two stations simultaneously
"talk" on the wire. Collisions are a normal part of life in an Ethernet network and under most
circumstances should not be considered a problem. Even though a lot of people know that
collisions do happen on a network, what they don't know is that there are two different types of
collisions, Early Collision and Late Collision.

CSMA/CD - Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection

Is the protocol used in Ethernet networks to ensure that only one network node is transmitting
on the network wire at any one time.

Carrier Sense - means that every Ethernet device listens to the Ethernet wire before it
attempts to transmit. If the Ethernet device senses that another device is transmitting, it
will wait to transmit.
Multiple Access - means that more than one Ethernet device can be sensing (listening
and waiting to transmit) at a time.
Collision Detection - means that when multiple Ethernet devices accidentally transmit at
the same time, they are able to detect this error.

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This is how CSMA/CD works:

1. After listening to the wire to see if other hosts are transmitting, two hosts send data
simultaneously.

2. Their data will collide, and that's where Collision Detection comes in. The collision itself
generates "noise", and the hosts that just sent data will realize that their data was involved in
that collision.

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3. The Hosts whose Data was involved in the collision tell the other Hosts not to send data. The
hosts will generate a Jam Signal

That is an effective technique, but the two hosts still have to send their data. What if they send
the data at the exact same time again? To avoid that possibility, both hosts that transmitted
data will invoke a random timer, and when that timer expires, the hosts will begin the entire
CSMA/CD process again - and that process always begins with listening to the segment to see
if another host is currently sending data. In this way, the hosts that were involved in the first
collision have a very slim chance of being involved in another one right away.

4. Hosts that transmitted data will invoke a random timer

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CSMA/CA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

Is a method of controlling network access similar to CSMA/CD, in that nodes listen to the
network and transmit only when it is free. However, CSMA/CA prevents the collisions before
they happen.

It is a protocol that is used in wireless Ethernet. One issue with the wireless LAN is that it
cannot sense the link before transmitting; therefore collision detection is not possible.

In CSMA/CA, when a node has a packet that needs to be transmitted:

 It checks the channel to be sure if it is clear and no other node is transmitting at that
time.
 If the channel is clear, it sends a Request to Send (RTS) packet to the intended receiver.
 Receiver in return send Clear to Sends (CTS) packet, alerting the entire node in the range
of sender or the receiver or both to remain silent for the duration of the main packet to
be transmitted.

CSMA/CA Process

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 Introduction to Hub & Switch
2010

HUB

A Hub is a small, simple, inexpensive network device that joins multiple computers together.
They only regenerate the signal and broadcast it out all of their ports

 A Hub is used in a wired network to connect Ethernet cables from a number of devices
together.
 Hub allows each device to talk to each other using broadcast
 Hubs are very simple devices because they do not require any configuration. It does not
have user interface, it is basically plug and play.
 Work on Layer 1 of OSI

Using a Hub, it uses broadcast when sending a message. If computer1 sends a message to
computer2, it is not just computer2 who will receive the message; computers 3, 4 and 5 will
also receive the message.

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How it works

 All devices are in the same collision domain

 All devices are in the same broadcast domain
 Devices share the same bandwidth

 More end stations means more collisions

 CSMA/CD is used
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SWITCH

It is generally like a hub but contains more intelligence as it is able to inspect packets to
determine the source and destination of the data being sent.

Switches have a number of advantages:

 Switches allow many devices to connect together.

 Switches keep traffic between two devices from getting in the way of your other devices
using the same network that means it prevents collision. Usage can be easily monitored.
 Switches have CAM table that reference the source and destination MAC address when
sending/receiving message.
 Work on Layer 2 of OSI. Can do Unicast, Multicast and Broadcast

Using a switch, when computer1 sends a message to computer2, only computer 2 will receive
the message, this is called Unicast.

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For Multicast, computer1 can send a message to computer 2 and 3 only, computer 4 and 5 will
not receive the message sent by computer 1.

Switch can also send using broadcast; this can be happened because a switch has a CAM table.

Below is an example of CAM table:

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How it works

1. On the first time it’s sending to an unknown recipient, it will send a broadcast to all ports

2. It learns the MAC address of the recipient and sends back data only to the designated port
where data came from.

3. Next time data will be sent only to recipient port.

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 Each segment has its own collision domain

 Broadcasts are forwarded to all segments

Table of Comparison between Hub and Switch

Troubleshooting Hubs and Switches

Most hub and unmanaged switches are plug and play, meaning there’s no special configuration
to do when a network problem arise caused by it. Below are the troubleshooting steps that can
be done to check if the Hubs and unmanaged switches are still working properly.
 Power cycle
 Check physical connectivity between the hub/switch and the computers
 Check the Ethernet cable used to connect the hub/switch and the computers
 Check the LED lights. Blinking port means there is an activity. Solid light means there’s
no activity.

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 Do loopback test; connect the ports of the switch to itself. Through this you can identify
which port is working or which one is not, by looking into the ports that are on during
loopback test.

Check the network settings of the computers connected to the switch; make sure it is
configured properly.

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 Introduction and Features of a Router
2010

What is a router?
A router is a device that joins multiple networks together, and determines the path of a
packet from source to destination. It relies on its routing table to know what best path to take,
works under Layer 3 of OSI.

The Internet is composed of multiple routers

The above setup shows that SITE A network sent a message to SITE B, green lines are the
best path determined by routers to effectively deliver the message sent by SITE A to SITE B.
Router uses its routing table to identify the best path from its source to destination. In the OSI
Layer, router works under Layer 3 which is Network Layer. The job or responsibility of Network
layer is Logical addressing and Best effort delivery.

Below are the companies that manufacture routers:

Why would someone need a Router?

For most home users, they may want to set-up a LAN or WLAN and connect all
computers to the Internet without having to pay a full broadband subscription service to their
ISP for each computer on the network. In many instances, an ISP will allow you to use a router
and connect multiple computers to a single Internet connection and pay a nominal fee for each
additional computer sharing the connection. This is when home users will want to look at
smaller routers, often called broadband routers that enable two or more computers to share an
Internet connection. Within a business or organization, you may need to connect multiple

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 Introduction and Features of a Router
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computers to the Internet, but also want to connect multiple private networks — and these are
the types of functions a router is designed for.

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 Introduction and Features of a Router
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Front and back panel of a NETGEAR router

What are the features of a router?

 Connect to Internet and share Internet access

 Establish switching functions of the internet and intranets
 Wireless connection
 Firewall and NAT
 Dynamic Host Control Protocol

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 Network Address Translation
2010

What is NAT?

Network Address Translation which is use in conjunction with network masquerading. IP

masquerading is a technique that hides an entire private IP address behind a single public IP
address space. Using NAT with NETGEAR products, accessing the Internet, the addresses on
your LAN are substituted for a single WAN IP address. This lets your computers share one IP
address from your ISP. It also makes your network more secure, since traffic to and from the
Internet now goes through your router's address substitution process, blocking direct access to
your local IP addresses. Unless you use port forwarding, port triggering, or a DMZ, your
computers are not reachable from the Internet.

The image above illustrates a network with two computers using NAT.

NAT
 Network Address Translation (NAT) translates multiple IP addresses on the private LAN
to one public address that is sent out to the Internet
 Network Address Translation is used by a device (firewall, router or computer) that sits
between an internal network and the rest of the world.
 NAT works in Network Layer

Types of NAT:

1. Static NAT
2. Dynamic NAT
3. NAT Overloading or PAT

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Static NAT
 Static NAT is mapping an unregistered IP address to a registered IP address on a one-
to-one basis.
 It is particularly useful when a device needs to be accessible from outside the network.
Eg: Web hosting

Here, the computer with the IP address of 192.168.0.1 will always translate to 203.31.218.208

Dynamic NAT
 Dynamic NAT also establishes a one-to-one mapping between unregistered and
registered IP address, but the mapping could vary depending on the registered address
available in the pool.

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Here, the computer with the IP address of 192.168.0.1 will translate to the first available
address in the range from 203.31.218.210 to 203.31.218.213

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PAT
 Also called NAT Over loading, it maps multiple unregistered IP addresses to a single
registered IP address by using different ports.
 The other names for PAT are single address NAT, port-level multiplexed NAT,NAPT
(Network Address Port Translation), IP Masquerading.
 It is used in SOHO routers.
 The NAT always re-assigns the source port number. It attempts to assign the same port
value of the original request. However, if the original source port has already been used,
it starts to scan from the start of the particular range to find the first available port and
assigns it to the translation

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 Firewall
2010

Firewall
 Firewall is used to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network. Firewalls
can be implemented in both hardware and software
 Firewalls are frequently used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing
private networks connected to the Internet
 All messages entering or leaving the LAN pass through the firewall, which examines
each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria

Stateful Packet Inspection (SPI)

 When an IP packet arrives at the firewall from the Internet, the firewall must decide if it
should be forwarded to the internal network.
 In order to accomplish this, the firewall "looks" to see what connections have been
opened from the inside of the network to the Internet.
 If there is a connection open that applies to the packet that has arrived from the Internet
then it will be allowed through, otherwise it will be rejected.
 This is known as stateful packet inspection.

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 VPN
2010

VPN
 Virtual private networks (VPNs) are wide area networks logically defined over public
transmission systems that serve an organization’s users, but isolate that organization’s
traffic from other users of the same public lines
 They provide a way of constructing a WAN from existing public transmission systems
 For example, an organization can carve out a private WAN on the Internet to serve only
its offices across the country, while keeping the data secure and isolated from other
(public) traffic

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2010

Dynamic DNS
 Dynamic DNS is a system which allows the domain name data held in a name server to
be updated in real time
 The most common use for this is in allowing an Internet domain name to be assigned to
a computer with a varying (dynamic) IP address
 This makes it possible for other sites on the Internet to establish connections to the
machine without needing to track the IP address themselves
 A common use is for running server software on a computer that has a dynamic IP
address, as is the case with many consumer Internet service providers.

Proxy Server
 When a high level of security is required, a proxy Server may be used to provide a
gateway between a local area network and the Internet
 The local network is protected by firewall software installed on the proxy server. This
software enables the proxy server to keep the two worlds separate
 All outward HTTP requests from the local network pass through the proxy server and
similarly all information retrieved comes back in via the proxy server and is then passed
back to the client

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 Logical Ports
2010

Logical Ports
 Logical Ports allow different applications on the same computer to utilize network
resources without interfering with each other
 There are 65536 Logical Ports ranging from 0 to 65535
 Well known ports, Registered ports and Dynamic / Private ports are the three category
of logical ports

Port Classifications:

1. Known Ports (0 – 1023)

Known ports are assigned by the IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) for use by
the application end points that communicate using the TCP and UDP Port numbers 0 to
1023 are reserved for privileged services.

Example: FTP 20 & 21, DNS : 53, TFTP : 69, NTP : 123

2. Registered Ports (1024 – 49151)

Registered Ports are listed by the IANA and on most systems can be used by ordinary
user processes or programs executed by ordinary users. Companies and other users
register with the IANA for use by the applications that communicate using the TCP and UDP
port. The range is 1024 to 49151.

Example: PPTP: 1723, RADIUS: 1812

3. Dynamic / Private Ports (49152 – 65535)

They are also known as private ports; range is from 49152 – 65535

NETSTAT

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 Logical Ports
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 Netstat command displays active TCP connections, TCP/IP statistics, ports on which the
computer is listening, IPv4 statistics (for the IP, ICMP, TCP, and UDP protocols) other
parameters of netstat commands are ―netstat –a‖, netstat –n‖, netstat –s‖ and netstat –p.

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Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

 It is a Layer 4 Protocol
 Connection-oriented Protocol
Session is established before exchanging data
 Reliable Delivery
Uses Sequence numbers and Acknowledgments
 Byte-Stream Communications
 Uses Port Numbers as Endpoints to communicate

Three Way Handshake

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 Logical Ports
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User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

 It’s Layer 4 Protocol
 Connectionless
No session is established
 Does Not Guarantee Delivery
No sequence numbers
No acknowledgments
 Reliability is the responsibility of the application
 Uses Port Numbers as Endpoints to Communicate

TCP vs UDP

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Logical Ports
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 Logical Ports
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Port Forwarding
 Port Forwarding lets a network host create a tunnel through the firewall over the
Internet.
 It allows a user from the internet access a private computer (Web Server, FTP Server,
Game Server Etc.,) residing inside a network that is protected by a firewall. The private
computer will need to declare the port number it uses for the service on the firewall.

No Port Forwarding:

With Port Forwarding:

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Port Triggering
 Port Triggering allows computers behind a NAT-enabled router access a special server
or use a special application on the Internet using a specified port number
 In Port Triggering, the port used by the computer from the LAN to send traffic to the
internet is monitored by the router since the reply from that sent traffic may be sent
back on a different port number; thus the router will open it automatically for the
sender. In theory it is basically port forwarding in dynamic mode where the return port
number may be different but will still be allowed to go through the firewall.

How it works

Stage 1: For example the private computer sends traffic for authentication to a web server in
the internet using a random registered port 6667 (depends on the application).

The firewall will let the traffic to pass through normally and the web server will receive the
traffic for authentication from the private computer.

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Stage 2: Firewall receives reply from web server in the internet but web server uses known port
113 for Ident Protocol (specified in RFC 1413, is an Internet protocol that helps identify the user
of a particular TCP connection).

If NO Port Triggering was declared, the firewall drops the traffic because it does not know what
computer from the LAN was receiving it since traffic was being sent on a different port number.

If Port Triggering was declared on the firewall, the firewall will let the traffic go through and be
received by the private computer behind the firewall regardless of what port number was used
by the web server.

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DMZ

 The point of a DMZ is that connections from the internal and the external network to the
DMZ are permitted, whereas connections from the DMZ are only permitted to the
external network — hosts in the DMZ may not connect to the internal network
 This allows the DMZ's hosts to provide services to the external network while protecting
the internal network in case intruders compromise a host in the DMZ
 For someone on the external network who wants to illegally connect to the internal
network, the DMZ is a dead end

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 Self Assessment Questions
2010

Questions:

1. What are the basic things you need to establish a network?

2. What is a computer network?
3. What is an Internet connection?
4. Give examples of electronic communication
5. What are the purposes of networking?
6. What are the advantages of networking?
7. Enumerate the different types of network
8. What is Collision in a network environment?
9. What is a Backbone?
10. What kind of device repeats incoming signals to all ports?
11. What method is used to keep a domain name linked on a changing IP address?
12. How many bits are there in a byte?
13. What command is used to test connectivity in a TCP/IP network?
14. What is a Route?
15. What type of topology uses a central connection point to establish network connectivity
between computers?
16. What type of topology provides several paths to a particular node?
17. What is Peer to Peer Architecture?
18. What is a Client Server Architecture?
19. Enumerate the different OSI layers
20. What are the two types of network cables?
21. What is a Domain Name System?
22. What is a Router?
23. What is a NAT?
24. What is a Firewall?
25. Define DMZ

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 Answer to Self Assessment Questions
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Answers:

1. Computer, NIC, Ethernet cable, switch/hub/router

2. Commonly called as a network, consists of two or more computers that are interconnected to
each other in order to share resources and allow electronic communications.
3. Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard
Internet Protocol to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists
of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global
scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic and optical networking technologies
4. E-mail, chat, video and/or audio streaming, online banking
5.
 Share data and information
 Share network devices
 Business communications
 Software sharing
6. Speed, Cost, Security, Centralized communication, Flexible
7. LAN, WAN, MAN, WLAN, SAN, PAN
8. An attempt by two devices to transmit over the network at the same time usually resulting in
the data being lost.
9. A high-speed link joining together several networks.
10. Hub
11. Dynamic DNS
12. 8 bits
13. PING
14. A route is a path through an internetwork
15. Star Topology
16. Mesh Topology
17. It is a method in which the individual computers are linked to share programs/files. Often
referred to as peer-to-peer or P2P, this type of architecture allows you to connect two or more
computers in order to pool their resources.
18. Client server architecture is a network setup in which the clients are separate from servers.
19. Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, Physical
20. STP and UTP
21. The domain name system (DNS) is an Internet-wide distributed database that translates
between domain names and IP addresses
22. A router is a device that joins multiple networks together, and determines the path of a
packet from source to destination.
23. NAT is a technique that hides an entire private IP address behind a single public IP address
space.
24. Firewall is used to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network. Firewalls can
be implemented in both hardware and software
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25. The point of a DMZ is that connections from the internal and the external network to the
DMZ are permitted, whereas connections from the DMZ are only permitted to the external
network — hosts in the DMZ may not connect to the internal network

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