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 Mobile Technology
and Academic
Libraries:
Innovative Services for
Research and Learning
edited by Robin Canuel and Chad Crichton
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

Association of College and Research Libraries

A division of the American Library Association
Chicago, Illinois 2017

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American
National Standard for Information Sciences–Permanence of Paper for Printed Li-
brary Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992. ∞

Cataloging-in-Publication data is on file with the Library of Congress.

Copyright ©2017 by the Association of College and Research Libraries.

Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

All rights reserved except those which may be granted by Sections 107 and 108 of
the Copyright Revision Act of 1976.

Printed in the United States of America.

21 20 19 18 17 5 4 3 2 1

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 Table of Contents
ix Acknowledgments
xi Introduction
Robin Canuel and Chad Crichton
1 Chapter 1 The Mobile Context: A User-Centered Approach to
Mobile Strategy for Libraries
Edward Bilodeau
1 ������� Introduction
2 ������� Mobile Technologies and the Decline of the Desktop Computing
Paradigm
4 ������� The Mobile Context
9 ������� Exploring the Mobile Context of Your Users
11 ����� Informing Your Mobile Technology Strategy
13 ����� Conclusion
13 ����� References
15 Chapter 2 The Development of an Academic Library’s Mobile
Website
Junior Tidal
15 ����� Introduction
15 ����� Literature Review
16 ����� Background
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

17 ����� History of the City Tech Library Mobile Site

30 ����� Future Improvements
32 ����� References
35 Chapter 3 A Mobile-First Library Site Redesign: How Designing for
Mobile Provides a Better User Experience for All
Nathan E. Carlson, Alec Sonsteby, and Jennifer DeJonghe
35 ����� Introduction
36 ����� The Mobile Landscape
38 ����� Understanding User Needs and Behaviors
41 ����� Pre-design Phase
42 ����� Site Design and Testing
47 ����� Challenges and Future Directions
48 ����� Acknowledgments
49 ����� Appendix 3A� Metropolitan State Library Homepage Redesign,
User Survey
51 ����� Appendix 3B� Metropolitan State Library Homepage Redesign,
Test Script: Wireframe 2
52 ����� References

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

55 Chapter 4. Selfie as Guide: Using Mobile Devices to Promote Active

Learning and Student Engagement
Sarah LeMire, Stacy Gilbert, Stephanie Graves, and Tiana Faultry-
Okonkwo
55 ����� Introduction
56 ����� Library Tours as Academic Library Outreach
56 ����� Active Learning and Mobile Technology
58 ����� Mobile Technology and Library Tours
60 ����� Developing the Selfie-Guided Tour
65 ����� Lessons Learned and Future Directions
67 ����� Conclusion
68 ����� Appendix 4A. Gateway Alignment Grid
69 ����� References
73 Chapter 5. Beyond Passive Learning: Utilizing Active Learning Tools
for Engagement, Reflection, and Creation
Teresa E. Maceira and Danitta A. Wong
73 ����� Introduction
74 ����� Literature Review
78 ����� Tools and Learning Activities
85 ����� Apps Workshops
86 ����� Technical Issues
87 ����� Conclusion
88 ����� References
91 Chapter 6. Getting Meta with Marlon: Integrating Mobile
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

Technology into Information Literacy Instruction

Regina Lee Roberts and Mattie Taormina
91 ����� Introduction
92 ����� Background
94 ����� Case Study: The Marlon Riggs Collection
96 ����� Mobile Device Selection
98 ����� Reflections
100 ��� Conclusion
101 ��� Appendix 6A. Workshop Stations
103 ��� References
105 Chapter 7 Clinical Resources for the Digital Physician: Case Study
and Discussion of Teaching Mobile Technology to Undergraduate
Medical Students
Maureen (Molly) Knapp
105 ��� Introduction
107 ��� Course Design
107 ��� Audience Response and Feedback

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 Table of Contents v

108 ��� Readings and Discussion

118 ��� How Does This Tie into the Information Literacy Framework?
119 ��� Results and Conclusion
120 ��� Appendix 7A. List of Subscription and Free Apps Reviewed in
Clinical Resources for the Digital Physician App Demonstration
121 ��� References
123 Chapter 8 Mobile Technology Support for Field Research
Wayne Johnston
123 ��� Preamble
124 ��� Introduction
125 ��� Literature Review and Methodology
127 ��� Open Data Kit (ODK)
129 ��� Deployments
130 ��� Knowledge Base
132 ��� Conclusions
133 ��� References
135 Chapter 9 From Start to Finish: Mobile Tools to Assist Librarian
Researchers
Mê-Linh Lê
135 ��� Introduction
136 ��� A History of Apps
136 ��� The Librarian as Researcher
140 ��� Mobile Apps for Research
149 ��� Apps in Action
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

150 ��� Conclusion and Future Directions

150 ��� References
153 Chapter 10. A Novel Application: Using Mobile Technology to
Connect Physical and Virtual Reference Collections
Hailie D. Posey
153 ��� Introduction
156 ��� Research Guides and the User Experience
159 ��� Building the Theology Collections Portal in Scalar
166 ��� Strengths, Shortcomings, and Future Directions for the
Theology Collections Portal
168 ��� References
171 Chapter 11. Adding Apps to Our Collections: A Pilot Project
Willie Miller, Yoo Young Lee, and Caitlin Pike
171 ��� Introduction
172 ��� Literature Review
174���� Project Background
174���� App Selection

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS

175 ��� Instruction with iPads

179 ��� Barriers or Issues
180 ��� Conclusion
181 ��� References
183 Chapter 12 Tablets on the Floor: A Peer-to-Peer Roaming Service at
Atkins Library
Barry Falls, Beth Martin, and Abby Moore
183 ��� Introduction
184 ��� Logistics: Making It Happen
185 ��� Pilot Project
190 ��� Implementation
191 ��� The Student Library Advisory Board’s Opinion on Roamers
191 ��� Focus Groups
192 ��� Marketing
192 ��� Hours of Operation
193 ��� Unexpected Benefits
194 ��� Reflection and Next Steps
195 ��� References
197 Chapter 13 Using Proximity Beacons and the Physical Web to
Promote Library Research and Instructional Services
Jordan M. Nielsen and Keven M. Jeffery
197 ��� Introduction
199 ��� Background
200 ��� Implementation
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

204 ��� Promotion

204 ��� Lessons Learned
205 ��� Technical Hurdles
205 ��� Next Steps
207 ��� References
209 Chapter 14. Gamification Using Mobile Technology in the Classroom:
A Positive Benchmark for the Future of Higher Education
Avery Le
209 ��� Introduction
211 ��� Gamification in the Classroom
215 ��� The Benefits of Gamification
216 ��� Possible Drawbacks
219 ��� Solutions for Drawbacks
219 ��� Conclusion
220 ��� References

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 Table of Contents vii

223 Chapter 15: Bringing Texts to Life: An Augmented Reality Application

for Supporting the Development of Information Literacy Skills
Yusuke Ishimura and Martin Masek
223 ��� The Undergraduate Student’s Experience of Writing Research
Papers
224 ��� What Is Augmented Reality?
225 ��� Development of the AR Application: The Trailblazer Project and
Text Recognition
227 ��� Content Development
230 ��� Results
234 ��� Conclusion and Future Direction
235 ��� Acknowledgment
235 ��� References
237 Chapter 16. Virtual Reality Library Environments
Jim Hahn
237 ��� Introduction
238 ��� General Virtual Reality Hardware
238 ��� Contemporary Virtual Reality Hardware
239 ��� Google Cardboard Virtual Reality Experience
240 ��� Review of Virtual Reality Applications and Current Academic
Uses
241 ��� Library Virtual Reality Use Cases for Research and Teaching
245 ��� Developer Resources
246 ��� Future Directions
247 ��� References
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

248 ��� Works Consulted

249 Chapter 17. Wearable Technologies in Academic Libraries: Fact,
Fiction and the Future
Ayyoub Ajmi and Michael J. Robak
249 ��� Introduction
250 ��� Market Analysis
251 ��� Google Glass Explorer
256 ��� Other Smart Glasses
256 ��� Activity Trackers
257 ��� Smartwatches
257 ��� Other Wearable Devices
258 ��� Wearables in Academic Libraries
260 ��� Challenges
261 ��� Conclusion
262 ��� References
265 About the Authors

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 Acknowledgments
The editors would like to acknowledge the assistance of the following individuals
and institutions that provided us with support and encouragement throughout
the course of this project: the McGill University and University of Toronto Scar-
borough Libraries, Kathryn Deiss, Erin Nevius, and the Association of College
and Research Libraries. We would like to thank the following individuals for read-
ing various drafts of chapters and providing their thoughtful comments and feed-
back: Edward Bilodeau, Eamon Duffy, Dawn McKinnon, Lonnie Weatherby, and
Deena Yanofsky. We would also like to thank the chapter authors for sharing their
innovative and interesting ideas and services and for writing such high-quality
chapters, and a special thank you to our families for their steadfast support and
understanding—Jennifer, Matthew and Nicholas, and Julie.
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

ix

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 Introduction
Robin Canuel and Chad Crichton
As we approach the tenth anniversary of the introduction of the Apple iPhone,
mobile technology has become a ubiquitous presence in the lives of today’s stu-
dents and faculty. The maturing of this technology has led to our becoming more
and more comfortable in a world where digital information flows seamlessly from
screen to screen as we move about our daily lives, freeing us somewhat from the
constraints of wired technology. This evolution presents both risks and opportu-
nities for academic librarians, operating as we do in a field that is both uniquely
tied to a static sense of “place” in the public imagination and at the same time
passionately devoted to the freedom, spread, and accessibility of information for
the public at large. The following chapters explore the responses of academic li-
braries to this maturing of mobile technology, as librarians around the world work
to adapt their spaces, collections, teaching, and services to the new possibilities
presented by mobile technology. In libraries today, no longer do we expect, nor
require, our users to have a physical presence in the library. Leveraging the poten-
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

tial of smartphones, tablets, and even wearable technologies allows academic li-
brarians to further expand their reach to students and faculty beyond the library’s
walls. Furthermore, by understanding how mobile technology changes the behav-
ior of our users, we can gain new insights into their needs and make improvements
to our traditional services and spaces in order to better contribute to faculty re-
search and student learning.
The first step in embracing the challenges and opportunities of mobile tech-
nology is understanding the context in which library users employ this technology
and adapting our online presence to respond not only to the limitations of mobile
devices, but also to their ability to open up new possibilities for users. In chapter
1, Edward Bilodeau explains this “mobile context” and how it has significantly
altered the ways in which people interact with technology. Bilodeau highlights the
importance of this changed context for web designers and also for academic librar-
ians thinking about integrating mobile resources and devices into their practice.
Junior Tidal follows with a practical case study of the design of a mobile website
through a number of iterations, using a wide variety of approaches and tools. Tidal
presents a historical review of the work done at his institution in response to the

xi

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 xii INTRODUCTION

evolving needs of mobile library users over the years as an overview of how mobile
websites have evolved to respond to changes in both technology and user behav-
ior. Chapter 3, from Carlson, Sonsteby, and DeJonghe, highlights the importance
of collecting insights from users in order to ensure that a library’s mobile-inspired
website redesign meets the needs of today’s faculty and students. This user-cen-
tered design approach incorporates feedback comprised of real-world user experi-
ences with mobile websites in order to improve its organization and functionality
in line with user expectations.
Subsequent to the current response of librarians to the new mobile context
and the online design consequences that stem from this new reality, our focus
shifts to the implications of this technology for library orientation and instruction
work. In the time-honored realm of library orientation, LeMire, Gilbert, Graves,
and Faultry-Okonkwo describe their development of new, self-guided library
tours that leverage mobile devices and that can be integrated into information
literacy instruction sessions. In our fifth chapter, Maceira and Wong discuss the
integration of iPads into in-class information literacy sessions and detail the ad-
vantages that mobile technology can bring to the classroom. Roberts and Taormi-
na continue our coverage of mobile technology for teaching in chapter 6 with their
case study of its integration into their workshop, introducing the Special Collec-
tions and Archives of Stanford University to anthropology students. Their use of
iPads as recording devices in the classroom introduces their students to the use of
mobile technology as a tool for research in the field, a topic covered in more detail
in the following chapters. Maureen Knapp at Tulane University, meanwhile, fo-
cuses on the importance of mobile technology to the health care professions in a
potentially less remote real-world context. Knapp’s instruction work is focused on
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

medical students, with whom she discusses the advantages of leveraging mobile
technology to provide improved bedside patient care utilizing specialized mobile
apps and custom hardware. Her workshops introduce these students to some of
the ways in which mobile technology can facilitate their work in the field, and its
use for fieldwork continues as a theme in our succeeding chapters.
Wayne Johnston begins our discussion of mobile technology as a research
tool with his chapter covering some of the unique ways in which mobile tech-
nology can assist university researchers engaged in fieldwork around the world.
Johnston’s personal experiences and numerous discussions with field researchers
in a number of disciplines result in several colorful anecdotes that drive home
mobile technology’s potential to have an immensely positive impact on the work
of researchers working to gather data out in the “real world,” away from the con-
fines, and infrastructure, of their home institutions. In chapter 9, Mê-Linh Lê
brings the focus back to the library explicitly, and she tackles the research im-
plications of mobile technology from the perspective of librarians engaging in
their own research. Lê covers the use of mobile technology for all aspects of the
research process, from data collection through publication and dissemination,

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 Introduction xiii

highlighting and suggesting some of the best apps for librarians when conduct-
ing their research.
Earlier chapters having covered mobile technology from the perspectives of
web design and teaching, Hailie Posey’s chapter then introduces us to the use of
mobile technology from the perspective of collections work. With her case study
on the deployment of iPad kiosks into the physical stacks, she demonstrates how
patrons who are browsing the stacks can have rapid and convenient access to con-
textual digital information that can be used to supplement these print collections.
Posey’s chapter illustrates the ways in which mobile technology can be combined
with traditional collections to enhance the user’s browsing experience and his or
her ability to engage more deeply with print collections. Miller, Lee, and Pike also
discuss mobile apps from a collections perspective, with the apps themselves be-
ing selected for addition to the collection in a manner similar to traditional print
and electronic materials. Miller and his colleagues discuss their experiences and
conclusions with regard to how best to collect, curate, deploy, and promote apps
as part of our campus collections.
Outside of the classroom and the stacks, mobile technology is also impact-
ing that most central service in academic libraries—reference and research as-
sistance. Chapter 12, by Falls, Martin, and Moore, discusses the use of mobile
technology to provide a peer-to-peer roaming reference service for students and
researchers at University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Mobile devices can be
deployed in order to free reference staff from the confines of the traditional ref-
erence desk and enable them to meet with students and faculty at their point of
need. Moore and her coauthors detail the promise and pitfalls of implementing
a roving reference service, including both unexpected barriers and unanticipat-
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

ed benefits. In the following chapter, Nielsen and Jeffery describe the next step
in mobile reference support, whereby students and faculty can have contextual
information about the collections with which they are interacting (or any space
with which they are interacting, for that matter) beamed directly to their mobile
devices without the direct intervention of library staff in the moment. Nielsen
and Jeffery’s library implemented proximity beacons in various locations in and
around their library to work in conjunction with mobile devices to connect the
physical world with the virtual and to assist patrons in navigating collections and
services. With the proper app installed, library users within physical proximity
of one of these stationary beacons can have online resources “pushed” to their
devices—resources that provide contextual information to the users tailored to
their physical location. This leveraging of mobile technology to provide contextu-
al, unmediated, location-based information and services to users when and where
they are is a very new development, and it demonstrates the potential impact that
new uses of mobile technology could have in the future.
In “Gamification Using Mobile Technology in the Classroom,” Avery Le dis-
cusses how mobile technology can be used to leverage the appeal of online gaming

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 xiv INTRODUCTION

in order to foster better learning experiences. This “gamification” of the classroom

promises many potential benefits to the instructor looking to reach out to today’s
students and maintain their attention. In chapter 15, Yusuke Ishimura and Martin
Masek explore the emerging world of augmented reality and the ways in which
mobile devices can be used to superimpose digital information on the real world
in order to enhance the understanding of researchers and students. The app de-
scribed by Ishimura and Masek allows for information to be digitally superim-
posed on a physical text in order to enhance a print document in real time with
added detail and context. Next, Jim Hahn at the University of Illinois at Urbana–
Champaign takes us from augmented reality to virtual reality as he investigates
how new advances in mobile hardware allow researchers and students to harness
virtual environments for their research and learning in ways that were never be-
fore possible. Finally, Ayyoub Ajmi and Michael Robak take us beyond “tradition-
al” mobile devices to introduce us to the world of “wearable” technology. Ajmi
and Robak discuss their early adoption of Google Glass and explore the immense
potential and still evolving challenges of the ultimate expression of “mobility” as
they attempt to foresee what the future may hold in an emerging world in which
technology is worn as much as carried.
As mobile technology continues to evolve, academic librarians will contin-
ue to look for new innovations that will bring not only new efficiencies, but also
entirely new methodologies to researchers and students. The future promises
continuous change as information surges beyond the boundaries of wired infra-
structure and our ability to gather, manipulate, and interpret data in new ways
(and in new places) expands. Our work as professional academic librarians will
be to strive to anticipate the ways in which our notions of research, teaching, and
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

learning—and the importance of location and context for those activities—will

be challenged and changed by mobile technologies. Mobile devices are becoming
consistently and continuously more powerful, while they simultaneously become
less intrusive and more intuitive. In the future it will become necessary for ac-
ademic librarians to be increasingly conscious of the importance of the mobile
context when developing their collections, spaces, services and teaching. The con-
tinuous evolution of mobile technology provides new ways to connect faculty and
students to the world of information available to them through their university’s
libraries, and it is incumbent upon academic librarians to embrace these changes
and to encourage the development of collections, spaces, and services that ful-
ly harness the potential of our ever-present mobile devices, untethered from the
wired world.

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 CHAPTER 1

The Mobile Context

A User-Centered Approach to
Mobile Strategy for Libraries

Edward Bilodeau

Introduction
Libraries have always looked for ways to make use of new technologies to enhance
the resources and services that they provide to their user communities. As the
use of mobile devices became more widespread, many libraries invested in de-
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

veloping or purchasing mobile applications and websites to make their resources

and services more easily available on this new platform. The primary goal of these
initiatives was to adapt existing features and content to mobile devices, adjusting
to make use of the form factors and interaction models that were different from
those offered by traditional workstation computers. While these projects typi-
cally succeed in providing functional mobile applications, in many cases patron
engagement failed to meet the expectations set by the library at the beginning of
the project.
Most libraries have adopted practices such as usability testing to support
their design and development process, but this alone is not enough to realize the
full potential offered by mobile devices. The approaches and assumptions under-
lying how we conceive, design, and implement technology are, for the most part,
grounded in the traditions of desktop computing. However, we can no longer
rely on the computing paradigm presented by desktop computing as an accurate
or representative description of how people use and interact with their person-
al computing devices. The mobile context provides libraries with a perspective
for understanding how their users make use of mobile devices and other forms

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 2 Chapter 1

of computing technology, enabling libraries to design and deploy mobile applica-

tions and services that meet the needs of their user communities.

Mobile Technologies and the Decline of

the Desktop Computing Paradigm
Today’s mobile technologies have ushered in a new era in personal computing.
People now have a wider choice of devices available to them to fulfill any task.
They can also choose the device that best suits their needs and preferences. Al-
though desktop computers are still used by many on a daily basis, they are no
longer the only, or even the primary device of choice (Kim, 2013). This is an im-
portant shift, as our assumptions of how technology can be used to carry out or
support tasks have largely been defined by our experience of computing “tethered
to a desktop computer or laptop” (Bentley & Barrett, 2012, p. 17). Libraries need
to move away from a technology-centered approach to application development
and to recognize the decline of the desktop paradigm as a model for their users’
computing experience.
Most software and web applications were (and still are) designed with the in-
terface, input devices, and configuration of the typical desktop computer in mind.
The assumption was that the user would conform to the needs of the technology
in order to be able to make use of the application. In this model, the user sits in
front of the computer screen with the input devices (typically they keyboard and
mouse) in reach (see figure 1.1).
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

FIGURE 1.1
The desktop context.

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 The Mobile Context 3

The user was expected to adapt to the availability and realities of the technol-
ogy. In order to use the application, the individual had no choice but to travel to
wherever the desktop computer was located, sit before the computer, and focus on
the task at hand. The user was also expected to undergo training to learn how to
use the application in accordance with the developer’s design.
In the desktop model of computing, the interaction between the user and
the computer is considered to be independent of context, with the attention of
the user entering “into the ‘nonspace’ of [the computer’s] interface” (Greenfield,
2006, p. 71). Where this interaction is taking place, the events occurring around
it, the exact positioning of the user in relation to the computer interface—none of
this is considered relevant to the conceptualization or design of the application.
It is worth noting that even in a recent review of the literature covering usability
methods and models, it was found that fewer than 10 percent of the papers consid-
ered context as a relevant component of any model of usability (Harrison, Flood,
& Duce, 2013).
Our approach to designing and developing computer applications has, for the
most part, been grounded in the early days of mainframe computing. At that time,
people, and entire organizations, had very little choice but to conform to technol-
ogy, often using the computer in laboratory-like settings. With the birth of per-
sonal computing in the late 1970s, and its rapid acceleration in the 1980s, people
began to have a choice of which computer to use, where to use it, and what applica-
tions to use. The physical reality of desktop computers did place some constraints
on where and how they were used, with most people choosing to sit before them
at a desk, much as they used the typewriters the computers were modeled after.
Personal computers were being used in offices, homes, schools, and other
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

contexts that were already far removed from the controlled environments where
mainframe workstations had been used. The 1980s also saw the introduction of
portable computers, the first mobile computing technology. The first models were
little more than desktop computers that were designed to be easier to move than
a typical computer and monitor. Advances in technology and miniaturization led
to the laptop form factor, giving users a personal computer that was truly portable.
All of these devices, however, were for the most part considered to be variations
or instances of the desktop computer. People used the same applications that they
used on their desktop computers. People adjusted to the smaller keyboards and
alternative pointing devices (trackballs, trackpads, etc.) that were created to sup-
port the traditional desktop interaction model.
The introduction and rapid adoption of smartphones and tablet computers
over the past fifteen years has ushered in a new era in mobile computing, one that
is forcing us to rethink the basic paradigm of personal computing. Modern mobile
technologies have provided people with new ways of using computing technology
without being tethered to a desktop computer. People will continue to use desk-
top computers and laptops, but will supplement these with smartphones, tablets,

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 4 Chapter 1

and new forms of personal mobile computing technologies such as wearable de-
vices. In light of this new reality, the model provided by the traditional desktop
context, that of a detached user placed before a screen, is not likely to provide us
with the guidance and understanding that we need in order to provide our users
with the technology choices that they want and need. We can no longer assume
that the user will be at a desktop, nor can we say with any certainty which tech-
nology the user will employ to carry out a given task. We have to account for the
ways in which the various elements of the users’ context will influence their deci-
sions of which technologies to use or how that context will impact their ability to
make effective use of the technology at their disposal. If we want to provide the
communities our libraries serve with useful and compelling online services and
applications, we need to focus our efforts on understanding the mobile context of
our users.

The Mobile Context

Mobile context provides a rich perspective that includes the user, the technology,
and everything that makes up their environment. In seeking to understand what
constituted the mobile context, Hinman (2012) and her team asked ten people to
take pictures whenever they used their phones. Upon analyzing the photos, they
realized that the mobile context was anywhere and everywhere (Hinman, 2012).
There are two related but separate perspectives on the mobile context. The
first considers the mobile context from the perspective of the technology, or de-
vice, while the second looks at it from the perspective of the person using the de-
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

vice. It is this second, user-centered perspective on the mobile context that is most
relevant to the conception and design of mobile applications.

The Mobile Context of the Technology

Designers and developers working in the field of context-aware computing have
a conception of mobile context that is by necessity focused on the technology.
Their goal is to define the context that needs to be sensed and “understood” by
the application in order to enable functionality that leverages the mobile nature
of the device. Unlike traditional computer and software development, the context
with mobile devices is different because the device can potentially sense, react to,
and interact with the world around it in ways that a desktop computer or laptop
cannot (Bentley & Barrett, 2012). Writing about context-aware applications, Dey,
Abowd, and Salber (2001) define context as the following: “Context: any informa-
tion that can be used to characterize the situation of entities (i.e., whether a per-
son, place, or object) that are considered relevant to the interaction between a user
and an application, including the user and the application themselves. Context is

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 The Mobile Context 5

typically the location, identity, and state of people, groups, and computational and
physical objects” (p. 106).
This technology-driven perspective on the mobile context is important to li-
braries, as the capacity of mobile devices informs our thinking about what kinds
of solutions are feasible. However, the capacities and limitations of the technolo-
gy cannot be the focus of our thinking. Our goal is not to implement technology
but to provide solutions that meet the needs of our users. In order to do that, our
thinking needs to be grounded in an understanding of the user.

The Mobile Context of the User

The purpose of the concept of the mobile context is to provide us with a frame-
work to understand the possible elements that can have an impact on the us-
ers’ choice, and use, of mobile technology to carry out tasks that move them
towards the successful realization of their goals. The mobile context describes
the constraints that need to be considered when designing, developing, and im-
plementing mobile technologies. These constraints can be categorized as device
constraints, environmental constraints, and human constraints (Hinman, 2012,
p. 46). Device constraints refer to the limitations of the mobile devices’ size, dis-
play, and input mechanisms. Environmental constraints consist of the physical,
visual, and audible environment that the person is surrounded by and moving
through. The human constraints include the person’s cognitive ability, cultural
influences, as well as his or her personal ergonomic limitations for working with
mobile devices.
The diagram in figure 1.2 illustrates how a person using technology to carry out
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

a specific task can be seen as being embedded in a complex system of overlapping and
interrelated motivators and constraints.
In most cases, the technology involved will be some form of personal mobile
technology, such as a smartphone, tablet, wearable device, or even a laptop. In
addition, the physical spaces where the user is located, and moving through, will
often contain additional technology options to supplement the user’s own per-
sonal mobile technologies. This is especially true in libraries and on university
campuses, which often provide public workstations and touch screen displays for
people to use.
At the center of this model of the mobile context, however, is the user and the
task that he or she is trying to accomplish. The user is typically performing this
task while engaged in another activity in a physical environment that is continual-
ly changing and providing stimuli. The user’s attention is not likely to remain fully
on the task, but instead will shift from one part of the context to another, as de-
manded by the task or activity or made necessary because of other interruptions.
It is this variable and ever-changing nature of the mobile context that perhaps dif-
ferentiates it the most from the desktop context (Tidal, 2005).

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 6 Chapter 1

FIGURE 1.2
The mobile context. Adapted from “Design Sketch: The Context of Mobile
Interaction,” by J. Braiterman and N. Savio, 2007, International Journal of
Mobile Marketing, 2(1), p. 67.
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

The mobile context also recognizes that users are individuals and that they
will differ in meaningful ways. The users’ previous experience and familiarity with
the library, with the library’s systems, with technology, and specifically mobile
technology, will all impact both the technology choices that they make and how
effective they are in using the technology. Their own cognitive abilities, emotional
state, and motivation to complete the task also play a role in the choices they make
and their ability to use the technology effectively. The users will also be influenced
by cultural norms of what is considered appropriate behavior, selecting and using
technology in a way that suits their behavioral response that larger cultural con-
text.

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 The Mobile Context 7

This model of the mobile context demonstrates how clearly inadequate and
ill-suited the traditional, contextless user-computer model is for informing our
work with mobile technologies. The desktop context described earlier can in fact
be seen as a specific instance of the mobile context model, one where the choice
of technology, location, activity, and environment are predetermined. In order to
use computing technology to carry out the task, the person has to go to where the
desktop computer is located, sit still at that location, and focus his or her attention
on performing the computing task at hand. However, this is an artificial construct
even for desktop users today, who are not necessarily sitting quietly and are rarely
in an environment that is free of distraction. Even within the virtual “nonspace” of
the human-computer interface, people are likely to be trying to do several things
at once, to be subjected to various forms of virtual distraction (e-mail messag-
es, reminders, notifications, etc.), their attention continually shifting between all
of these elements. People working at a laptop or desktop computer may also opt
to use their mobile devices as they are perceived as being more convenient or a
more “natural method” for carrying out a specific task (Heimonen, 2009). Walsh
(2012b) described this use of a mobile device to supplement a laptop or desktop as
“dual screening” (p. 14). He also observed, at least within an observational group
of more advanced mobile technology users, the practice of moving content be-
tween devices so that the content could be utilized on the user’s preferred device
(Walsh, 2012a).
Mobile technologies are no longer a poor alternative that people use when
they do not have access to a desktop computer. From the user’s perspective, de-
pending on the task, the mobile device is equal to, or even superior to, the desktop
computer. The mobile context is the perspective that allows us to understand and
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

design for that reality.

Tasks and Micro-Tasks in the Mobile Context

Mobile devices give people the choice to decide how they want to use them and
integrate them into their lives. Kim (2013, pp. 10–12) notes the wide range of
behaviors that constitute contemporary mobile device use. Sometimes, people
using mobile devices are in a rush and have only a short period of time in which to
complete their tasks. Other times they are willing to spend extensive amounts of
time viewing content, communicating, or playing games. People may turn to their
mobile devices for distraction when they are bored, or they will rely on them when
they are fully engaged in some activity. Although there was a time when the lim-
ited capabilities of mobile devices meant that they could be used to carry out only
simple tasks, the functionality of today’s devices matches that of many desktop
computers. People are using their devices to run more complex applications and
in some cases have turned to their mobile phone or tablet as their only personal
computing device.

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 8 Chapter 1

In order to fully understand the mobile context, libraries need to seek a deep-
er appreciation for what motivates people’s use of mobile technologies. For exam-
ple, Silva and Firth (2012) describe how smartphones, tablets, and other mobile
devices that we have here at the start of the twenty-first century provide people
with a wide range of ways to filter, perceive, experience, and otherwise mediate
their interactions with the space around them. Location-aware devices make pos-
sible new ways for people to access information related to their current context
and to connect with objects and people in the space around them. The emergence
of smart devices, appliances, and objects that are said to make up the Internet of
Things (Kopetz, 2007) has moved us further along toward a future of ubiquitous
computing, and already we are seeing how our personal mobile devices integrate
with this world (Islam & Want, 2014). The idea of mobile technology as a means
of mediating our experiences with the world around us provides a useful, broader
perspective on why and how people seek to use their mobile devices and serves to
ground the more specific observations we make about mobile device use.
The task a user is trying to complete can be thought of as consisting of several
micro-tasks. Micro-tasks are a series of smaller tasks of limited scope that are each
part of a larger workflow that is carried out to accomplish a broader task or goal
(Kim, 2013, p. 11). For example, a student wanting to take a book out of the library
might carry out following micro-tasks:
1. Get the title of the book.
2. Find out if the library has the book.
3. Reserve the book.
4. Receive notification that the book is ready to pick up.
5. Find out when the library is open.
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

6. Find out how to get to the library from a friend’s place.

7. Find out when the friend is available to go with him or her to the library.
8. Take note of when they will be visiting the library.
This planning work done, the person would then need to travel to the library,
meeting the friend somewhere along the way, locate the book in the library, and
then check the book out. Each of the activities could possibly be broken into
smaller micro-tasks, all of which would occur over an extended period of time,
interrupted by whatever other activities that the person engages in as he or she
goes about the day.
The above example is meant to not only demonstrate the complexity of an-
alyzing tasks in the mobile context, but to also emphasize the importance of do-
ing so from a user’s perspective. A technology-centric approach will describe the
task in terms of the actions that involve the technology. An organizational-centric
approach will describe tasks in terms of the steps, requirements, and constraints
of the organizational process they are related to. Only a user-centric perspective
would, for example, identify elements like the user’s desire to involve a friend as he
or she seeks to complete the task. These types of micro-tasks, traditionally consid-

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 The Mobile Context 9

ered external and outside the scope of consideration, are an essential part of the
mobile context and can no longer be overlooked.
It is possible to imagine a number of ways that each of these micro-tasks could
be carried out, many of which could involve the use of some form of mobile tech-
nology. The challenge for us is that for each micro-task, people will choose which
available technology to use based on their preferences and their assessment of
how useful or well-suited a device or application is for a given task (Walsh, 2012b).
These choices are likely to vary as the context changes and will be different for
each person. Some people are comfortable with computing on the go, some prefer
to at least be stationary, while others prefer to wait until they are sitting in a more
traditional setting even to use their mobile phone, tablet, or laptop. Some prefer
or have to use one device for everything, while others are able, and prefer, to use
different devices for different tasks (for example: a phone for communications and
looking things up, a tablet for reading, a laptop for writing).
The widespread adoption of mobile technologies has changed people’s expec-
tations about how they can use technology to communicate, accomplish tasks,
and interact with the world around them. Libraries that ignore this reality and
continue to implement technology based on the traditional, oversimplified model
of desktop computing are likely to find themselves increasingly unable to meet the
needs of their users. Libraries that make a commitment to explore and understand
the mobile context of their users can leverage that understanding to improve not
only their mobile and desktop technology deployments but also their user experi-
ence across all aspects of the library.
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

Exploring the Mobile Context of Your

Users
Although acknowledging the inadequacy of the traditional desktop model to de-
scribe how people use technology is an important step, the mobile context only
identifies the various elements and relationships that need to be understood in
order to successfully conceive and implement mobile technologies. Relying on
professional expertise or findings from the literature can inform our work, but
only in a general sense. In order to develop a detailed and accurate understanding
of the mobile context, libraries need to explore and immerse themselves in the
mobile context of their users.
Libraries can begin by undertaking exploratory studies to better understand
the mobile context of their users, to understand how they go about learning,
teaching, and carrying out research, and specifically how they make use of mobile
technologies to support these activities. These exploratory studies would allow li-
braries to understand their users’ needs and behavior in a particular context to see

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 10 Chapter 1

if there are opportunities to improve service using mobile technologies (or other
solutions). Bentley and Barrett (2012, pp. 20–21) provide an example of such a
process, describing a staged process used with design teams at Motorola and MIT
that begins with a broad exploration of an area of interest to identify issues and op-
portunities to deliver new or improved products. From these initial explorations,
they develop specific research questions that guide a second round of more specif-
ic observations, focus groups, and interviews. The understanding gained through
this process is then used to inform the design of new products and services.
In many cases, libraries may consider themselves to already be past the ex-
ploratory stage. Having identified what they perceive as a need or opportunity to
improve library service using mobile technology, these libraries will have a good
idea of who and more importantly which behaviors they need to observe. Librar-
ies may want to be cautious, however, and not focus too closely on their original
ideas, but instead make their observations open enough to allow for some explo-
ration of the problem space, if only to validate their original assumptions about
the nature of the problem, as well as the potential for using mobile technology to
address it.
The people and situations that we choose to study will depend on the moti-
vation for undertaking the study. Observations should include all behaviors and
aspects of the context that appear to be meaningful to the participants or that
influence their behaviors in some way. For example, if you are specifically inter-
ested in improving services for faculty, you’ll need to observe faculty members in
a number of settings. If you are interested in supporting learning in the classroom,
your study would include students, but also faculty and teaching assistants, with
the observations being made in the classroom during (and potentially before and
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

after) class.
Libraries traditionally turn to surveys, focus groups, and interviews as ways
of better understanding the needs and preferences of users. Unfortunately, none
of these methods are appropriate for exploring how people use mobile technology.
You also cannot get an accurate picture of how people use mobile technologies in
an artificial, controlled laboratory-like setting (Zhang & Adipat, 2005). If we are
to develop an accurate understanding of the mobile context of our user commu-
nities, we need to observe the mobile context directly. Bentley and Barrett (2012,
p. 42–43) recommend using task analysis as a framework to explore the mobile
context. This can be done by asking participants to carry out the relevant tasks
in the actual context of interest. Researchers can observe behavior directly, while
asking participants to speak aloud while they carry out the task. Doing this gives
the researcher access to what people are thinking. Partially structured interviews
can be used afterward to seek further explanation and insights into observations
made during the task analysis.
Even without the participation of users, librarians and project team members
can benefit from situating themselves in the same contexts as their users as they

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 The Mobile Context 11

try to identify and develop solutions. For example, brainstorming sessions held in
real-world contexts can provide teams with an appreciation of the opportunities
and limitations within which their applications will need to work (Hinman, 2012,
p. 56). Librarians are then likely to have a more realistic sense of how willing their
users are likely to be engage with any given solution. It is also harder to ignore the
constraints imposed by the context because librarians are actually experiencing
them as opposed to having to imagine them.
It should be noted that many libraries will likely find it challenging to ded-
icate the time and resources required to carry out extensive field observations.
However, any amount of time spent observing or directly experiencing the re-
al-world conditions in which mobile technologies are used is likely to be beneficial
to the design team. Even a one-hour observation session can provide insights and
shift people’s thinking enough to help them improve their understanding of the
mobile context and therefore make better decisions about what to develop and
how it should be designed (Bentley and Barrett, 2012).

Informing Your Mobile Technology

Strategy
Libraries that want to achieve their goal of serving their user communities can no
longer assume that people will adapt their preferences and needs to the services
the library chooses to offer. Instead, libraries need to be ready to adapt their own
services and operational models to meet the needs of their users (Mello, 2002).
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

The mobile context provides libraries with a perspective that is focused on the
users, the tasks they are trying to achieve, and the complex environment they are
living in. From this perspective, libraries can gain a better appreciation for how
their community uses the library and the ways in which the services and resources
offered by the library fall short of meeting user needs. They can also better concep-
tualize changes that are likely to improve the user’s experience.
There are several ways that a library can provide support for their services
and resources on mobile devices. The decision on the most appropriate technolo-
gy strategy is often based on the library’s development resources and capabilities.
However, an accurate assessment of the library’s understanding of their users’
mobile context can play an equally important role in choosing how to proceed.
Kim (2013, p. 12) summarizes the trade-offs that libraries often consider when
deciding on the technological approach that they are going to use for supporting
mobile devices. Many academic libraries possess, or can easily acquire, the tech-
nical skills necessary to implement responsive web applications in a reasonable
time frame. However, web apps run in a browser and have limited access to the
full capabilities of the mobile device. Native applications can take full advantage

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 12 Chapter 1

of the mobile technologies and often provide a superior user experience. Howev-
er, providing this experience requires the library to commit to a significant and
ongoing investment of resources. Native apps require specialized knowledge and
are harder to develop. They are also platform-specific, meaning that libraries need
to implement and maintain separate versions of their apps for each platform they
need to target. As a result, few libraries are able to develop custom native applica-
tions, choosing to implement responsive, mobile-ready versions of their websites
instead.
More importantly, it takes more than technical proficiency and capabilities to
successfully implement a mobile solution. In order to be effective, libraries should
take care to deploy technology solutions that are in line with their understanding
of the mobile contexts of the community they serve. Figure 1.3 shows the level of
understanding of the mobile context required to be able to effectively deploy the
various types of mobile solutions.

FIGURE 1.3
Understanding of mobile context required for mobile solutions.
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

Libraries with little or no understanding of their users’ mobile context should

limit themselves to deploying traditional desktop applications and websites.
While users will still be able to access these websites on their mobile devices, they
will be hard for people to use (Heimonen, 2009). A basic understanding of the
mobile context of their users, and specifically an understanding of the mobile de-
vices they use, can allow libraries to create responsive web applications that are
tailored to the display and input capabilities and limitations of the devices.
As the library develops a more comprehensive understanding of the mobile
context, it can move beyond “retrofitting old experiences into a new mobile me-
dium” (Hinman, 2012, p. 43). It can use responsive technologies to customize its
applications, adding, removing, and modifying functionality to suit the needs of
the context. Libraries that go further, developing and maintaining a deep under-
standing of the user context, can invest in developing and deploying native apps

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 The Mobile Context 13

that take full advantage of the capabilities of the mobile device. Far from being a
straight port of the library’s desktop applications, these native apps can be tailored
to the specific needs and realities of the patron’s mobile context.
Libraries that lack the technical expertise or capacity necessary to design
and build mobile applications themselves can opt to license third-party mobile
applications. However, this does not alleviate the need for the library to invest in
exploring and understanding the mobile context of its users. Understanding the
mobile context will allow libraries to identify what applications are needed and
how these applications need to deliver their functionality if they are to be used
by students and faculty. Libraries will also be able to leverage their experience in
observing, exploring, and understanding the mobile context to work with users
to assess the various third-party applications as part of the selection process. By
grounding the selection of third-party applications in the mobile context, libraries
can ensure that the needs of their users are the primary consideration when estab-
lishing selection criteria and that these requirements will carry sufficient weight
to balance other factors such as technical, organizational, and financial require-
ments in the final assessment.

Conclusion
Despite the rapid adoption of smartphone technology, we are still in the early days
of mobile computing. At the time of writing, it has been less than ten years since
the iPhone was released (Allison, 2007). Recently, we have seen the emergence
of both wearable devices as well as the proliferation of embedded technologies
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

that over time will provide people with even more computing options in any giv-
en context. We are still learning, both as individuals and as organizations, how
to best incorporate this technology into our work and our lives. Our approach-
es, techniques, and best practices for designing, developing, and deploying soft-
ware applications are still very much rooted in the traditional desktop model. The
mobile context provides librarians with a user-centric perspective from which to
better understand their relationships and interactions with the communities they
serve, preparing them to better meet the challenges and opportunities presented
by technological advances the future is sure to bring.

References
Allison, K. (2007, January 9). FT.com site: Apple rolls out much-anticipated iPhone. FT.com.
Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/229017840?accountid=12339.
Bentley, F., & Barrett, E. (2012). Building mobile experiences. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT
Press.
Braiterman, J., & Savio, N. (2007). Design Sketch: The Context of Mobile Interaction. Inter-
national Journal of Mobile Marketing, 2(1), 66–68.

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Dey, A. K., Abowd, G. D., & Salber, D. (2001). A Conceptual Framework and a Toolkit for
Supporting the Rapid Prototyping of Context-Aware Applications. Human-Computer
Interaction, 16(2–4), 97–166.
Greenfield, A. (2006). Everyware: The dawning age of ubiquitous computing. Berkeley, CA: New
Riders.
Harrison, R., Flood, D., & Duce, D. (2013). Usability of mobile applications: Literature
review and rationale for a new usability model. Journal of Interaction Science, 1(1), 1.
Heimonen, T. (2009). Information needs and practices of active mobile Internet users. Paper
presented at the Mobility ‘09: 6th International Conference on Mobile Technology, Applica-
tion & Systems. Article 50 (pp. 1–8). Retrieved June 15, 2016 from ACM Digital Library.
Hinman, R. (2012). The mobile frontier: A guide for designing mobile experiences. Brooklyn,
N.Y.: Rosenfeld Media.
Islam N., & Want R. (2014). Smartphones: Past, present, and future. IEEE Pervasive Comput-
ing, 13(4), 89–92.
Kim, Bohyun. (2013). The Present and Future of the Library Mobile Experience. Library
Technology Reports, 49(6), 15–28.
Kopetz, H. (2011). Internet of things. In Real-time systems: Design principles for distributed
embedded applications (pp. 307–323). New York: Springer.
Mello, S. (2002). Customer-centric product definition: The key to great product development.
New York: AMACOM.
Silva, A. de S. e., & Frith, J. (2012). Mobile interfaces in public spaces: Locational privacy, con-
trol, and urban sociability. New York: Routledge.
Tidal, J. (2015). Usability and the mobile web: A LITA guide. Chicago: ALA Tech Source.
Walsh, A. (2012a). Mobile information literacy: A preliminary outline of information be-
haviour in a mobile environment. Journal of Information Literacy, 6(2), 56–69.
Walsh, A. (2012b). Using mobile technology to deliver library services: A handbook. Lanham,
Md.: Scarecrow Press.
Zhang, D., & Adipat, B. (2005). Challenges, Methodologies, and Issues in the Usability
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Testing of Mobile Applications. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction,

18(3), 293–30.

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 CHAPTER 2*

The Development of
an Academic Library’s
Mobile Website
Junior Tidal

Introduction
Mobile devices have become more ubiquitous among academic library users.
It’s now common to see through analytics that smartphones, tablet computers,
e-readers, and even portable gaming consoles are connecting to online library
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

services. This chapter is a case study of how a small academic library supported
its users through the creation of a mobile-optimized library website. It documents
the chronological changes from the website’s humble beginnings on a shared
Windows IIS server to its current configuration on a Linux-based cloud server.
Throughout its existence, the website was developed with adaptability in mind,
and flexibility, in order to respond to unpredictable changes in information tech-
nology. This adaptability includes not only the changing landscape with regard to
standards for mobile website development, but also changes in user preferences
over time with regard to devices and website architecture.

Literature Review
Content management systems (CMSs) have changed the way that libraries have
crafted their online identities. These systems centralize webpage content creation

* This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-NoDerivatives

4.0 License, CC BY-NC-ND (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

15

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 16 Chapter 2

and allow for sites to be better organized. Libraries have employed CMSs to facil-
itate the presentation of complex websites in a user-friendly fashion (Black, 2011).
A CMS can also put content production in the hands of all librarians and not just a
single “gatekeeper,” flattening technological hierarchies of control. This distribut-
ed system of creation was important for the Darian Public Library’s website, where
Drupal was selected to support its active internal blogging community (Sheehan,
2009). Another library with goals similar to our own, the library at the University
of California, Santa Cruz, adopted Drupal because it could bring consistency to
older webpages and be used to remove defunct and redundant webpages (Hubble,
Murphy, & Perry, 2011).
Libraries have crafted mobile library websites to reach their users. Librarians
and library developers who have studied users so that they can meet their organi-
zation’s specific needs explain that understanding your user base will help in de-
signing a mobile site that will be “heavily trafficked by your users”(Bridges, Rem-
pel & Griggs, 2010, p. 318). Needs assessments have also been conducted through
surveys to gather users’ preferences (Dresselhauls & Shrode, 2012; Cummings et.
al, 2010). Preliminary research on device usage has been conducted to justify a
mobile library site (Wilson & McCarthy, 2010).
In discussing mobile web development for libraries, it is difficult not to touch
upon the adoption of responsive design. Glassman & Shen said it best, stating that
the “mobile web has been replaced by the responsive web—one site fits all” (2014,
p. 89). Responsive design is a practice where websites are coded to conform to the
screen size of the device being used to view it. The page adapts (or responds) to
a layout specific to these dimensions. The flexibility of responsive design makes
updating a library site easier and makes the site functional regardless of the device
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

it is viewed on (Kim, 2013).

Background
The Ursula C. Schwerin Library serves the research needs of the New York City
College of Technology, City University of New York (CUNY), located in down-
town Brooklyn, New York. Locally known as City Tech, the college supports over
17,000 students in associate and baccalaureate programs across a wide variety of
programs. Students have access to over twenty CUNY campus libraries through-
out the five boroughs of New York City, in an arrangement similar to that of a con-
sortium resource-sharing library system. The library’s integrated library system,
monographs, and some electronic resources are centralized.
The student population of City Tech is quite diverse. Almost half of the stu-
dent population was born outside of the United States. The majority of the stu-
dent population identify as black, Hispanic, or Asian. Over 60 percent of students
speak a language other than English at home. Most freshmen receive need-based

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 The Development of an Academic Library’s Mobile Website 17

financial aid. The college can be characterized as a commuter school with many
students working full- or part-time jobs, with a significant number of students be-
ing enrolled in continuing education programs.

History of the City Tech Library Mobile

Site
To understand the development of the library’s mobile site, it is best to first ex-
amine the creation of the main library website. The library’s homepage (https://
library.citytech.cuny.edu) was first hosted on a Windows IIS server in 2002. The
site consisted of several static HTML pages that were manually edited using Mi-
crosoft FrontPage. The maintenance of the library website reflected its numerous
curators, as the work was shared between the technical services librarian and the
multimedia librarian. There was a lack of uniformity not only in the aesthetics of
the site, but in its information architecture as well. Even though the site had its own
URL domain, pages were not properly grouped in appropriate directories. Numer-
ous pages were orphaned, contained broken links, or were simply outdated.
Workflows for creating and amending content were cumbersome in this early
iteration of the library website. Librarians had no direct access to the site through
a browser. Instead, content was e-mailed to the web services librarian, marked up
in either FrontPage or Adobe Dreamweaver, and then uploaded via FTP to the
college’s server. As the amount of content grew on the library website and ser-
vices such as electronic resources began to proliferate, it was apparent that the
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

web server was in dire need of upgrading. There were more demands for space and
for processing power to serve webpages.
The library web server, hosted by the campus Computing and Information
Systems (CIS) department, was shared with several other City Tech academic de-
partments. Due to this configuration, a number of security restrictions were im-
plemented by CIS. Many types of software were prohibited from being installed
on the server, as database software and web scripting languages were seen as pos-
sibly disruptive to other departmental websites. This prevented the installation of
various programs, such as CMSs, analytics tools, and web form processing. Shell
access outside of the college’s IP range was unavailable, making updating content
or repairing server problems from off campus impossible.

Acquiring a Server for the Library

In 2007, after a written proposal from the Web Services and Multimedia Librar-
ian, and the Chief Librarian, the provost allowed the library to procure its own
web server. This Dell server ran on a Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), Apache,

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 18 Chapter 2

MySQL database, and PHP configuration also known as a LAMP setup. This is a
popular web server configuration, utilizing open-source technologies. Red Hat is
a specific distribution of the Linux operating system. Apache is widely used open-
source software that delivers websites. MySQL (server query language) is a rela-
tional database language, and PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor, a recursive “back-
ronym”), a web processing language.
This new server configuration lifted the restrictions that had impeded the
previous shared server. With access to PHP and MySQL, the library website
could now implement blogs, CMSs, web analytics, and server log reports. A PHP
script was written to display uniform headers and footers across the site. Naviga-
tion menus and library information were consistently displayed on every page of
the site; lack of consistency was a problem that had plagued previous iterations of
the library website. More importantly, the implementation of this new server had
opened an opportunity to create the library’s first mobile website.

Mobile Site 1.0

Based on information gathered from analytics data, we found that mobile device
connections to the library website were increasing. It’s important to note that
these visits were occurring prior to the release of the first generation iPhone in
2007. Some of the devices connecting to the site were cellular phones with web
capabilities. Surprisingly, some of these devices were portable gaming consoles
that had Wi-Fi and web browser capabilities. Concurrent with this activity, elec-
tronic resource vendors were beginning to release light mobile versions of their
products. These combined factors spurred the library’s first attempt at developing
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

a mobile webpage.
The first mobile page for the City Tech Library consisted of static HTML
pages. It was developed in a text editor and contained neither CSS declarations
nor images. This first page was very basic and contained only three links: to the li-
brary’s shared CUNY-wide catalog, to a page containing electronic resources, and
to a page containing library contact information and hours. The page displaying
electronic resources was limited to those resources that were mobile friendly. This
first mobile site was hosted at the URL http://library.citytech.cuny.edu/mobile.
A PHP script placed on the homepage of the library website redirected users to
this page based on the user’s browser agent type. User testing was not conducted
in the creation of this first mobile site. This first mobile page on the library website
was short-lived for a number of reasons. First, the PHP script to redirect users to
the mobile site didn’t always work. The script functioned by detecting what kind
of browser a user was using to visit the site. Unfortunately, some users logging
in with a cell phone browser were not redirected to the mobile site. Second, this
agent detection script required constant maintenance. New cell phones that were
web-enabled were being released, as well as a plethora of other various mobile

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 The Development of an Academic Library’s Mobile Website 19

devices and browsers, all of which needed to be added to the redirection script
manually. At the time of this first mobile site’s existence, no statistics were taken
as to how often the page was visited. This was problematic as there was no data to
support the continuing existence of the page.

Drupal
In 2010, the library migrated away from its custom PHP-scripted setup and to
the Drupal 6 (D6) CMS. Drupal (http://www.drupal.org) is a modular, open-
source CMS that utilizes MySQL and PHP to manage web content. It is modular
in the sense that there are numerous modules, similar to WordPress plugins, that
can enhance the functionality of D6. A large community of developers is creating
these modules, including a few who have ties to academic libraries. Since these
components are open-source, a library site can be fully customized to meet spe-
cific user needs. Blog and calendar feeds can be aggregated from other sources
and displayed on the library website. The presentation of content is customized
through CSS scripts and PHP code. Code of an existing module can be modi-
fied to render an appropriate display of that aggregated content. For example, a
series of library events from a Google calendar can be aggregated, parsed, and
reproduced in a table form on the site. Finally, one of the more powerful aspects
of D6 was the ability to modify content within the browser. This is probably the
most practical reason to adopt a CMS. It may seem ubiquitous among content
management servers to provide this today, but at the time, this feature was very
useful for librarians with different levels of technology experience. Users could
simply log into the library website via the browser and update content as needed.
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

Using a CMS for editing was very different from updating HTML pages or
PHP scripts, which previously required a connection into the web server through
a shell and then editing the scripts through a command-line text editor. The li-
brary’s electronic resources had been kept in a flat-file database. This flat-file da-
tabase was simply a text file that contained information about a single electronic
resource per line, including the URL, the name of the resource, the date added,
and a description. The electronic resources librarian would have to manually
enter each resource line by line to update it. This process was prone to numer-
ous errors. Existing resources required a search and find command to make any
changes to the resource’s URL, name, or description. Through D6, the workflow
to update these databases was significantly improved. Now, librarians could log
into the site through their mobile device or workstation and make changes faster
and more efficiently through the web browser. Electronic resources were stored
within Drupal’s custom Content Creation Kit module, which was much more us-
er-friendly than editing flat files.
At the time of this Drupal migration, analytics tools were used to gain in-
sight into our users and their behavior. Log server files, Google Analytics, and

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 20 Chapter 2

its open-source alternative Piwik were all used to allow us to better understand
visitors to the library’s site. These tools were implemented using Drupal mod-
ules designed for this purpose. This analytic data has been used to drive the
development of the mobile website (Tidal, 2015). For instance, analytics can
show what devices are connecting to the site, how fast the connection is, the net-
work provider, and a masked IP address that can provide geographic locations.
The site can then be tailored to these factors by approaching site content from a
“mobile first” perspective. “Mobile first” is a practice where content is developed
from the perspective of a small screen. The design, layout, and content are con-
strained and, as screens get larger, are amended with more features. This also
impacts bandwidth, as constraining file size to improve website performance on
slower cellular broadband networks can be factored into the creation of the site.
Although mobile device visits to the library website make up a small percent-
age of overall traffic, their number has increased steadily since 2011. From 2011
to 2016, mobile traffic increased from 1 percent to 7 percent of overall traffic. This
is reflective of overall trends of cell phone ownership. The Pew Internet Research
and Life Project reports an increased number of cell phone owners, surpassing
that of desktop and laptop workstation owners (Smith, 2015). Many of these own-
ers also use cell phones as their primary access point to get online (Smith, 2015).
This trend required the City Tech library to respond by creating another iteration
of the library mobile site.

Mobile Site 2.0

The second iteration of the library mobile site was developed in 2012. Hosted on
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

the same server as the main library website, a virtual server was configured in
Apache serving this separate mobile site. The mobile and desktop sites’ file struc-
ture were both contained within Apache’s default /var/www/html directory. Yet
the mobile site was contained in a subdirectory aptly labeled mobile, whereas the
desktop site was contained in a subdirectory called libSite. This set the foundation
for two separate Drupal installations.
This version of the mobile site also used a PHP redirection script provided
through a D6 module. It was similar to the script used in the first iteration of a
site: if a user visited the library website using a mobile-enabled device, it would re-
direct the user from http://library.citytech.cuny.edu to http://m.library.citytech.
cuny.edu. The design of the site was also user-centered from the ground up. For
instance, because we simply added the letter m to the virtual domain of the mobile
site, users would need to type less within the browser’s address bar to get to the
mobile site. This made the site more usable compared to a site that simply amends
the mobile site’s location as a subdirectory, such as http://library.citytech.cuny.
edu/mobile. It also reinforced the fact that the mobile site was separate from the
desktop one.

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 The Development of an Academic Library’s Mobile Website 21

Even though the main library website was utilizing D6, Drupal 7 (D7) was
chosen to manage the mobile site. D7 was chosen over D6 because it supported
a number of modules and themes that specifically optimize webpages for mo-
bile devices. Coincidentally, a number of D6 modules were unfortunately un-
available for D7. This had little bearing, however, on the mobile site since it was
intended to be minimalist in design. It was preferred that the mobile site have a
small footprint to accommodate mobile users connecting through cell networks
or spotty Wi-Fi connections.
One D7 module that was used to accommodate this smaller footprint is
the popular jQuery Update (https://www.drupal.org/project/jquery_update).
jQuery is a JavaScript-based library used to easily implement JavaScript in a web-
page. It is useful in navigating the components of a webpage as well as enhancing
a page’s functionality. It is cross-platform-compatible so that any device can pro-
cess its scripts. These scripts allow a device to display animation, process event
handling, and navigate a webpage’s source document object model (DOM). The
scripts are especially useful in providing feedback to the end user viewing the
page. Unfortunately, there is no support for later versions of jQuery for sites us-
ing D6. This is not the case for D7 installations. This was very important because
of the intended use of jQuery Mobile, a separate JavaScript library derived from
jQuery. jQuery Mobile, as its name implies, supports mobile devices. It gives de-
velopers the tool kit to design touch-based interfaces, responsive websites, and
applications.
A D6 module was installed on the desktop website to detect mobile devices.
This module redirected users to the mobile site if they were detected using a mo-
bile device. It was much more efficient than the in-house-created PHP script in the
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

first mobile site iteration. A link to the library’s desktop site was also present in the
footer of each mobile page. Members of the library’s website committee felt that
it was necessary to have this link in case there were online transactions or tasks
that could not be accomplished through the mobile instance. Although the D6
desktop site was not mobile-optimized, users were still able to access content not
found on the mobile site.
The content of the D7 site (figure 2.1) was based on the most popular pages
visited on the main library website. This data was collected through web ana-
lytics tools Piwik and Google Analytics. The popularity of these pages dictated
the order in which links appeared on the page. The webpage’s header contained
the library’s logo with the current day’s operating hours underneath. Since the
“Hours” was the most visited page according to analytics of mobile devices, it
was given the greatest priority in the visual hierarchy of the page. However, an-
alytics tells only part of the story. In order to see how effective changes were
based on analytics data, we later conducted a usability study to confirm whether
or not our changes aligned with user preferences. Log files and analytics data
alone don’t necessarily justify design decisions.

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 22 Chapter 2

FIGURE 2.1
Screenshot of the D7 mobile website.

Links on the new mobile site were separated into groups of large buttons. The
first version of this D7 mobile site contained a link to a page with library direc-
tions. A second set of buttons immediately below the first included links to a cata-
log search, a page containing mobile-optimized electronic resources, and a linked
button leading to electronic books. The last button group contained links for ref-
erence desk contacts and a contact button for the library’s circulation services.
A PHP script was developed to manage electronic resources between the mo-
bile and desktop versions of the site. To alleviate the workload of managing two
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

sites, this automated script would replicate the electronic resources found on the
desktop site, parse them, and display the results on the mobile version of the page.
Only resources that contained a mobile version would be replicated on the site.
This was especially useful at the time when e-books were increasing in popularity
(Tidal, 2012).
The layout of the mobile site was designed to be responsive to screen size,
since jQuery Mobile is inherently responsive. Large buttons that were easy to tap
were employed for smaller screen sizes and resolutions. This approach also sup-
ported mobile device users using touch interface because if links are too small,
users could possibly have problems accessing the links with their fingertips. There
was also a lack of images to create a lightweight site that focused on loading in a
speedy and efficient manner.

Evaluating the Mobile Site

After the mobile site was launched, a usability test was conducted during the
2013–2014 academic school year (see Tidal, 2014). The objective was to ascertain

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 The Development of an Academic Library’s Mobile Website 23

if the mobile site could support students’ research needs. In order to entice volun-
teers, users were given campus bookstore gift cards as incentives to participate in
the study.
A cognitive walkthrough was used as the evaluation instrument for the mo-
bile site. This was moderated by a testing proctor and digitally recorded. Partic-
ipants were asked to complete a series of task scenarios derived from usability
goals. For instance, one goal could be users being able to find a book on the library
website. A task scenario would be written to place the user within a realistic con-
text to achieve this goal. For example, a task could be “Imagine you are in an En-
glish class and you need to complete a research paper on the book The Hitchhiker’s
Guide to the Galaxy. Using the library website, find the call number of this book.”
Here, the scenario gives the user some context for completing the usability goal
and is a call to action to complete the task using the site. Users are asked to think
aloud as they attempt to complete the goal while their responses are recorded.
This process provides proctors a glimpse into the thinking of the users as they
interact with the website.
Participants in the usability test consisted of a variety of students: ten stu-
dents, five for the first round of usability testing and five for the second round of
testing. This approach was modeled after the common practice of using a limited
number of participants (Nielsen, 2000). The basic idea is that having more than
five users test the site won’t reveal any new usability problems, but will simply
confirm the existence of issues that have already been identified by previous test
participants. However, this assumption has been contested (Faulkner, 2003; Bev-
an et al., 2003). The sample included traditional two-year and four-year students,
as well as nontraditional, or continuing education, students. Prior to the study, a
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

screening survey was given to participants, asking which devices they have used.
This allowed them to be paired with tablets with which they were familiar so that
students using devices with which they were unfamiliar would not taint the test.
After the first round of testing, the mobile site was restructured based on
the data collected from participants. Notable changes included the addition of a
search box that takes students to the catalog instead of to a separate page accessi-
ble through a hyperlink. Numerous participants found it more useful to have this
search box, rather than a link, on the mobile site homepage directly. Participants
also revealed that students preferred having a button to take them directly to their
library account to view loaned items and renewals. This option was not available
on the site, requiring participants to log in through the catalog’s search screen.
Electronic resources were also organized by device type so that users of Apple or
Android products could select which page suited them. Links on the homepage
were also rearranged. The Directions page link was moved to the bottom of the
page, as it was deemed the least important page by participants.
Even though the site was restructured, the overall usability of the mobile
site was well received during usability testing. Participants in the first and sec-

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 24 Chapter 2

ond round completed tasks at high rates of success. The thinking aloud proto-
col (TAP) metric gave further insight into users’ reactions of the site. TAP, also
known as the think aloud method, is simply where users speak their thoughts
aloud while performing various tasks. Lewis and Rieman, who were the first to
employ the method, stated that when testing a design, users’ “comments are a rich
lode of information (1993, p. 83).” Users express what they are doing, thinking,
and feeling, which provides feedback to observers. This process not only helps
identify usability issues, but helps to pinpoint potential obstacles as well.
The TAP protocol for this study provided librarians with information on how
to improve the site (figure 2.2). Users responded that the site was easy to use and
that the site was pleasing to the eye. Conversely, they also noted that the site failed
in their expectation of its having spelling correction when using the site’s online
catalog.

FIGURE 2.2
Screenshot of the D7 mobile website after usability testing. Note the changes in
comparison to figure 2.1.
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 The Development of an Academic Library’s Mobile Website 25

The Mobile Site Gets Attacked

During the latter half of 2014, the mobile website went down following a malicious
attack on the library’s Drupal server. A hacker vandalized the mobile site, and the
homepage was replaced with online taunts. The library’s mobile site was not the
only one affected. This security vulnerability compromised an estimated 12 mil-
lion sites running D7 (“Millions”, 2014). As per university protocols, the server
hosting the site was disconnected and the site was taken offline. This resulted in
the whole library domain going dark as the library’s multiple sites were hosted on
a single machine. However, disabling the mobile site rectified this problem. This
attack ended the last iteration of the mobile site before we moved to a responsive
design solution.

Transitioning to a Responsive-Design Website

Even though mobile users make up a small portion of overall visitors, it was im-
portant to support that minority group of users. In response to the recent hack
of our mobile site and the demand for mobile support, the possibility of imple-
menting a responsive-design website was explored. At the time, numerous other
academic libraries were adopting responsive-design websites as a way to cater to
both mobile and desktop users. This notion of providing a more customized ex-
perience for users on different devices was extremely appealing to the City Tech
Library team. Despite homebrewed PHP scripts that parsed content, it was very
difficult to maintain and update content for both the desktop and mobile sites.
This amalgamation helps to prevent posting inconsistent content. Through the
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

consolidation of the desktop and mobile sites into a single responsive site, librari-
ans can actively add more content without switching between the two.
During the 2014–2015 academic year, a prototype of a redesigned website
was developed. This version employed responsive-design techniques. Responsive
design is a technique where a website presents a customized experience for the
user, tailored to the device used to visit the site. A website will be displayed with
the same content and a similar layout on a desktop, smartphone, or tablet com-
puter. This is accomplished by CSS style sheets, rules, and declarations, which
are triggered by specific device widths. For instance, a device width of 480 pixels,
common for smartphones, activates CSS rules that cause the site to “respond” to
that width. Based on the detected dimensions of the screen, the site will shift its
layout and conform to the display of the device. Altering the browser window size
on a desktop workstation will also cause the site to conform to the new window
width.
Responsive design alleviates the problem of device detection. Detecting what
type of device is being used to access the site through agent requests is not perfect.
The previous site’s detection methods, as previously stated, were problematic. Not

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 26 Chapter 2

only will responsive design overcome such shortcomings, but it will also cause
less of a dependence on updating the ever-growing list of devices that can be used
to access the mobile Web. Responsive design enforces consistency between the
mobile and desktop site, and this encouraged the library’s adoption of D7. At this
point modules used in the D6 version of the library website were available for D7.
This hindered the early adoption of D7. Alternate modules to accommodate the
D6 installation were developed and implemented in this new D7 site. Different
modules and themes were tested to use responsive design for the prototype site.
The most successful theme is a port of the popular web framework known
as Bootstrap (https://getbootstrap.com and https://www.drupal.org/project/
bootstrap), which was developed by two Twitter developers, Mark Otto and Jacob
Thornton. This free, open-source framework contains several useful features. One
feature of note is the framework’s contribution to the rapid deployment of a web-
site’s front end. Numerous built-in features commonly found on websites, such
as form controls, buttons, and navigation components, were readily available out
of the box, and so additional code wasn’t necessary to create them. Bootstrap is
also cross-platform-compatible for a wide range of devices. This is important, be-
cause different devices use a wide variety of web browsers. An Android tablet may
render a webpage much differently from an iPhone. An Apple MacBook running
the Firefox browser may display web content differently from a Linux workstation
running the Opera browser. A cross-platform web framework displays webpages
as similarly as possible across this wide range of devices. Bootstrap is built with
responsive design, so it runs on a wide range of devices of various screen widths.
Adopting responsive design didn’t stop at the redesigned website prototype.
At the time, the library website housed three WordPress installations. This includ-
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

ed the library’s blog, an orientation site for incoming freshmen, and a newsletter
site updated each semester. All of these sites under the library’s domain were up-
dated with responsive-enabled themes. The library staff intranet was initially a
MediaWiki installation but was also converted to a mobile-friendly WordPress
instance.
Although D7 and its modules made the site more accessible for mobile and
desktop users alike, the transition process was not without obstacles. Some fea-
tures within Bootstrap are incompatible with the Bootstrap theme developed for
D7. Numerous related open bug issues can be found on the Drupal Bootstrap proj-
ect site (https://www.drupal.org/project/bootstrap). As a result, extensive theme
modifications were required on the prototype site. To better customize Drupal
Bootstrap, a “child” Bootstrap theme was created. A child theme is a subtheme
of an existing Drupal theme, known as the “parent” theme, that inherits many of
its characteristics and functions. This child theme contains updates to the PHP-
based header files that controls the elements first loaded into the browser. These
modifications include details such as specific div CSS classes to the header’s navi-
gation section, menu modifications, and header spacing. CSS modifications were

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 The Development of an Academic Library’s Mobile Website 27

implemented to change the positioning of default elements, change theme colors,

and tweak element margins and paddings.
In addition to these customizations, the library website also migrated from
the City Tech CIS-hosted servers to an Amazon Web Services (AWS) instance in
the cloud. There were a number of factors influencing our decision to use AWS.
First, the server housed by the CIS department needed an upgrade in any case.
Other factors included the increased demand for online library services and the
library’s vision of creating a flexible infrastructure that is not only scalable for fu-
ture technologies, but reliable as well. However, the main reason to use a cloud-
based service was cost. Taking into account the amount of traffic the library web-
site had experienced, along with the growth of content, a subscription to AWS
was a fraction of the cost of upgrading the library’s web server. There were never-
theless concerns about adopting AWS. CIS wanted to make sure that the library
web server was not storing any information that would identify a student, such
as Social Security or student identification numbers. The library website collects
none of this, so it was given the green light to adopt the AWS platform.
This new web prototype was initially constructed on a Mac Pro workstation.
Since OS X is based off of UNIX, the site was migrated to the AWS instance run-
ning Amazon’s distribution of the Linux operating system. Prior to this, the site
was shared with other librarians in the department, who gave feedback on its de-
sign and function. The installation on the Mac Pro continued to be useful even
after the site was migrated to AWS. It was possible to test modules or site modi-
fications before they were implemented on the AWS production server. With the
prototype hosted on AWS and its modifications complete, the next step was to
begin usability testing of the responsive-design website. The first round of testing
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

began in the fall of 2014, and the second round concluded at the end of the fall
2015 semester. In between the first and second rounds of usability testing, the
prototype went live in the spring of 2015.
At the launch of this new redesign, there were additions to the library web-
site through CUNY-wide initiatives. The discovery tool OneSearch was launched.
This is the CUNY brand name of Ex LIBRIS’s discovery product Primo. Mo-
bile-optimized, OneSearch uses a responsive design to support various devices.
It has supplemented the CUNY Catalog, which is the web OPAC for the universi-
ty’s Aleph system. The catalog itself has also been mobile-optimized by CUNY’s
Office of Library Services. However, the library website committee decided that
OneSearch would be the default search system for library materials since it is
more usable than the CUNY Catalog.
The other change to the library website was the adoption of the popular Lib-
Guides CMS. This off-site hosted solution provides the City Tech community
with guides to assist them with their research. It replaced the previous MediaW-
iki installation that housed research guides on the library server. Echoing the re-
designed library website, LibGuides 2.0 also utilizes the Bootstrap framework.

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 28 Chapter 2

This allowed LibGuides to be customized, mirroring the appearance of the library

website. It was as easy as copying and pasting Drupal’s CSS style sheets into Lib-
Guides. (See figures 2.3, 2.4, and 2.5.)

FIGURE 2.3
Desktop version of the responsive-design D7 City Tech Library website.
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 The Development of an Academic Library’s Mobile Website 29

FIGURE 2.4
Mobile version of the responsive-design D7 City
Tech Library website.

FIGURE 2.5
City Tech Library’s LibGuides 2.0 mirrors the
main site.
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
 30 Chapter 2

There were a number of takeaways following the development history of the

City Tech Library’s mobile site. These include the need to keep up with emerg-
ing technology through active library groups, the need to accept the technolog-
ical and organizational challenges in developing a website, and the importance
of user-centered design. These takeaways could be applicable to any type of li-
brary-based technology project. Adapting responsive design to our library web-
site was no small task. A considerable amount of time went into researching re-
sponsive design, as well as the Drupal modules that support it. Current practices
of other library websites and discussions through various venues assisted in se-
lecting Bootstrap as the framework.
One community that has discussed Bootstrap extensively is code4Lib.
code4Lib is a grassroots organization that focuses on coding and librarianship
and has a very active journal and e-mail discussion list, as well as national and
regional conferences. Some projects mentioned through code4Lib, such as Black-
light (http://projectblacklight.org), utilize Bootstrap. Both the Association of
College and Research Libraries (ACRL) and the Library Information Technol-
ogy Association (LITA) of the American Library Association (ALA) have also
discussed the use of Bootstrap on their blogs and e-mail lists. Schofield has written
a blog post about how some Bootstrap components are mobile-unfriendly (2014).
Keeping up with these professional organizations has helped us to better under-
stand how the library community at large utilizes web frameworks.
One of the biggest challenges of this development project was the attack on
the site’s Drupal security exploit. The attack was very sudden and unexpected, but
luckily did not occur at a busy time for the library. Not only did the attack help us
to evaluate the library’s security and CMS, it was a catalyst to the redesign. Events
Copyright © 2017. Association of College and Research Libraries. All rights reserved.

such as these should be embraced as an opportunity to improve our services.

Lastly, one of the more important highlights of the mobile development proj-
ect was incorporating users into the design. It is very easy for us as librarians to
take on the role of building what we think is best for our users without actually
communicating with them. Using the concepts of user-centered design, where us-
ers’ input is integrated into each stage of the design process, makes for a more us-
able website. User input can be the deciding factor in website steering committee
discussions, design decisions, and the placement of forms and links. Although I’m
not saying that the burden of a website’s design should fall squarely on the shoul-
ders of the end users, it is imperative that they be able to use the library website
effectively.

Future Improvements
Future improvements to the library’s website will not only run parallel with ad-
vances in mobile technology, but also respond to how mobile users interact with

Mobile Technology and Academic Libraries: : Innovative Services for Research and Learning, edited by Canuel Robin, and
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 PART II.
SYNOPSIS OR INDEX OF DISEASES.
The numbers have reference to the paragraphs; the asterisk (*)
denotes those most deserving of attention.

Abdomen, Flatulent Distension of. See Flatulence.

Abortion. Use Vinegar externally and internally (379); if great

restlessness or pain is present, give Opium (289); if the
hæmorrhage continue unabated, apparently from want of power in
the uterus to contract, try Borax and Cinnamon (58), or administer a
Turpentine enema (364). In cases where there is much
hæmorrhage, which does not abate under the above means, the
Acetate of Lead and Opium Pills advised for Hæmorrhage, Internal,
may be given with signal advantage. With these exceptions, let
nature complete her work by herself; more harm than good may
result from meddlesome interference. Perfect rest of mind and body,
a strictly recumbent posture in a cool, well-ventilated apartment, and
careful avoidance of all stimulant articles of diet and mental
excitement, are essentials to successful treatment. Threatened
Abortion from a fall, over-exertion, &c., may sometimes be averted
by a dose of Opium (289), and strict attention to the above hygienic
rules. See also Hæmorrhage, Internal.

Abscess. In the early stage apply Hot Water Fomentations

(393); if there be much inflammation and pain, apply Leeches (212),
and keep constantly to the part a solution of Sal Ammoniac (325), or
Evaporating Lotion (380). If matter forms, apply Rice Poultices
(322); when it comes so near the surface that it can be felt
fluctuating under the finger the abscess should be opened with a
lancet at the most prominent point; and after the matter has been
evacuated by gentle pressure, the Rice Poultices should be
continued, and changed twice or thrice daily. Should the pain be so
great as to prevent sleep, a dose of Opium (283) or Tincture of
Datura (128) at bedtime is advisable. Should the discharge be
profuse and the patient weak, support the strength with a liberal diet
and tonics, as Chiretta (98, 99), or Country Sarsaparilla (163), or
Ním Bark (260). N.B.—Abscesses in the neck should be opened only
by a doctor, or by one who is conversant with the anatomy of the
part.

Acidity of the Stomach. See Stomach, Acidity of.

Acids, Poisoning with. Give copious draughts of Lime Water

(228) and milk, or, if this be not at hand, soap and water, or chalk,
or the plaster of the apartment beaten up with water. Rice Conjee
(322) and other mucilaginous drinks, white of eggs, or draughts
containing any bland oil, should be given freely. Much of the success
in these cases depends upon the promptitude with which the
remedies are applied.

Ague. See Fever, Intermittent.

Ague Cake. See Spleen, Enlargement of.

Albuminuria. Try Alum (27).

Amenorrhœa. See Menstrual Discharge, Suspended.

Anus, Prolapsus of. See Bowel, Descent of.

Aphthæ, or Aphthous Ulceration. See Mouth, Ulceration of.

Apoplexy. If the patient is young and vigorous, pour cold water

from a height on the head and spine as directed in 386. Keep
Evaporating Lotion (380) to the head; give a Croton Pill (120), or if
the patient is unable to swallow, place a drop or two of Croton Oil
(121) at the back of the tongue. Apply Turpentine Stupes (363) or
Mustard Poultices to the feet and calves. Should the insensibility
continue, give a Turpentine enema (364). For the old and
debilitated, and for natives generally, a little Brandy Mixture (426), or
other stimulant judiciously given, offers a better prospect of success
than bloodletting, which should never be had recourse to except
under medical supervision.

Appetite, Loss of. First try Chiretta (98, 99*); should this fail,
give one of the following: Sweet Flag Root (12), Country Sarsaparilla
(163), Ním Bark (260), or Gulancha (352). Stomachics, as Capsicum
(79), Cinnamon (102), or Cloves (105), may be advantageously
combined with them, care being taken at the same time to regulate
the bowels.

Arsenic, Poisoning with. As speedily as possible empty the

stomach by an emetic of Sulphate of Copper (117) or Mustard (246),
and then give copious draughts of white of eggs beaten up in milk,
or a mixture of equal parts of Lime Water and Sesamum, Cocoa-nut,
or other bland oil. Powdered Sugar has been advised in these cases,
but if of any service, it can only act like the preceding mixtures,
mechanically, by enveloping the particles of the poison; this remark
applies also to Powdered Charcoal, which has also been well spoken
of. When the vomiting has abated, give a full dose of Castor Oil (83)
to carry off any of the poison which may have passed into the
intestines, and this may be repeated every day for two or three
days. Should there be great exhaustion, a little stimulant, as Brandy
Mixture (426), may be given, and a dose of Opium may be
advisable, to subdue any subsequent great pain and restlessness.

Asthma. To relieve the severity of a paroxysm, try one or more

of the following: Turpentine Stupes (362*), or Hot Water
Fomentations to the chest (393), Camphor (70*), or Asafœtida (37)
internally, and the inhalation of the fumes of Nitre Paper (268*) or of
Datura (129*). A cup of hot, strong, milkless, sugarless Coffee café
noir, drunk as hot as can be borne, sometimes gives great relief.
Daily sponging the chest with Vinegar is thought to act in a measure
as a preventive (378). A better preventive is the careful regulation of
diet. Many a fit of asthma can be clearly traced to a hot supper, or
some other error of diet.

Atrophy, or Wasting of the Body. Try Fish Liver Oil (142),

with tonics, as Chiretta (98, 99), and change of air.

Bed Sores. To prevent these, bathe the parts daily with a

solution of Camphor in spirit (75), or with Brandy or Eau de Cologne,
or apply Alum and White of Egg (31*), and relieve the local pressure
as much as possible by change of position, &c. A small circular pillow
with a hollow centre (just like the pads worn by the coolies on their
heads in carrying weights, only thinner) is most useful for this
purpose. Should a sore form notwithstanding, it should be treated as
an ordinary ulcer. See Ulcer.

Beri-beri. Petroleum (410).

Bish (Aconite Root), Poisoning with. Strong stimulants, as

Brandy and Ammonia; Cold Water Affusion (386), and persistent
friction of the limbs and spine, appear to offer the best chance of
success. Decoction of Galls (152) has been advised as an antidote.
Strong hot Coffee, café noir, is worth a trial, if the patient can
swallow.

Bites, Venomous, and Stings, e.g., of Centipedes, Scorpions,

Wasps.
All that is required in ordinary or mild cases, after immediate suction
of the bite, is application of Vinegar (380), or Alum (32), or a strong
solution of salt and water. Inunction of warm oil has been highly
recommended. If Ipecacuanha is at hand, a small portion of it made
into a thick paste with a few drops of water, and locally applied, is
said in many instances to afford great and immediate relief. Brown
Sugar is said to be specially useful in Wasp Stings. Soda is also said
speedily to relieve the pain in these cases. Should the symptoms be
severe, as is sometimes the case, Liquor Ammoniæ and stimulants,
as advised for Snake Bites (Appendix B), should be given.

Bladder, Painful Affections and Irritable States of. Are

best relieved by Opium (286*), the free use of demulcents, as the
Decoctions of Abelmoschus (2), Ispaghúl seeds (305), or Rice
Conjee (322), and the use of the Hip Bath (392). The Extract of
Gulancha (353) seems well worthy of a trial, especially in Chronic
Inflammation of the Bladder.

Bleeding. See Hæmorrhage.

Blows. See Sprains.

Boils. Are to be treated much in the same way as Abscesses, by

Hot Water Fomentations (393), Sal Ammoniac Lotion (332), and Rice
Poultices (322). Leeches (212) are rarely necessary, unless there
should be much pain and inflammation. Decoction of Country
Sarsaparilla (163) may be given internally if there is any
constitutional disturbance. A popular and useful "drawing plaster" is
a compound of equal weights of Brown Sugar and English Yellow
Soap; a still better one is the ointment described in paragraph 399; a
portion of either of these spread on rag should be applied over each
boil. Rajah Boil. See Carbuncle.

Bones, Scrofulous Affections of. Give Fish Liver Oil (138).

Bowel, Lower, Descent of. The protruded part having been

carefully washed, should be replaced by gentle pressure with the
hand: should there be any difficulty in doing this, the forefinger well
oiled should be pushed up into the anus; and it will, unless the parts
be greatly swollen, carry the protruded part in with it. The patient
should then remain quiet for some hours in a recumbent posture,
and apply cloths saturated with Decoction of Galls (147), or Babúl
Bark (9), holding Alum (25*) in solution. Subsequently enemas of
the above solutions, or others containing Sulphate of Iron (179), act
usefully in constringing the parts and preventing a return of the
accident. In weak, debilitated subjects, Confection of Pepper (300)
proves very serviceable. The bowels should be kept open by mild
aperients, of which Sulphur and Cream of Tartar (344) is by far the
best. All straining at stool should be carefully avoided. A person
subject to this accident should wear a pad to keep the parts up.

Chronic Descent of the Bowel in Children. May be

frequently cured by making the child, when at stool, sit on a seat
sufficiently high, so that its feet cannot touch the ground or have
other support. (Dr. Aitchison.)

Bowels, Spasmodic, and other Painful Affections of. Mild

cases generally yield to Omum Water (318*), Lemon Grass Oil (216),
or the Infusions of Ginger (155), Dill Seeds (134), or Cloves (105),
with or without a single dose of Opium (284). Severe cases require
the repetition of the Opium (284) in Omum Water, &c., together with
either Hot Water Fomentations (393), Mustard Poultices (251), or
Turpentine Stupes (362) externally to the abdomen; followed in
protracted cases by an enema of Turpentine (364), or Asafœtida
(36). In all cases a dose of Castor Oil is advisable when the pain has
abated. In Children. See Colic. For Irregularity of the Bowels, try
Bael Sherbet (45); in that of Children, Decoction of Kariyát Leaves
(193). Constipation of. See Constipation. Bleeding from. See
Hæmorrhage.

Breast, Abscess of, in Women. See Milk Abscess.

Breathing, Difficulty of, occurring without evident cause or

in connection with a cold.
Sometimes yields to Camphor and Asafœtida Pills (70), and
Turpentine Stupes (362), or Mustard Poultices (247) to the chest.
Great relief, especially in the case of children, is often derived from
external application of Betal Leaves (48), or bags of hot salt. See
also Cough.
 Bronchitis, Chronic. Decoction of Sweet Flag (13), Country
Ipecacuanha (370), Asafœtida (37), and Fish Liver Oil (140)
internally, with Rice Poultices (322), Croton Liniment (122), and
Turpentine Stupes (362) externally, may be used with advantage.
The inhalation of the vapour of hot Decoction of Abelmoschus (2) is
also serviceable. The temperature of the apartment should be kept
as uniform as possible. For the relief of a paroxysm of cough, the
fumes of burning Nitre Paper (268) are worthy of a trial in all cases.
A blister to the chest often affords great relief.

Bronchocele. See Goitre.

Bruises. See Sprains.

Buboes. Often subside under a non-stimulant diet, perfect rest

in the recumbent posture, and the continued application of Sal
Ammoniac Lotion (332), the bowels being at the same time carefully
regulated. Should matter form, treat as Abscess (which see). Should
ulceration result, apply Borax Lotion (59), Resin Ointment (372), &c.,
as advised for ulcers. "Buboes, especially of the groin, when not in
an inflamed condition, are often immensely benefited by having a
smooth stone of two pounds weight or thereabout, laid over them;
this rapidly causes absorption." (Dr. Aitchison.)

Burning of the Feet in Natives. Apply Henna or Mhíndí

Poultice (197) locally, and try Bromide of Potassium, 5 to 10 grains
dissolved in water, twice or thrice daily.

Burns and Scalds. As soon after the accident as possible, apply

freely to the whole of the burnt surface Lime Liniment (229), or in its
absence Jinjili Oil (337), or any other bland oil, dusting thickly over
with Rice Flour; or even with simple Rice Flour without any oil as
directed in paragraph 322. The object in each case is to prevent, as
far as possible, the access of air to the burnt surface. These first
dressings should remain undisturbed for at least twenty-four hours,
and should then be repeated in the same, or in a modified form.
Subsequent ulcerations should be treated with Ceromel (167) or
Resin Ointment (372). Carbolised Oil or Liniment is advocated by Dr.
Aitchison. Dr. A.'s directions are as follows: "Employ a Liniment of
Carbolic Acid, one part Acid to 15 of a sweet Oil, carefully mixed;
apply this freely over the burnt or scalded surface, cover the whole
with a thick piece of cotton wool, and apply a bandage over all. On
no account change the cotton dressing unless there is any
disagreeable odour. If the dressing is becoming dry and thus causing
irritation, take off the bandage and moisten cotton wadding
thoroughly with the same Liniment without moving it. On no account
allow water to come in contact with the injured part." The treatment
of very extensive burns of the lower limbs with carbolic acid is
considered to be prejudicial, but not so of the upper extremities.
Should the injured surface be extensive, the constitution should be
supported by liberal diet, tonics, and stimulants, as Brandy Mixture
(426) at stated intervals. Any great restlessness or excessive pain
may require a dose of Opium at bedtime (283). N.B.—Whenever the
burn is in the neighbourhood of the joint, or in the neck, it is
important that the parts should be kept in a straight or stretched
position, otherwise contraction is apt to result during the healing
process.

Cancer. To relieve the pain and restlessness, give Opium (283)

or Tincture of Datura (128). To correct the fœtor of the discharge,
apply relays of Charcoal Poultices (91), cleansing the ulcer each time
the poultice is changed with Borax Lotion (59). N.B.—On the
smallest suspicion of a cancer forming, no time should be lost in
placing the case under regular medical care.

Carbuncle "Rajah Boil" of the Natives. The treatment of the

early stages is similar to that for Abscess (ante); only if leeches are
deemed necessary, they should be placed round the edge and not
on the hardened surface. When ulceration sets in, the Toddy Poultice
(355) is useful in stimulating to healthy action; and the removal of
the slough is greatly accelerated by the daily practice of Irrigation
(395). Turpentine Ointment (367) or Petroleum (412) also prove
useful in this stage. Should there be much fœtor, apply Charcoal
Poultices (91) and the Borax Lotion (59) as advised in Cancer.
Opium (283) may be necessary to relieve pain and give rest. When
the slough has come away, the ointments advised in paragraphs 367
and 372, or Ceromel (167), may be used as dressing. A generous
animal diet, with a daily portion of stimulants, should be allowed,
and tonics as Chiretta (98, 99), or Country Sarsaparilla (163)
administered. Whenever practicable, the case should be placed
under proper surgical care, as incisions are often necessary for the
removal of the slough.

Cassava Root, Poisoning by. Give Lime Juice (234).

Castor Oil Seeds, Poisoning by. Give Lime Juice (234).

Cataract. Datura (128).

Catarrhs or Colds. May often be cut short at the outset by a

draught of hot Infusion of Ginger (156) or White Wine Whey (428)
at bedtime, and covering the body well, so as to produce copious
perspiration. A Vapour Bath (396) will answer the same purpose. To
relieve feverishness give Solution of Nitre (264), Decoction of
Abelmoschus (2), and Country Ipecacuanha (370). Inhalation of the
fumes of burning Turmeric (359) manifestly relieves troublesome
congestion or fulness of the head, nose, &c. See also Cough.

Caterpillar's Hairs, to Extract. Some Indian Caterpillars are

armed with a thick hairy covering, and if these come in contact with
the skin the hairs are apt to pierce the cuticle, and by their presence
create great pain, irritation, &c. To extract them the following
ingenious plan, devised by Dr. Alexander Grant, late Bengal Medical
Service, is said to be very effectual. Take a lock of human hair, tie
firmly with thread about one-eighth of an inch from the cut end, so
as to form a short, firm, even brush, not however to be used as
such, but as forceps. This held between the thumb and forefinger, is
allowed to descend perpendicularly and uncompressed among the
caterpillar hairs. When the two sets of hairs are commingled, the
brush is compressed as forceps are, and drawn straight up, bringing
the hairs with it, and so on until all the hairs are pulled out.

Centipedes, Bites of. See Bites, Venomous.

Chest, Pains in, during Fevers. See Fevers.

Childbirth. See Labours.

Children, Debility of. To relieve pallor and wasting, give

Country Sarsaparilla (163), and Fish Liver Oil (139), with generous
diet, and gentle outdoor exercise. A change of air will often do more
good than medicine. Constipation of, see Constipation, Convulsion
of, see Convulsions. Colic of, see Colic. Coughs of, see Coughs.
Diarrhœa of, see Diarrhœa. Difficulty of Breathing, see Breathing,
Difficulty of.

Cholera. To check the premonitory diarrhœa or purging, give

the Alum Powders (26), or Alum with Infusion of Sweet Flag (12), or
Omum Water (319); should these not succeed in checking it, try a
few of the Compound Pepper Pills (299), but it is unadvisable to
continue them long on account of the large proportion of Opium
which they contain (285). One of the most useful forms of Cholera
Pills, which should be commenced at the earlier stages when the
purging sets in, is composed of 24 grains of Acetate of Lead, and
two grains of Opium, made into a mass with a few drops of Honey,
and divided into eight pills. Of these one may be given every hour or
half-hour, according to the urgency of the symptoms, till the whole
eight have been taken; but this number should not be exceeded, in
consequence of the quantity of Opium they contain. Each pill may be
taken in a wineglassful of Omum Water. Should the disease
progress, Dr. Ayre's plan of treatment (285*), if the ingredients are
at hand, should be pursued, together with the persevering use of
Lemon Grass Oil (216) and Omum Water (318), for the purpose of
checking the vomiting and stimulating the system. For the latter
purpose also give an ounce (two table-spoonfuls) of the Brandy
Mixture (426) every half-hour or oftener, unless Champagne or other
sparkling wine is available, this being decidedly the best form of
stimulant in these cases—only it must be given in moderation at
stated periods; more harm than good is done by over-stimulation.
The patient should be encouraged to drink plentifully of cold water,
iced if possible; though the first draught or two may be rejected, it
will soon be retained if persevered in. Chicken Broth, or Lime Water
and Milk, may also be given plentifully as a drink. The other
accessories to the above are Mustard Poultices (251) or Turpentine
Stupes (363) over the heart (left side of the chest), bags of hot sand
or salt to the spine, feet, and legs, and diligent friction with the hand
or hot towels. At the same time the patient should not be moved
about more than can be possibly helped.—N.B. During an epidemic
of Cholera impress upon everybody the necessity of applying for
medicines directly they feel unwell or have the slightest purging;
those who come thus early for treatment stand a much better
chance of recovery than those who delay even a few hours. Here
time is of the most vital importance.

Chorea, St. Vitus's Dance. Fish Liver Oil (141), Infusion of

Jatamansi (184), and Sulphate of Iron (177), alone or in
combination, according to circumstances, are worthy of a trial. N.B.
—This, as well as other nervous affections, is often due to intestinal
worms: attention should therefore be paid to this point. (See
Convulsions.)

Cocculus Indicus, Poisoning by. Having emptied the stomach

by an emetic of Sulphate of Copper (117) or Mustard (246), give
copious draughts of Decoction of Galls (152), followed by a full dose
of Castor Oil to carry off any of the poison which may have passed
into the intestines. Brandy or other stimulants are required should
there be great depression or exhaustion.

Colds See Catarrhs.

 Colic in Adults. To be treated in a manner described in
Spasmodic Affections of the Bowels. The Colic of Children, usually
connected with flatulence, generally yields to Omum Water (318*),
Infusion of Dill (134), with or without Asafœtida (36), and a Hot
Bath (387), followed by a dose of Castor Oil.

Constipation. For the immediate relief of this, aperients are

required. Castor Oil (83) and Senna (336) are best adapted for
children and delicate females; Aloes (18, 19) for women suffering
from irregularity or suspension of the menstrual discharge;
Myrobalans (256) and Kaladana (187) for otherwise healthy adults;
and Croton Pills (120) or Croton Oil (121) when strong and speedy
purgation is indicated. The Constipation of Hysterical Females is best
treated by Aloes and Asafœtida Pills (19); Habitual Constipation, by
Aloes, as directed in Paragraph 20, or by Sulphur (344); that of
Children by Fish Liver Oil (139), together with the use of oatmeal as
an article of diet. A remedy for habitual constipation in children, as
well as in adults, is to be sought for in tonics rather than in
purgatives; the repeated use of the latter lays the foundation of
great subsequent mischief. N.B.—The practice of native ayahs
(female servants) of inserting a piece of tobacco stem into the anus
of young children to relieve constipation, cannot be too strongly
reprobated.

Consumption, Pulmonary (Phthisis). The persevering use of

Fish Liver Oil (138) is chiefly to be relied upon, with or without Lime
Water and Milk (226), as an ordinary drink. As a preventive sponge
the chest daily with diluted Vinegar (378). Mustard Poultices (247) or
Croton Liniment (122) to the chest sometimes gives relief to the
Cough and Difficulty of Breathing, as does the inhalation of the
vapour of Hot Water (390) or Decoction of Abelmoschus (3). For the
Diarrhœa, try the Alum Powders (26) or Sulphate of Copper (110).
For the excessive Perspirations, sponge the chest with Vinegar
(378). For the Sore Mouth or Fissures of the Tongue, apply Borax
(55), or Alum (29). For Bleeding from the Lungs try some of the
means mentioned in Hæmorrhage, Internal.

Convulsions in Adults, arising without evident cause. Best

treated by cold Affusion (386), Mustard Poultices (248), or
Turpentine Stupes (363) to the feet and legs, and a strong
purgative, as Croton Pills (120), Croton Oil (121), or Kaladana (187).
If the patient be unable to swallow, a Turpentine enema (364) may
be used. When the Convulsions are due to poisons, &c., taken into
the stomach, an emetic of Mustard (246) or Sulphate of Copper
(117) should precede all other measures. In the Convulsions of
Labour, Turpentine Stupes (363) or Mustard Poultices (248) should
be applied to the extremities, and Evaporating Lotion (380) to the
head, whilst Camphor and Calomel Pills (73), or Borax and Cinnamon
(58), are given internally. A Turpentine enema (364) may also prove
useful. The Convulsions of Children are best treated with a Hot Bath
(387), and a full dose of Castor Oil (83), preceded by one or two
grains of Calomel when at hand, or a dose or two of Asafœtida
Mixture (36). In the Convulsions of Infancy and Childhood, especially
when the cause is obscure, unconnected with teething, &c., Bromide
of Potassium is often more serviceable than any other remedy, in
doses of a quarter of a grain for a child under six weeks of age, half
a grain under three months, one grain above that age to nine
months, and one grain additional for every year up to three or four
years of age. And these doses may be safely repeated every two,
three, or four hours until the convulsions subside. The smaller doses
may be obtained with exactitude by dissolving, say, one grain of the
Bromide in four teaspoonfuls of water, and giving one, two, or three
spoonfuls, or the whole quantity, as one quarter, one half, one third,
or one grain respectively is required. It is worthy of a fair trial in all
cases which resist ordinary means, but should not be used to the
exclusion of the hot bath and careful regulation of the bowels. When
the child is very much exhausted, a few drops of Brandy, three to
six, or more, according to age, are often most useful. Convulsions of
early childhood are frequently connected with teething, hence
lancing the gums is often of essential benefit.
 N.B.—Convulsions and nervous affections occurring in Natives and
Anglo-Indians are very frequently due to the presence of worms in
the intestines; their existence may perhaps be unsuspected, or even
denied; hence in all cases which resist ordinary treatment, it is
advisable to give a trial to one or more of the remedies
recommended for Worms, especially those for the Lumbricus or
Round Worm, which is so extensively prevalent in India.

Corns. Best treated by immersion in hot soap and water, paring

off the hardened cuticle and wearing a piece of thick plaster, with or
without a hole in the centre, to ward off the pressure and friction.
For Corns between the Toes nothing is more effectual than a piece
of thick blotting-paper worn so as to protect the opposing surface: it
should be renewed daily. If only ordinary thin blotting-paper be
available, two folds are advisable.

Corrosive Sublimate, Poisoning by. See Mercurial Salts,

Poisoning by.

Coughs. Try Sal Ammoniac (329) and Country Ipecacuanha

(370); with Rice Poultices (322) or Mustard Poultices (247),
Turpentine Liniment (366), or Camphorated Opium Liniment (291)
externally, and the inhalation of the vapour of Hot Water (390) or
Decoction of Abelmoschus (2). If severe, a blister (349, 350) to the
chest may be necessary. In Chronic cases, especially when attended
with much expectoration and debility, give Fish Liver Oil (140). In
Spasmodic Coughs, violent paroxysms may be relieved by inhaling
the fumes of Nitre Paper (268), or by smoking Datura (129). For the
Cough of Old Age, Cubebs (126) is worth a trial. For the Cough of
Childhood, Syrup of Country Liquorice (6), Asafœtida (37), Honey
and Vinegar (166), and Fish Liver Oil, may be resorted to according
to circumstances. Camphor Liniment (70), Mustard Poultices (247),
or bags filled with hot salt, or better still, Betel Leaves (48), applied
externally, tend to relieve difficulty of breathing in these cases.
Sponging the chest with Vinegar is thought to lessen the liability to
attack (378).
 Coup de Soleil. See Sunstroke.

Croton Oil Seeds, Poisoning by. See Par. 234.

Croup. Sulphate of Copper (111) as an emetic, and Hot Water

Stupes (390) externally, are valuable accessories in the treatment of
this disease.
"The best and readiest emetic," writes Dr. Aitchison, "is a pinch of
Ipecacuanha Powder placed dry at the back of the child's tongue.
This usually acts instantaneously, so be prepared for the emergency.
Sponges dipped in extremely hot water, then rinsed out, and
continuously applied over the throat, will often check a coming
attack. Poultices are useful, but are apt to do much harm if allowed
to become cold. Mustard poultices should not be applied, as without
due care they are apt to make the skin tender, and thus prevent the
use of hot fomentations."

Datura, Poisoning by swallowing the seeds of, &c. To be

treated in the manner directed for Opium poisoning. Where
Insensibility arises from the Inhalation of the Fumes, Cold Water
Affusion (386) in the open air often succeeds in removing it at once.
The patient should be aroused by any or all of the means
enumerated in poisoning by Opium. The nervous symptoms may
continue for two or three days, and yet recovery follow.

Debility, Constitutional. Requires the use of the following

tonics, either alone or combined: Chiretta (98, 99*), Sweet Flag Root
(12), Country Sarsaparilla (163), Kariyát (191), Ním Bark (260), or
Gulancha (352). When attended with Anæmia or great pallor of the
surface, especially of the inner surface of the eyelids and tongue,
Sulphate of Iron (174) is indicated. The efficacy of all these
remedies is increased by a liberal animal diet, and gentle exercise in
the open air. Debility after Fevers. See Fevers.
 Delhi Sores. The Borax Ointment (59) is strongly
recommended. See also Ulcers.

Delirium. Generally is best treated by Evaporating Lotion (380)

to the head, the Mustard Foot Bath (248), or Turpentine Stupes
(363) to the extremities and a strong purgative; for that occurring in
Fevers, see Fevers.

Delirium Tremens. To relieve sleeplessness and anxiety, give

Opium and Camphor (283), or better still, Bromide of Potassium, as
advised in Sleeplessness in Head Affections. See that article. Try also
the Mustard Foot Bath (248, 249), or the Wet Sheet (397b). To
support the strength, give Brandy Mixture (427*) and a nourishing
diet.

Diabetes. Vapour Baths (396) in the early stages, Alum Whey

(27) and Lime Water (226) internally, with Opium (288), at bedtime,
prove occasionally useful as palliatives. Their operation is assisted by
a full animal diet, with a diminished quantity of rice and other
farinaceous food, and by warm clothing. Use Lemonade as a drink
(232).

Diarrhœa. In the early stages, especially if attended with heat

of skin, &c., give Country Ipecacuanha (369) and Ispaghúl seeds
(304), with a mild aperient, as Castor Oil, if there is reason to think
that the attack arises from crude, undigested food in the intestines.
The Acetate of Lead and Opium Pills advised for Cholera are often
very successful in these cases. One may be given every two or three
hours, or oftener, according to the urgency of the symptoms; they
are especially useful in Epidemic Diarrhœa. In the advanced stages
or in Chronic Diarrhœa try Sulphate of Copper (110), Catechu (88),
Alum (26), or one of the following: Decoction of Babúl Bark (9),
Infusion of Sweet Flag (12), Bael (44), Butea Gum (62), Galls (146),
Decoction of Pomegranate (312), and Omum Water (317), with or
without the addition, in each case, of a small portion of Opium
(289). Turpentine Stupes (363) to the abdomen are useful if much
pain is present. When the disease is apparently of malarious origin
or connected with periodic Fevers of any kind, Quinine (three to five
grains twice or thrice daily) should be associated with whatever
other remedies are being employed. Try also Warm Water Enemas
(393). When connected with Acidity of the Stomach, give Lime
Water (222). When caused by Over-eating or by Indigestible Food,
follow up an emetic of Mustard (246) or Country Ipecacuanha (368),
to unload the stomach, by Omum Water (318), and subsequently by
a dose of Castor Oil. Capsicum (79) is thought to be specially useful
in Diarrhœa arising from the use of putrid food, e.g., fish. The
Diarrhœa of Children often yields to a dose of Castor Oil, if given
early; if not, one of the following may be tried: Acorus or Sweet Flag
(13*), Bael (44), Catechu (88), Sulphate of Copper (110), Sulphate
of Iron (181*), Saccharated Solution of Lime (220), or Ispaghúl
Seeds (304). Omum Water (318) may be advantageously combined
with any of the above. The Diarrhœa which precedes Cholera. See
Cholera. N.B.—In all cases of diarrhœa the food should be mild and
unirritating, thick Arrowroot (423) being the best suited for the
purpose, and, in every obstinate or chronic case, a flannel bandage
should always be worn round the abdomen.

Dropsy. Occurring in the young and vigorous is best treated at

the outset by strong purgatives, as Croton Pills (120) or Croton Oil
(121), or Kaladana (187), followed by medicines which increase the
flow of urine, as Decoction of Asteracantha (39), Infusion of Moringa
(237), Mustard Whey (250), or Infusion of Pedalium (297), with
which Nitre (269) or Sal Ammoniac (331) may be combined, as
circumstances require. The Vapour Bath (396) twice a week proves
useful in recent cases, where the patient is strong enough to bear it.
Where the patient is very debilitated and anæmic, Sulphate of Iron
(174, 178) should be tried.

Drunkenness. After a debauch, a Mustard emetic (246) proves

most useful in unloading the stomach of any spirit remaining in it. A
few drops, six to twelve, of Liquor Ammoniæ in water subsequently
given, are often of signal success. Strong Coffee, café noir, is also
most useful. To allay the subsequent cravings for drink try Omum
Water (320).

Dysentery. In the early stages give Country Ipecacuanha (369)

and Ispaghúl Seeds (304), or Sesamum leaves (338a), with or
without Opium (289*, 289a), and apply Hot Fomentations to the
abdomen and Leeches to the verge of the anus (211); the latter
tend much to relieve the pain and straining, as do also Opiate
enemas (289a). The treatment of Acute Dysentery by large doses of
Ipecacuanha, reintroduced into practice in 1858 by Dr. Docker, is
acknowledged by the most experienced authorities to be far more
effectual than any other. It consists, in the main, of administering, as
early in the disease as possible, 25 to 30 grains of Ipecacuanha, in
as small a quantity of fluid as possible, premising half an hour
previously 25 to 30 drops of Laudanum. The patient should keep
perfectly still in bed, and abstain from fluids for at least three hours.
If thirsty, he may suck a little ice, or may have a teaspoonful of cold
water. It is seldom, under this management, that nausea is
excessive, and vomiting is rarely troublesome, seldom setting in for
two hours after the medicine has been taken. Mustard Poultices
(247) or Turpentine Stupes (362) should be applied to the abdomen.
In from eight to ten hours, according to the urgency of the
symptoms and the effect produced by the first dose, Ipecacuanha in
a reduced dose should be repeated, with the same precautions as
before. The effects of this treatment are soon manifest and
surprising; the griping and straining subside, the motions quickly
become feculent, blood and slime disappear; and often, after
profuse action of the skin, the patient falls into a tranquil sleep and
awakes refreshed. The treatment may require to be continued for
some days, the medicine being given in diminished doses, care being
taken to allow a sufficient interval to admit of the patient taking
some mild nourishment suited to the stage of the disease. As the
disease abates, the dose should be reduced. It is well, however, to
administer 10 or 12 grains at bedtime for a night or two, after the
stools are, to all appearance, healthy. Fomentations or Turpentine
Stupes to the abdomen lessen griping and diminish suffering. If a
little diarrhœa without the dysenteric odour remain, it may be
checked with a little astringent mixture, with or without Opium.
Astringents in any shape during the acute stage are not only useless,
but dangerous. (Dr. Maclean.) To sum up, it appears—1. That acute
dysentery is more successfully and speedily treated by large doses of
Ipecacuanha than by other means. 2. That it is more effectual in the
acute than in the chronic forms. 3. That large doses, such as are
mentioned above, may be given with perfect safety, without fear of
ill effects; and 4. That it is less successful with the natives of India
than with Europeans. In the acute dysentery of natives, small doses,
e.g., from six to eight grains thrice daily, so as to keep up a slight
degree of nausea, short of actual vomiting, seem to answer better
than the large doses mentioned above. It may be advantageously
combined with Opium, from a quarter to half a grain with each dose.
When of malarious origin or when occurring in the course of
periodical Fevers, Quinine (three to five grains twice or thrice daily)
should form part of whatever other treatment is being followed. In
the advanced stages, or when it passes into Chronic Dysentery,
apply Turpentine Stupes (362) to the abdomen, and give Sulphate of
Copper (110), Bael (44), Infusion of Kariyát (191), Decoction of
Pomegranate Rind (312), or Sal Ammoniac (331). When an aperient
is required, give Sulphur and Cream of Tartar (344) or Castor Oil,
with the addition of a small portion of Opium. For the Dysentery of
Natives, Decoction of Sweet Flag (13), Galls (146), Mudar (243),
Opium (289a), and Decoction of Pomegranate Rind (312) seem best
suited. For the Chronic Dysentery of Children the Saccharated
Solution of Lime (220), Bael (44), Sulphate of Copper (110), or
Sulphate of Iron (181) are indicated. See also Diarrhœa of Children.
N.B.—In all cases of dysentery the food should be mild and
unirritating, and a flannel bandage worn round the abdomen. Soups
containing mucilage of Abelmoschus (2) prove useful.

Dysmenorrhœa. See Menstruation, Painful.

 Dyspepsia. See Indigestion.

Ear, Discharges from, in Scrofulous Subjects. Syringe the

ear daily with Lime Water (225), or tepid water, or milk and water,
and give Fish Liver Oil internally (138). Buzzing or Noises in the Ear
often depend upon an accumulation of wax in the outer passage; to
remove this and effect a cure all that is necessary in many cases is
to insert a drop or two of sweet oil for an hour or two, and then to
syringe the ear well out with tepid water or soap and water, and
repeat the same twice or thrice daily. This also sometimes relieves
Ear-Ache: if not, use Opium as directed in Paragraph 292.

Elephantiasis. The paroxysms of fever which accompany this

disease are to be treated in the manner directed for Intermittent
Fever (infra). The only means of arresting the progress of the
disease is to remove permanently from a locality in which it is
endemic or prevalent to another situated at least ten miles distant
from the sea-coast; the higher and drier the site the better.

Epilepsy. Sometimes improves under Fish Liver Oil (141); its

use may be combined with Sulphate of Copper, in doses of a quarter
of a grain twice or thrice daily. For this purpose, dissolve two grains
in one ounce of Omum Water; of this, the dose is a teaspoonful. Far
superior to all other remedies for Epilepsy is Bromide of Potassium in
doses of 10 to 15 grains, in a wineglassful of water, thrice daily.
Should the disease not yield to these doses, they may be gradually
increased to double or even treble these quantities. The earlier in
the disease this remedy is resorted to, the greater are its chances of
success; and as a general rule it proves more useful when the fits
are severe and frequent, and occur mainly in the daytime, than in
the milder attacks, which come only at night. In all cases it is worthy
of a fair trial. See also remarks at the end of Convulsions in this
Index.
Exhaustion from Hæmorrhage after Fevers or other causes.
Give Brandy Mixture (426).

Eyes, Affections of. Datura (128β). For "Country Sore Eye,"

apply Alum, as directed in Paragraph 23, and Decoction of Turmeric
(360) to relieve the burning sensation. Try also Solution of Sugar
(406). For other forms of Ophthalmia, attended with copious
discharge, try Sulphate of Copper (113). To relieve great pain and
intolerance of light, use Opium locally (292). Blows on the Eye: Alum
Poultice (24), followed by Sal Ammoniac Lotion (332), to remove
discoloration. Particles of Lime in the Eye may be dissolved and
removed by dilute Vinegar (382). Particles of Dirt, &c., may often be
speedily dislodged and removed by drawing the upper eyelid well
over the under one as far as possible for a few seconds. This simple
plan is often successful when others fail. If this fail, try Solution of
Sugar (406). Fresh Plantain Leaf (307) forms an excellent shade for
the eyes in all affections of those organs.

Face-Ache, Neuralgic or Rheumatic. Sal Ammoniac (326),

Sulphate of Iron (177), or Fish Liver Oil (141) internally; and Datura
(130), and Mustard (253), or Ginger (157) Poultices locally, are
measures which, used conjointly, often prove successful. When
periodical, Cinchona Febrifuge (402*).

Fainting. Generally yields to dashing cold water over the face

and neck (386), and applying strong smelling salts to the nostrils;
when partially recovered, Omum Water (318) or Asafœtida (35) may
be given, or should there be much exhaustion, a dose of Brandy
Mixture (426).

Fevers, Ardent or Continued. In most cases it is advisable to

commence with a purgative of Kaladana (187), Castor Oil (83), or
Myrobalans (256), or if the patient be a strong adult, a Croton Pill
(120); after its operation the Solution of Nitre (264) may be given,
and Decoction of Abelmoschus (2), Lemonade (232), or Tamarind
Infusion (346), to allay the thirst and cool the system. A very useful
and refreshing drink in all fevers, especially if there is irritability of
the stomach, is a mixture of equal parts of Milk and Soda Water,
with the addition of a piece of ice if procurable. Sucking small pieces
of ice also allays thirst and cools the system; for this latter purpose,
also, sponging the surface with Water (385) or diluted Vinegar (376)
may be employed. The diet should consist chiefly of Rice Conjee
(322) and other farinaceous articles, and the apartment should be
kept cool and well ventilated. To relieve Headache or great fulness of
the head, apply constantly Evaporating Lotion (380) or Nitre Lotion
(265), or, if these fail to afford relief, Hot Water Fomentations (393).
Leeches to the temples or nape of the neck (209) and Mustard
Poultices to the feet (248) may also be necessary in severe cases.
For any severe or acute pain arising in the chest or abdomen,
Leeches (209) over the seat of pain should be applied, but if these
fail try a Blister (349). For Vomiting and Irritability of Stomach give
Lime Water (223), or else give Hot Water as a drink (385), and apply
Mustard Poultices (251); for Bilious Diarrhœa accompanying use
Warm Water Enemas (393). For Sore Throat or Fissures of the
Tongue, apply Borax (55) or Alum (29); for Dryness of the Mouth
and Fauces sucking sliced limes, or, better still, pineapples, generally
suffices. In the advanced stages, when great exhaustion, delirium,
&c., are present, give Camphor (74) and Brandy Mixture (426)
internally, and apply Turpentine Stupes (363) to the extremities;
Turpentine Enemas (364) are also valuable in this condition. For
subsequent Debility and during Convalescence give one of the
following tonics: Chiretta (98), Atís (42), Bonduc (52), Kariyát (191),
Ním Bark (260), Gulancha (352-3), or Cinchona Febrifuge (402). A
combination of Chiretta and Sweet Flag Root (12) or Chiretta Wine
(99) is perhaps best suited for this purpose. A liberal animal diet
should be allowed. N.B.—Throughout the attack it is essential to
keep the bowels properly regulated.

Fever, Intermittent or Ague, and Remittent or Jungle Fever.

Commence with an aperient, as in Fever (ante), and should the
stomach be foul give an emetic of Country Ipecacuanha (368). In
the cold stage, cover the body well up with blankets, give Infusion of
Ginger (156), and place bags containing hot sand or hot salt along
the spine. In the hot stage, give plentifully of Lemonade (232),
Solution of Nitre (264), and adopt generally the other measures
advised above in Fever. In the sweating stage, do nothing but
protect the surface from cold draughts of air or cold wind. In the
intermission or periods between the paroxysms give one of the
following: Atís (42), Bonduc Nut (52), Chiretta (98), Sulphate of Iron
(175), Ním Bark (260), or Gulancha (352). When one fails another
may succeed; when each fails, given singly, they will sometimes
prove effectual given in combination. They are all greatly inferior in
efficacy to Quinine and Cinchona Febrifuge (401, 403). For these
Fevers in Natives, Galls, with Chiretta and Sweet Flag Root (12),
have been favourably spoken of. Swelling of left side after Ague, see
Spleen, Enlargement of.
In mild, ordinary, uncomplicated cases of Intermittent Fever, all
that is required, due attention being paid to the state of the bowels
and secretions, is to administer Quinine in doses of from three to
five grains, so that 10 or 12 grains be taken in the intermissions
between the paroxysms. It is best given in solution, in water or
coffee. In the severer forms, or even in ordinary cases, Professor
Maclean, of the Netley Hospital, has proposed a treatment which
appears very judicious, and which in his hands has for years proved
very successful. It consists in administering 30 grains in three equal
doses during the period of intermission; the first dose, in solution,
should be given towards the close of the sweating stage, and the
last about as far as can be calculated, an hour before the next
anticipated paroxysm. Should there be much irritability of the
stomach, it should be given in enema in doses of 15 grains in place
of 10 grains. After the paroxysm has by this means been arrested, a
moderate degree of cinchonism, i.e., giddiness, buzzing in the ears,
flashing before the eyes, &c., should be maintained for some days,
by giving three or four grains in solution every four hours. In cases
where the fever returns at the first lunar period, as it is apt to do,
the patient a day or two previously should be brought under the
influence of Quinine, which should be maintained until the time is
past. Should it fail to influence the fever, attention should be directed
to the state of the liver and bowels. When from any cause it cannot
be given internally, trial may be made with it applied endermically;
the experiments of Dr. Guastamacchia and others tending to prove
that it becomes absorbed into the system through the skin, and
operates as an antiperiodic almost as certainly as when given
internally. He dissolved eight grains in half an ounce of spirit, and
rubbed first one half, and after the interval of a quarter of an hour,
the second half along the spine. When this was done at the
commencement of the cold fit, it very often prevented even a single
recurrence. Dr. Daunt also bears testimony to this method in the
fevers of South America.
In Remittent and Jungle Fever, Quinine is a remedy of the highest
value, but its exhibition requires more caution and discrimination
than in simple intermittents. Dr. Maclean's treatment appears to be
worthy of every attention. After premising, in most cases, a
cathartic, immediately on the first signs of remission, he administers
a full dose of Quinine, 10 grains, often 15, sometimes 20 grains,
never exceeding that dose, and not deterred by the presence of
headache or a foul tongue, nor because the remission is slight or
imperfectly marked; and this dose he repeats every second hour
until 30 or 35 grains have been taken before the hour of the
expected exacerbation. Should the stomach be too irritable to bear
it, it should be given in enema in large doses (20 grains). As soon as
the second remission appears, it must be given as before until full
cinchonism or distinct abatement of the disease occurs. During the
remission the patient should have mild farinaceous diet, milk,
chicken-broth, &c.; as soon as gastric irritability subsides, beef tea
should be given, and on the first sign of exhaustion, nourishment
and stimulants should be resorted to at short intervals. With regard
to the administration of Quinine during exacerbations, Dr. Maclean is
of opinion that in the adynamic forms of fever, as met with in some
parts of India, and in neglected or mismanaged cases, where
depletion has been carried too far, and the fever assumes more of a
low continued type, it may be given at any period irrespective of
remission. Here it requires to be conjoined with the assiduous use of
support and stimulants at short intervals.
As a preventive of Malarious Fever, the power and value of
Quinine have been proved beyond a doubt. Every person engaged in
forests, swamps, or low, malarious sites, should be provided with a
stock of it, and four grains of it in a cup of hot coffee should be
taken the first thing in the morning or in a glassful of wine later in
the day. Even if it should fail, which it rarely does, no harm can
result from its use, and it is essential that it should be continued for
at least fourteen days after quitting a malarious locality.

Fits. See Convulsions, and Hysterical Affections.

Flatulence, and Flatulent Colic. Give Omum Water (318*),

Lemon Grass Oil (216), infusion of Ginger (155), or of Jatamansi
(184); with Mustard Poultices (251) and Turpentine Stupes (362)
externally; in severe cases an enema of Asafœtida (36) will generally
afford relief. See also Bowels, Spasmodic Affections of. Of Children,
see Colic.

Gall Stones. To allay the severe pain attendant on passing, give

Opium (284) and a Hip Bath (392).

Genital Organs, Great Irritation of. Try Camphor (72)

internally (in these cases Bromide of Potassium, in doses of eight to
ten grains dissolved in water, twice or thrice daily, is well worthy of a
trial, especially in females) and use Borax (57) and Lime Water (224)
locally. Sitting over the steam of hot water, or a tepid hip-bath, often
affords great relief. When the irritation arises, as it often does, from
worms in the intestines, give some of the remedies for Worms. Crab-
lice, which are very difficult to distinguish on a dark skin, are also a
frequent cause; if present, use Kerosene Oil (413), or other remedy
named in Art. Lice.

Glands, Enlarged. Apply externally, in the early stages, Sal

Ammoniac Lotion (332), Betel Leaves (48), Camphor Liniment (68),
or Opium Liniment (291). If matter forms, treat as abscess, and give
Fish Liver Oil internally.

Gleet. May be treated with Cubebs (125), Galls (149), Gurjun

Balsam (160), or Sandal Wood Oil (334) internally, and Alum
Injections (30); these last named, however, require great caution,
and should not generally be used except under medical supervision.

Goitre. Give Sal Ammoniac (324), in ten-grain doses, thrice

daily, persevering in its use for weeks or months if necessary. Dr.
Stevens (London Med. Record, June 15, 1880) obtained signal
benefits from it in six cases. Biniodide of Mercury, in the form of
Ointment (16 grains of the Biniodide to one ounce of Simple
Ointment), is the best local application we possess. Its effects are
best produced by exposing the surface on which it has been rubbed
to the direct rays of the sun. If this cannot be done, then to the heat
of a fire; this, however, is not nearly so efficacious as the solar heat.
(Dr. Aitchison.)

Gonorrhœa. After a purgative of Kaladana (187), Myrobalans

(256), or Castor Oil (83), give Nitre (269) with Decoction of
Abelmoschus (2), Ispaghúl (305), or Rice Conjee (322), for the
purpose of allaying the pain and heat in passing urine. Pedalium
(297) is said to be very effectual for this purpose, and should be
tried if procurable. Injections of a solution of Sugar (407) are
recommended by Dr. Aitchison. When the inflammatory symptoms
begin to abate, one of the following should be given: Cubebs (125*),
Gurjun Balsam (160), Sandal Wood Oil (334), or Galls (149), Alum
(30*), locally, is of great use in certain cases. To relieve Chordee
(painful erection at night), Camphor (72) is one of our best
remedies. Bromide of Potassium, in doses of 20 to 30 grains, in a
wineglassful of water at bedtime, is highly spoken of, as preventing
the occurrence of this symptom.

Guinea Worm. On the head of the worm appearing, it should

be gently drawn down so as to secure it by rolling it round a small
piece of twisted rag, or a thin piece of quill (let a native practitioner
perform this operation); and Water Dressing (394) applied, or should
there be much pain, a Datura Poultice (132). Every day gentle
traction should be made, and if this can be done whilst the limb or
part is immersed in a running stream or in a chattie of cold water,
the extraction is rendered additionally easy. Great gentleness and
skill are requisite to prevent the worm breaking, as this accident is
followed by inflammation and the formation of abscesses, which are
difficult of healing. See Abscess.

Gums, Ulceration and Sponginess of. May be treated with

one of the following:—Decoction of Babúl Bark (9), Alum (29*),
Catechu (89*), or Lime Juice (231).

Hæmorrhage from Cuts, Wounds, &c. When the blood is of

a bright red colour, and comes out in jets, indicating that an artery is
wounded, apply first a stream of cold water, iced if possible, from a
large sponge, which will not only wash away all clots, dirt, &c., but
promote contraction of the vessel, and perhaps arrest the bleeding
at once. If not, try the fresh juice of the Physic Nut Plant (302*), or
Alum (25). If these fail, or are not at hand, at once apply pressure
with the finger or fingers upon the exact point from which the blood
is found to issue, and there retain for some time, pressing against
the bone or hard substance. If the mouth of the bleeding vessel be
clearly visible, and the hæmorrhage still continues, it may be
pinched up firmly between the finger and thumb, or it may be seized
with a pair of pincers or forceps, drawn forward, and a ligature, silk
if procurable, passed round it and firmly tied. Not more of the
surrounding flesh should be included in the ligature than can be
possibly avoided. If none of these plans succeed or are applicable, or
if the wound be large and bleeds much, apply pressure to the limb
by means of the STICK TOURNIQUET figured below.[2]

In order to apply this properly, "tie tightly, at some little distance

above the wound, a pocket-handkerchief or cravat once or twice
passed round the limb; then, obtaining a piece of tough stick, push it
under the handkerchief, and, by turning the stick, twist the
handkerchief more and more tightly until the bleeding ceases. As
soon as this result has been attained, fasten the stick by another
handkerchief round the stick and limb together. This rude tourniquet
may save life not unfrequently, by enabling the injured person to be
transported even for some distance without fear of further bleeding."
Position is a very important consideration in wounds, the bleeding