Module 7

Additive manufacturing

ME 222: Manufacturing Technology I

Department of Mechanical Engineering

IIT Guwahati

1
 What is Additive Manufacturing?

Additive
Formalized term Manufacturing
Conventional Rapid
term Prototyping

Popular term 3D Printing

Other terms Stereolithography, Image Courtesy of Materialise

Layer-based manufacturing,
Automated fabrication,
(Solid) freeform fabrication

2
 Application of Additive Manufacturing

Impeller Biomedical
Audi W12 Engine parts https://www.3ders.org/
www.oemupdate.com

Jewellery
3d printing of house Food printing Organ bioprinting 3
www.boldbusiness.com
 Metamaterials

Microlattice / Mechanical metamaterials / Architected material

4
 Additive Manufacturing vs CNC Machining

Material Voids, anisotropy present in AM parts

Speed Overall process takes less time in AM process as CNC

is a multistage process
Geometrical
Highly complex components is possible with AM
Complexity

Resolution of AM process is a few tens of microns

Accuracy
whereas size and shape CNC tool decides the resolution

Programing Less involved in AM processes

5
 Advantage of Additive Manufacturing

Rapid character
Reduced
resources

Seamlessness

Cleaner shop
Reduced floor
https://robo3d.com
processes 6
 Generic Additive Manufacturing Process

Conceptualization Conversion to Transfer to AM machine and

and CAD STL/AMF STL file manipulation

Removal and Machine

Build setup
cleanup

Post-processing Application
7
 Additive manufacturing/3D printing
 Layer by layer manufacturing process
 Creates 3D objects - not by subtractive methods
 Additive method – Effective utilization of materials
 Creates object according to 3D models- computer interface is required
 Surface roughness – post processing is required

Is this optimum layer thickness?

8
 3D metal printing

 3D geometry of object - computer-aided design (CAD) files

 Slicing with layers – decide the layer thickness
 CAD file - converted to a format usually .STL format
 All data fed to 3D printer
 Path of melted/solidified metal – controlled by XYZ movement of table
or movement of laser source

 Most of the metal 3D printing technologies – SLM

 Transformation of powdered metal into a solid metallic object

9
 Additive Manufacturing
Major AM processes based on Hopkinson and Dickens’ classification (more AM processes added here)
• Stereolithography (SLA)
Liquid Based • Jetting Systems
• Direct Light Processing (DLP)

• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

• Three-Dimensional Printing
• Fused Metal Deposite Systems
• Direct metal deposition (DMD)/directed energy deposition (DED)
• Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
Powder Based • Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
• Selective Masking Sintering
• Selective Inhibition Sintering
• Electro photographic Layered Manufacturing
• High Speed Sintering
• Multi Jet Fusion (MJF)

• Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)

Solid Based
• Sheet Stacking Technologies 10
Classification of 3D Printing

11
 Powder Bed Fusion

Binding
Reference slide Mechanisms

Solid state Chemically Liquid phase

induced binding Full melting
sintering sintering

Distinct binder and Indistinct binder and structural

structural particles particles

Separate Composite
Coated particles
particles particles

Primary binding mechanisms in Powder Bed Fusion

12
[Additive Manufacturing Technologies by Gibson, Rosen and Stucker]
 Additive Manufacturing

Broadly AM technologies: Seven groups

 Binder jetting
 Directed energy deposition
 Material extrusion
 Material jetting
 Powder bed fusion
 Sheet lamination
 Vat polymerization

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 Additive manufacturing

 Layer by layer deposition - one layer at a time

 3D printing and additive manufacturing are synonyms
 3D printing/additive manufacturing is the process - rapid prototyping is
the end result

Common methods for producing layers in 3D printing

SLA or SL: Stereolithography

FDM: Fused deposition modeling
SLM: Selective laser melting
SLS: Selective laser sintering
DMD: Direct metal deposition
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 3D Printing Process Developers

SLM DED EBM

• Selective laser powder remelting • LENS- first • Developed at
(SLPR) developed by Fraunhofer commercialized DED Chalmers University
Institute of Laser Technology, Germany, process developed by of Technology,
in 1995 Sandia National Sweden
• F&S Stereolithographicetechninik Laboratories, USA
GmbH, Germany, commercialized • Commercialized by
• Commercialized by
Fraunhofer machine in 2002 Arcam AB, Sweden, in
Optomec
2001
• EOS made “M270” DMLS machine in • First machine “LENS 750”
2004, the most successful PBF system in 1997
SLS
• First commercial PBF system is
Selective Laser Sintering Sinterstation
2000 machine by DTM Corporation, 15
USA, in 1992 (3D Systems currently)
 Stereolithography (SLA or SL or VP)

- is widely recognized as the first 3D printing process

- is a laser-based process that works with photopolymer resins

 It reacts with the laser and cure to form a solid

 Generally accepted as being one of the most accurate 3D printing
processes with excellent surface finish
 High resolution but relatively low strength parts
 Also known as vat polymerization (VP)

Limiting factors:
- post-processing steps required
- stability of the materials over time – may more brittle
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 Design for Additive Manufacturing

• Part orientation

• Removal of supports
www.reddit.com www2.virginia.edu

• Hollowing of parts

• Interlocking features [Gibson, Rosen and Stucker]

• Reduction of part count in an assembly

• Identification markings/numbers 17
materialise.helpjuice.com
 Powder Based System
Powder Bed Fusion or Sintering
- Wider range of materials
- Functional parts

 Laser sintering is used in polyamide, titanium, and rubber-like materials

 The laser fuses powder while the rest as loose powder

 After one layer, new layer of fresh powder is spread over the surface by a
roller

 No supporting structure is needed. The un-sintered/un-melted powder is

used as supporting material

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Powder Bed Fusion

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 Additive manufacturing of metallic components
1. Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
2. Wire Feed Directed Energy Deposition (DED/DMD)
3. Powder Feed (powder nozzle) Directed Energy Deposition (DED/DMD)

 Fusion of successive layers of metal using a focused heat source - laser or electron beam
 A well defined pre-programmed path for scanning
 Layer thickness, surface roughness and material deposition rate depend on
- Focused beam diameter (laser beam or electron beam)
- Scanning speed
- Powder particle size
- Powder flow rate
- Shielding gas type (Nitrogen/Argon)
- Shielding gas flow rate
- Solidification

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 Additive manufacturing of metallic components
- Consists of many complex physical processes
Melting/solidification, solidification shrinkage, absorption, vaporization, wetting, sintering

Application to metallic materials

 Stainless steel – medical grade (316L) (SS316L)

 Maraging steel

Difficult for steel having high percentage of carbon

 Nickel and nickel alloy (Inconel)
 Aluminum and aluminum alloy (most common AlSi10Mg)
 Titanium alloy (most common Ti6Al4V)
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 Directed Energy Deposition

To make large parts with additive manufacturing

- the powder based system has limitations due to inherent cost and build time

 A coaxial feed of powder or wire to an laser or electron

beam to form a melted or sintered layer on a substrate
 Powder deposition is synchronized with the heat source
 Not powder bed system
 Scaling up of DED is more easy and cost-effective to produce
larger parts

 DED can also be used to coat existing structures (includes repairing), which is difficult (or
not possible) using powder bed technique
 Important applications in repair of cracks or defects, in providing a wear-resistant coating
to a particular area, or and in protecting specific areas of an object from corrosion. 22
 SLS/DMLS/SLM
Selective laser sintering (SLS)
 Use laser as the power source to sinter powdered material (mainly polymer)
 Bind the material together to create a solid structure
 Mainly been used for rapid prototyping and for low-volume production of component
parts
 Similar to direct metal laser sintering (DMLS)
 Same concept but differ in technical details

Selective laser melting (SLM)

 Material (metal) is fully melted rather than sintered – allow different properties
 Based on powder bed (PBF) system

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 SLS/DMLS/SLM
 SLS used to refer to the process as applied to a variety of materials—plastics, glass,
ceramics
 DMLS refers to the process as applied to metal alloys
 Sintering process - do not fully melt the powder
 Heat it to the point that the powder can fuse together on a molecular level
 With sintering - the porosity of the material can be controlled

 SLM - using the laser to achieve a full melt

 Powder is actually melted into a homogenous part
 Parts made using SLM is stronger because - it has fewer or no voids which helps
prevent part failure
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 DMD/DED
 In laser based metal 3D printing technologies - DMD is the only one not based on a
powder bed
 In SLM and DMLS, the un-fused metallic powder is used as support material and can be
reused
 In DMD, supports can be required to maintain the building object (lattice structure not
possible)
 In DMD, almost all the powder is transformed into solid
 DMD technology also has the ability to comply with a freeform substrate
 Cooling time can be considerable for laser sintering
 Porosity of may be an issue for laser sintering (more than SLM)
 Metal sintering requires much higher powered laser than plastic

25
 DED vs FDM
Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
 Generally used for polymers
 Uses a continuous filament of a material
 This is fed from a large coil
 Molten material is forced out of a nozzle
 It is deposited on new layer (layer by
layer)

Direct Metal Deposition (DMD)

or Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
 Uses a laser to melt metallic powder
 It is not based on a powder bed
 Powders are projected through nozzle
 Powders are fused by focused laser or electron beam
 Concept is similar to FDM, but powder is used here
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 Material Jetting
• More professional prototypes
• Multi-material
• Common in design firms

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 Material Jetting
• Materials used: plastics, polymers, or metals,
• The material is applied in droplets through a small diameter nozzle, similar to a 2D inkjet paper printer.
• It is applied layer-by-layer to a build platform and then hardened by UV light.
• Support structure is required for the part, which is printed simultaneously during building from a dissolvable material
removed afterward.
• Material Jetting is highly accurate when it comes to the deposition of droplets and hence produces lower levels of waste
• Multiple parts and colors in a single process
• Limitations: support material is required, possibility of brittle parts.
• Due to material limitations, it is ideal for prototyping but less suited to producing functional, end-use parts that require good
mechanical properties.
• It is used for aesthetic and color prototypes, anatomical models for educational purposes and pre-surgical planning and
training, art, and jewelry.

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Binder Jetting

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 Binder Jetting

• It uses a powder-based materials of polymers, metals, ceramics, or glass with a liquid binder.
• The liquid binder acts as an adhesive between layers.
• A print head moves horizontally, depositing powder and binding material in alternate layers. After each
layer, the build platform lowers the part being made.
• Support structures are not needed because the 3D printed object is supported in the powder bed.
• used for making aesthetic and color prototypes, sand casting cores and molds, tooling, jewelry, dental and
medical devices, and aerospace components.
• fast process
• parts can be made with a range of different colors (in the case of plastics) and in a wide range of materials.

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 Material Jetting and Binder Jetting

• More professional prototypes

• Multi-material
• Common in design firms

Material jetting - print head (similar to inkjet printing) distributes droplets of a photosensitive
material that solidifies under ultraviolet (UV) light
 Support structure is required
 Ex. Thermoset photopolymers (acrylics) in liquid form

Binder Jetting - selectively deposited onto the powder bed, liquid binder is used for bonding
these areas to form a solid part
 Common materials are - metals, sand, and ceramics in granular form
 No support structure is required
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 Multi Jet Fusion (MJF)
• A relatively new industrial 3D printing process developed by Hewlett-Packard (HP)
• A combination of Powder Bed Fusion and Binder Jetting technologies
• commonly used for final functional parts as well as prototypes, including industrial applications.
• A layer of powder is spread on the print-bed.
• Next, the fusing agent and detailing agent are
deposited on top of the powder, defining the regions
of the layer that need to be fused or protected from
fusion, respectively.
• The detailing agent is a substance that evaporates
quickly when exposed to heat.
• Heat is applied to the bed and the areas where the fusing
agent was deposited are fused.
• Once these fused layers cool down, they solidify and build
the designed 3D printed part.
• MJF offers high productivity and the materials printed
attain isotropic properties
• Unlike SLS or FDM (which uses a point-by-point printing Stages of 3D printing by HP MJF
approach), HP MJF technology can print a complete layer
at the same time thereby making it a significantly faster
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process
 Welding to metal printing
Metal transfer in arc welding
GMAW
GTAW, PAW

Metal addition in laser welding – metal printing

GMAW has also been used to develop low-cost 3D metal printer

Mode of metal transfer in GMAW-- Continuous mode / Pulse mode

GMAW – CMT
• Cold metal transfer (CMT) is new form of gas metal arc welding (GMAW)

• It's not exactly cold but its temperature is lower than regular GMAW process

• Both GMAW and CMT are considered under wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM)
Video: CMT additive manufacturing like you’ve never seen it before
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pcvX5eRNMB4&t=26s
33
 GMAW
Transfer of molten metal from consumable electrode to the weld pool

Secondary Factors
Shielding gas, composition of the electrode, diameter of the electrode

Current, Voltage, Arc gap

Types of metal transfer

o Short Circuit Transfer
o Globular Transfer
o Spray Transfer

34
 Cold Metal Transfer (CMT)
 CMT is actually a part of GMAW
 In principle, it works at reduced welding current and retracting the weld wire at a short
circuit condition
 Ensure a drop-by-drop deposit of weld material.
 First developed for thin materials with strict control of weld parameters

o Now-a-days, the welding of dissimilar metals and thicker materials along with
improved weld bead aesthetics are developed.
o It is one of the option of metal printing technology development.

 CMT process is developed by Fronius of Austria in 2004.

 This process differs from GMAW in terms of mechanical droplet detaching method

35
 Difference of CMT from GMAW process
The main difference is in terms of wire feed
In GMAW – wire continuously moving forward into the weld pool
 In CMT - the wire is retracted the instant current flows
 It breaks the arc. The metal droplet detaches from the filler and fuses with the (still
molten) base metal.
 Again, the wire moves forward to create another arc.
 All these phenomena happens several times in each second
 CMT provides a controlled method of material deposition by sophisticated wire feed
system at low thermal input
 In effect, it needs high-speed digital control technology.

36
Challenges with 3D-Printing/Additive Manufacturing
• High cost of materials due to maintaining purity of particles and
required particle shape and size
• Unreliability of machines - 20% rejection rate
• Challenges scaling up technology
• Speed of product manufacture
• Environmental Concerns
• Surface finish
• Resolution
• Mechanical properties
• Post processing

37
Refer to the video recording

Courtesy: Prof. Sajan Kapil, IIT Guwahati

Refer to the video recording

Courtesy: Prof. Sajan Kapil, IIT Guwahati

Refer to the video recording

Y
Y

Z X
y
𝑡=𝑡 2𝑙 𝑡 = 𝑡
X

The intensity (𝑤/𝑚 ) of the laser beam spot on the top surface of the resin can be defined as:
2𝑃 2𝑟
𝐼= exp −
𝜋𝜔 𝜔

Total exposed energy per unit square E of the surface of the resin (𝑧 = 0) can be defined as:

𝐸 𝑥, 𝑦, 0 = 𝐼𝑑𝑡

If this energy is falling from time 𝑡 = 𝑡 to 𝑡 = 𝑡 on the surface of resin then:

𝐸 𝑥, 𝑦, 0 = 𝐼𝑑𝑡
Courtesy: Prof. Sajan Kapil, IIT Guwahati
Refer to the video recording

Y
Y

Z X
y
𝑡=𝑡 2𝑙 𝑡 = 𝑡
X
During this exposure time assume that the laser has scanned a single bead along X-direction
(−𝑙 to +𝑙 where the length of vat is 2𝑙) on the surface of resin with a velocity 𝑣 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
as: 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸 𝑦, 0 = 𝐼
𝑉 𝑉

2𝑃 2(𝑥 + 𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑥
Using expression of ‘𝐼’: 𝐸 𝑦, 0 = exp −
𝜋𝜔 𝜔 𝑉

2𝑃 2𝑦 2𝑥
𝐸 𝑦, 0 = exp − exp − 𝑑𝑥
𝑉 𝜋𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
Courtesy: Prof. Sajan Kapil, IIT Guwahati
Refer to the video recording

It can be observed that the laser exposure is proportional to exp − , this function falls
off very rapidly with 𝑥.

Because of this rapid fall of the exposure a new term is defined as ‘zone of influence’ such
that within this zone 99.9% of exposure will be received; while outside of this zone only
0.01%. The influence zone length along x-axis can be calculated as:

2𝑥 2𝑥 Characteristic exposure time

exp − = 0.01% of max exp − 10
𝜔 𝜔 𝑡 = 500 ×
𝑉
2𝑥
exp − = 0.0001
𝜔 Characteristic exposure time
10
𝑥 = 2.146 𝜔 𝑡 = 500 × = 50𝜇𝑠
10
Typical beam spot radius is about 100𝜇𝑚
Limit of influencing zone: −214.6 × 10 to +214.6 × 10 ≈ 500 × 10
Hence 𝑙 can more then limit of influencing zone, let take as infinity Courtesy: Prof. Sajan Kapil, IIT Guwahati
Refer to the video recording

Y
Y

Z X
y
𝑡=𝑡 2𝑙 𝑡 = 𝑡
X
2𝑃 2𝑦 2𝑥
𝐸 𝑦, 0 = exp − exp − 𝑑𝑥
𝑉 𝜋𝜔 𝜔 𝜔

2𝑥 4𝑥 2 𝜔
let 𝑝 = 2𝑝 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑝
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 2

𝜔 2𝑃 2𝑦
𝐸 𝑦, 0 = exp − exp −𝑝 𝑑𝑝
2 𝑉 𝜋𝜔 𝜔

2 𝑃 2𝑦
𝐸 𝑦, 0 = exp −
𝜋𝑉 𝜔 𝜔
Courtesy: Prof. Sajan Kapil, IIT Guwahati
Refer to the video recording

Y
Y
X

y
Z
X
When a laser beam strikes the resin surface, it's energy got absorbed and exposed energy decline
with depth (𝑧). According to beer-lambert law the available energy at depth ‘z’ is can be defined as:
𝑧
𝐸 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝐸 𝑦, 0 exp −
𝐷

2 𝑃 2𝑦 𝑧
𝐸 𝑦, 𝑧 = exp − exp −
𝜋𝑉 𝜔 𝜔 𝐷

Where 𝐷 is defined as ‘penetration depth’. It can be observed that at 𝑧 = 𝐷 the available energy is
reduced to (37%). Normally 𝐷 value is between 0.14 to 0.18mm
Courtesy: Prof. Sajan Kapil, IIT Guwahati
Refer to the video recording

The time, 𝑡 , taken for a photon to pass through a single resin layer of thickness, 𝐿 , is equal to where
299,792,458
𝑐 is the velocity of light in the resin. Typically, 𝑡 is of the order of a picosecond.

The process of cross-linking that follows free radical generation takes much time (𝑡 ) for cross-linking in
conditions typical of SL is of the order of microseconds.

The time needed for the laser exposure to reach 99.99% of its value when a Gaussian beam is scanned at a
constant velocity past a given point is called the characteristic exposure time, 𝑡 . The typical range of this
time in SL is from 50 to 2000 𝜇𝑠, so 𝑡 is much larger than 𝑡 and 𝑡 .

Courtesy: Prof. Sajan Kapil, IIT Guwahati

Refer to the video recording

2 𝑃 2𝑦 𝑧
𝐸 𝑦, 𝑧 = exp − exp −
𝜋𝑉 𝜔 𝜔 𝐷

At the location 𝑦, 𝑧 where the exposed energy crossed the critical value (𝐸 ) will got
cured. Such location can be obtained by:

𝜋𝐸 2𝑦 𝑧
𝑉𝜔 = exp − −
2𝑃 𝜔 𝐷

Or
2𝐷 𝑦 2 𝑃
𝑧=− + 𝐷 ln
𝜔 𝜋𝑉 𝜔 𝐸

𝑧 = −𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏 Where: 𝑎 = and b=D ln

Courtesy: Prof. Sajan Kapil, IIT Guwahati
Refer to the video recording

𝑧 = −𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏
Thank you
for your kind attention

48
Reference slide Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Arc voltage
Power
Starting, main, reduced and final current
Wire type (material composition, coating, coring etc.)
Wire diameter
Filler
Wire feed rate

Gas proportion, Gas pressure. Gas flow rate, Gas pre-flow

Gas
period, Gas post-flow period

Layer thickness
Deposition Bead width
Bead height or reinforcement height
Distance between nozzle and base plate
Torch Distance between electrode contact tip and base plate
Torch speed
Type of area-filling
Path
Step over increment
49
Reference slide Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑐𝑥 y

• The modeling of the bead profile is required to establish the relationship among
the different process parameters.
• The bead profile above the substrate can be assumed to be a symmetric
parabola of the form
𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑐𝑥
Where 𝑎 = ℎ and 𝑐 =
50
Reference slide Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

• Therefore the geometric form of the parabola is 2𝑥

𝑦 =ℎ 1−
𝑤

• It is preferable to write the same parabola in terms of the process parameters

(𝑣 , 𝑣 ).
• This is achieved by equating the expressions of the bead area (A) obtained in
terms of the geometric and process parameters.
• The area of the parabolic bead in terms of its geometric parameters is:
2
𝐴 = ℎ𝑤
3
• The same in the form of process parameters can be obtained by dividing the
volume of deposited per unit time by torch speed as:

𝜋𝑑 𝑣
𝐴= 4
𝑣 51
Reference slide Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

• Therefore the geometric form of the parabola is 2𝑥

𝑦 =ℎ 1−
𝑤

• It is preferable to write the same parabola in terms of the process parameters

(𝑣 , 𝑣 ).
• This is achieved by equating the expressions of the bead area (A) obtained in
terms of the geometric and process parameters.
• The area of the parabolic bead in terms of its geometric parameters is:
2
𝐴 = ℎ𝑤
3
• The same in the form of process parameters can be obtained by dividing the
volume of deposited per unit time by torch speed as:

𝜋𝑑 𝑣
2 3𝜋𝑣 𝑑
𝐴= 4 = ℎ𝑤 ⇒ 𝑤 =
𝑣 3 8ℎ𝑣 52
Reference slide Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

16ℎ𝑣 𝑥
𝑦 =ℎ 1−
3𝜋𝑣 𝑑

• Bead formation is the interplay of several physical phenomena such as gravity,

electromagnetic force, viscosity, surface tension, etc.
• Therefore, although both ℎ and 𝑤 depend only on the process parameters,
obtaining their relationship in terms of them is too difficult as it would involve
modeling all these phenomena.
• Therefore, above equation, a hybrid form of the parabola that includes the easily
measurable geometric parameter h is more useful. Once h is measured and the
prevailing process parameters are known, the bead profile can be obtained from
this equation.

53
Reference slide Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

• In MIG welding/cladding process the

wire feed is in synergy with the
welding current.
• In most of the welding machines it
follows a linear curve, however it
needs to be calibrated.
• One such example curve has been
shown in the following figure:

54
Reference slide Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐻𝐺𝐽) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐸𝐹𝐺)

Area (HLG) = Area (EIG)

Area (HLG) = Area (FIG)
55
Reference slide Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Area (HLG) = Area (FIG)

ℎ − 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦𝑑𝑥
/

ℎ𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦𝑑𝑥

2
𝑝= 𝑤
3

56
Reference slide Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Given is the data for MIG welding based AM process:

Torch speed = 800 mm/min; bead height = 2 mm; penetration depth = 0.5mm; wire
diameter = 0.8 mm; welding current =100 amp; material density = 7.8 gm/cc;
efficiency = 90%

Assuming the profile bead cross-section as parabolic, calculate the following:

• Deposition rate in gm/min

• Bead width
• Optimal value of stepover
• Min Required Power (Approximate)
𝐶 460 𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃
𝑇 1800𝐾 𝜌𝐴 𝑣 𝑐 𝑇 − 𝑇 + 𝐿 + 𝜌𝐴 𝑣 𝑐 𝑇 − 𝑇 + 𝐿
𝑇 300𝐾
𝑃=
𝜂
𝐿 2.7 × 10 J/kg 57
Reference slide Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

• The hardness variation exists only in the final layers. It falls rapidly within a thickness of
few layers
• The hardness of the core is independent of the number of thermal cycles 58
Reference slide Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Dimensions of ASTM A370 test specimen

• These specimens should

be prepared in all the three
direction viz.,
o build direction,
o torch direction and
o step over direction
• few specimens can be
prepared for each of X, Y Plan of specimens for X and Y directions Plan of specimens for Z direction
and Z directions.

59
Reference slide Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

The Z direction is weaker by about 20% in

yield strength and 11% in ultimate strength.
This was because of insufficient penetration.

Ultimate strength in the three different directions

60
Reference slide Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Ultimate strength
Current (A)
(MPa)
70 455
80 468
90 494
100 524

Ultimate strength in the vertical direction for different values of current 61