Introduction To Communication Research 3rd

Edition John C Reinard download

https://ebookbell.com/product/introduction-to-communication-
research-3rd-edition-john-c-reinard-47854256

Explore and download more ebooks at ebookbell.com

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

Media And Communication Research Methods An Introduction To

Qualitative And Quantitative Approaches 4 Berger

https://ebookbell.com/product/media-and-communication-research-
methods-an-introduction-to-qualitative-and-quantitative-
approaches-4-berger-10123566

Ux Research Methods For Media And Communication Studies An

Introduction To Contemporary Qualitative Methods Angela M Cirucci

https://ebookbell.com/product/ux-research-methods-for-media-and-
communication-studies-an-introduction-to-contemporary-qualitative-
methods-angela-m-cirucci-37244620

Introduction To Communication Disorders A Lifespan Evidencebased

Perspective The Pearson Communication Sciences And Disorders Series
6th Edition Robert Owens

https://ebookbell.com/product/introduction-to-communication-disorders-
a-lifespan-evidencebased-perspective-the-pearson-communication-
sciences-and-disorders-series-6th-edition-robert-owens-52220612

Introduction To Communication Systems Upamanyu Madhow

https://ebookbell.com/product/introduction-to-communication-systems-
upamanyu-madhow-54057728
Introduction To Communication Disorders A Lifespan Evidencebased
Perspective Fifth Edition Jr

https://ebookbell.com/product/introduction-to-communication-disorders-
a-lifespan-evidencebased-perspective-fifth-edition-jr-21354932

Introduction To Communication Electronic Warfare Systems 2nd Edition

Richard Poisel

https://ebookbell.com/product/introduction-to-communication-
electronic-warfare-systems-2nd-edition-richard-poisel-4568694

Introduction To Communication Disorders A Lifespan Evidencebased

Perspective 5th Global Robert E Owens

https://ebookbell.com/product/introduction-to-communication-disorders-
a-lifespan-evidencebased-perspective-5th-global-robert-e-owens-7110722

Introduction To Communication Sciences And Disorders The Scientific

Basis Of Clinical Practice Gary Weismer Professor Of Audiology David K
Brown

https://ebookbell.com/product/introduction-to-communication-sciences-
and-disorders-the-scientific-basis-of-clinical-practice-gary-weismer-
professor-of-audiology-david-k-brown-11045458

Introduction To Communication Electronic Warfare Systems Richard A

Poisel

https://ebookbell.com/product/introduction-to-communication-
electronic-warfare-systems-richard-a-poisel-1128854
 cJuttO^UCttOH

John C. Reinard o m m upucatio vi

Introduction to Communication Research
Third Edition

John Reinard

Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA Madison, Wl New York San Francisco St. Louis
Bangkok Bogota Caracas Lisbon London Madrid
Mexico City Milan New Delhi Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto
McGraw-Hill Higher Education g?
A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies

Netscape Communications has not authorized, sponsored, endorsed, or approved this publication and is not responsible for its con¬
tent.

SPSS and SPSS 10.0 are trademarks of SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois. Microsoft, Microsoft Excel, Excel 2000, and Windows are
registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation.

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, NY, 10020. Copyright © 2001, 1998, 1994, by The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed
in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written
consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or
other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries,
including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United
States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1234567890 DOC/COD 09876543210

ISBN 0072358696

Editorial director: Phillip A. Butcher

Senior sponsoring editor: Nanette Kauffman
Developmental editor: Jennie Katsaros
Marketing manager: Kelly M. May
Project manager: Laura Ward Majersky
Production supervisor: Rose Hepburn
Freelance design coordinator: Laurie J. Entringer
Supplemental coordinator: Carol A. Bielski
Media technology producer: Kimberly Gundling
Cover photograph: ©Photodisc
Compositor: Carlisle Communications, Ltd.
Typeface: 10/12 Times Roman
Printer: R. R. Donnelley & Sons Company

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Reinard, John C.
Introduction to communication research / John Reinard.—3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-07-235869-6(pbk.:alk.paper)
1. Communication—Research—Methodology. I. Title.

P91.3 .R3802001
302.0'07'2—dc21 00-036058

www.mhhe.com
For my mother, Billie Erich
CONTENTS

Preface Constructing Problem Statements 36

Using Hypotheses 36
Using Hypotheses to Test
PART I INTRODUCTION
Explanations 39
TO THE FIELD
A Note on Hypothesis in Qualitative
Studies 39
1 The Role of Research in Requirements of Hypotheses 40
Communication 3 Constructing Sound Hypotheses 41
What Is Research in Communication? 3 Types of Hypotheses in Quantitative
Studies 43
Research 3
Identifying Variables in Hypotheses and
Communication Research 4
The Challenges of Communication Problems 44
Isolating Variables in Hypotheses 44
Research 6
The Challenge of Breadth and Focus 6 Independent Variables 45
Dependent Variables 45
The Multiple Methods Challenge 6
The Scholarly Rigor Challenge 12
The Personal Challenge, or What Do I
Need to Do to Study Communication PART II UNDERSTANDING RUDIMENTS OF
Research Methods Successfully? 12 RESEARCH REASONING 49
The Ethical Challenge 14
The Structure of the Field Challenge 14
3 Conceptualizations in
2 Communication Research Problems Communication Research 51
and Hypotheses 30 Developing Theoretic Conceptualizations in
Qualities of Research Problems 30 Communication 51
Useful Problem Statements 31 Is Communication “Scientific” Enough to
Criteria for Sound Problem Have Theories? 52
Statements 32 Anatomy of Theories 54

v
vi Contents

Functions of Theory 5 8 Rationale for Hypotheses 121

Applications of Theory 59 Method 121
Developing Definitions for Concepts 63 Results 126
Using Conceptual Definitions 63 Discussion 126
Using Operational Definitions 67 Conclusion 126
References 126
4 Using Communication Research Writing Scholarship 126
Sources 75 Using Proper Formats and
Approaching Research Materials 75 Subdivisions 129
The “Why?” Research Uses Past Work to Matters of Style 129
Develop Arguments 76 Writing Classroom Reports 132
The “What?” Purposeful Library Strategies for a Definitional Criticism
Research—Information to Get 76 Paper 133
The “When?” Guiding Yourself with a Strategies for the Literature Review 134
Research Outline 83 Research Prospectus 137
The “How?” Managing Research Checking on the Research Argument 140
Materials 84 Checking on the Quality of Research
Techniques for Bibliographic Evidence 140
Research 84 Checking on the Adequacy of Research
The Library Research Strategies 86 Reasoning 144
The “Where?” The Key Library
Tools 89
PART III DESIGN OF RESEARCH 157
Hierarchical Systems for Books and
Collections 89
Keyword-Based Systems 93 6 Conducting Textual and Content
Using the Library 101 Analyses 159
Conducting the Library Session 101
Analysis of Message Qualities 159
Troubleshooting in the Library 104
What Are the Data in Textual and Content
Using the Internet 107
Analysis? 160
Elements of the Internet 107
When Do We Complete Textual Criticism
Conducting an Internet Session 108
and Content Analyses? 160
Surfing the Internet for Research
Qualitative Analysis: Critical Studies
Information 111
of Texts 161
Using Search Engines 112
Neo-Aristotelian Criticism 163
5 Composing the Communication Burke’s Dramatistic Criticism 164
Fisher’s Narrative Paradigm 167
Argument: The Reasoning and the
The Never Ending Development of Critical
Evidence 118 Methods 168
Construction of the Articles You Will Read
Quantitative Analysis 169
and Review 119
Content Analysis 169
Title 119
Interaction and Relational Analyses 174
Abstract 119
Introduction and Context of the Problem 7 Participant Observation
Justification 119 Research 183
Statement of the Problem 120 Role of Participant Observation Studies in
Review of Literature 121 Communication Research 183
 Contents vii

The Purposes of Participant Observation Training and Controlling Behavior of

Methods 184 Interviewers 239
Suitability of Participant Observation Determining Reliability and
Methods to Research Questions 185 Validity 240
Forms of Participant Observation Sampling Subjects 240
Studies 186 Analyzing and Interpreting Results 242
The Position of the Observer 186 The Focus Group Survey 242
Ethnography 190 The Focus Group Method 243
The Fluid Process of Participant Observation Focus Group Advantages 245
Study 190 Focus Group Disadvantages 246
Steps in Participant Observation 192 Network Analysis 246
Limitations of the Approach 194 Traditional Network Analysis 247
Network Analysis beyond
the Traditional 250
8 Measurement in Communication
Limitations of Network Analysis 252
Research 198
The Role of Sound Measurement in
Communication Research 198 10 Design of Experimental Research in
Measurement as a Foundation for Communication 256
Research 199 The Notion of an Experiment 256
Levels of Measurement 199 Questions and Hypotheses in Experimental
Characteristics of Operational Definitions and Designs 257
Measures 201 The Concept of Control 259
The Requirement of Reliability 202 Experimental Validity and Invalidity 261
The Requirement of Validity 205 Internal Invalidity 261
Popular Approaches and Tools in External Invalidity 262
Communication Studies 210 Specific Experimental Designs 263
Using Existing Measures 210 Notation for Experimental Designs 263
Composing Measures 212 Preexperimental Designs 265
Popular Methods for Measurement 213 True Experimental Designs 265
Factorial Designs 267
9 Design of Descriptive Empirical Some Elements Found in Good
Experiments 273
Research in Communication 224
The Pilot Test 273
Invitations to Empirical Research in
Manipulation Checks 273
Communication 224
Care in Interpretation 275
Survey Research 225
The Questionnaire Survey 226
Selecting Questions and Providing 11 Sampling 279
Instructions 226 The Role of Sampling in Quantitative
Formatting 230 Research 279
Determining Reliability and Validity 235 Relating Sampling to Other Concepts 279
Sampling Subjects 236 Defining the Population 280
Administering the Questionnaire 236 Eliminating Bias 281
Analyzing and Interpreting Results 236 Essentials of Sampling 281
The Interview Survey 238 Representative Sampling: The Goal of
Selecting Questions 238 Effective Sampling 281
viii Contents

Sample Size 281 Comparisons of Two Means: The t Test 341

Statistical Effects of Small Samples 285 Forms of the t Test 343
Forms of Sampling 287 Determining Effect Sizes 349
Random Sampling 287
Nonrandom Sampling 292
14 Inferential Statistics II: Beyond Two
Dealing with Sampling Problems 295 Means 354
Subject Refusal to Participate 295 Selecting an Appropriate Statistical Test 354
Evidence of Randomization in Research Comparisons of More Than Two Means:
Articles 297 Analysis of Variance 356
One-Way Analysis of Variance 357
What to Do after Finding Statistical
PART IV STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Significance 360
OF DATA 301 Factorial Analysis of Variance 365
Basic Nonparametric Testing 371
The Nature of Nonparametric Tests: The
12 Descriptive Statistics 303 Randomization Assumption 371
Statistics in Communication Research 303
Tests for Nominal Level Dependent
Measures of Central Tendency 304
Variables 371
Measures of Variability or Dispersion 306
Distributions 309
Appendix A Areas under the
Nonnormal and Skewed
Distributions 309 Standard Normal Curve 381
Standard Normal Distribution 311 Appendix B Critical Values
Measures of Association 316
of t 382
Interpreting Correlations 316
Major Forms of Correlations 318 Appendix C Critical Values of
F with Alpha Risk = .05 383
13 Introductory Inferential Statistics I:
Hypothesis Testing with Two Appendix D Critical Values of
Means 330 Chi Square 384
Using Probability Distributions to Play the Appendix E Using Computers to
Odds 330
Analyze Data: SPSS 385
Using the Statistics of Probability and
Inference 331 Appendix F Using Computers to
Using Probability Distributions 331 Analyze Data: Excel 414
Reasoning in Statistical Hypothesis
Testing 333 Glossary 432
Determining Statistical Hypotheses 333 References 445
Decisions in Testing Statistical
Hypotheses 334 Name Index 458
The Process of Examining Statistical Subject Index 461
Hypotheses 339
PREFACE

In the preface to the first edition of this book, I wrote: in the availability of electronic resources (informa¬
tion, mostly, rather than wisdom), this concern for
Research is not library work. sound reasoning in research may be more important
Nor is it statistics. than ever. The major task in learning research meth¬
Nor is it field observation. ods involves developing skills to help us sift through
Research is an argument. In particular, the available “information morass” so that we can
communication research is a process by which we
make reasoned claims based on data. Solid research
answer questions and try to draw conclusions from
has topoi, or lines of argument, that are expected for
information gathered about message-related behavior.
different sorts of claims to be made legitimately. Stu¬
When the second edition of this book was published, it dents need to know how to evaluate these topoi and
seemed that the field was faced with a new challenge how to construct them. This concern is shared by
of using electronic sources as a means to publish ma¬ many fields in modem colleges and universities, and
terials and sell goods. Yet, by the time discussions were it is central in the study of communication research
under way about this third edition, the needs of stu¬ methods.
dents of communication research methods had shifted The purpose of this introductory volume is to
in two ways. First, the use of electronic materials had provide information on the tools of scholarship (li¬
moved from use of the World Wide Web as a publish¬ braries, statistics, and fieldwork) to help students
ing venue alone to use of the Web as an educational learn ways to find and assess high-quality evidence.
tool, complete with instruction and assessment. Sec¬ This book attempts to train students to gather re¬
ond, the field had continued to refine and develop search evidence, develop research arguments, and
methods, particularly in such areas as network analy¬ think critically about them. In short, this book is de¬
sis, focus group studies, and methods of textual analy¬ signed to teach students how to “do scholarship,”
sis. This edition reflects those changes. make reasoned cases, and offer research conclusions.
Even so, a great constant of communication re¬ Whereas the previous editions of this book
search remains: it is still sound argument. It draws represented the product of many years of experi¬
conclusions based on evidence and valid reasoning. mentation with these instructional materials, the
Furthermore, the craft of research is merciless on third edition benefits from the formal feedback of
shoddy thinking and insufficient attention to examin¬ instructors and students, who praised the book’s
ing evidence for conclusions. Indeed, with the growth student-friendly approach and paid the author the
x Preface

compliment of recommending further refinements communication research classes. Even so, issues of
in the book’s structure and coverage of concepts, theory, definitions, and conceptual foundations of re¬
especially relating to new technology and advances search remain early in the book. Two previously sep¬
in particular methods. arate chapters on composing research and evaluating
Those familiar with the previous edition will research arguments and evidence have been com¬
note some changes in this book. First, it is now part bined. Thus, the number of chapters now is 14—a
of a package that includes the textbook, student as¬ number that should help instructors present material
signments and activities, and a highly interactive with some scheduling flexibility.
website. The website contains new student learning Several elements of the textbook have been im¬
materials in several areas: proved. The discussion of ethics now includes a Na¬
tional Communication Association Credo for Ethical
• A handbook on writing and usage and sam¬ Conduct, and its applications for communication re¬
ple papers search are developed. Materials on network analysis
• A guide to APA style
have been enhanced to describe the traditional and
• Data files in both SPSS and Excel formats
nontraditional uses of this powerful communication
for student assignments and project work
method. Scores of examples have been updated, and
• Interactive study guide quizzes for each
many examples unlikely to be in the experience of
chapter providing immediate feedback to the
students have been replaced. The material on elec¬
student
tronic communication resources has been completely
• Supplemental discussion and exercises
revised in light of the great changes that have affected
• Links to other electronic sites relevant to the
the field during the last few years. New library and
chapter content
“electronic library” resources unimaginable in the
Second, the end of each chapter now contains past are items of everyday experience to modem stu¬
detailed materials for students, including provocative dents. Perhaps one of the most exciting influences on
“Just for the Sake of Argument” review questions de¬ students has been the advent of the Internet. This
signed to stimulate thought and concern over issues book takes the time to expose students to this “infor¬
raised in the chapter. In addition, students will find a mation superhighway” and to show them practical
set of “Activities to Probe Further,” which include ways to use the Internet to enrich their research ef¬
hands-on projects and instructor-tested exercises. forts. This section has been revised, and the develop¬
Third, the book now includes extended materi¬ ment of megasearch engines has not been ignored.
als on analysis of data using SPSS and Excel across Though most students are now computer literate, this
chapters on measurement and statistics. Since stu¬ book provides useful background and includes infor¬
dents must often play catch-up in learning such ma¬ mation to give students practical tools to help them
terials, two appendixes are provided on methods to master this new set of resources.
analyze statistics using Excel 2000 and SPSS 10.0. Many things that teachers and students have
Given the difficulty in presenting proposals and ex¬ found praiseworthy about this book remain. First and
ecuting studies, actual research data sets are made foremost, this book is designed to meet student
available to students. These materials include web- needs, not to impress professors. This book is written
supported files for downloading and projects for for—and to—students who are taking their first
completion outside of class. course in research methods, typically on the sopho¬
Fourth, some reorganization has been made to more or junior level. By the end of the academic term,
help the textbook meet the needs of students and fac¬ students should know how to do a few things.
ulty alike. The chapter on measurement of variables
has been moved to a location in the book most com¬ • Students should know how to present and
patible with the typical instructional schedule for evaluate a research argument. Since most
 Preface xi

classes that follow the research methods • Highlights key terms in boldface the first
course require research-based writing by the time they appear;
students, they need to know how to complete • Relies on tables when they may reduce oth¬
the process of drawing conclusions and mak¬ erwise extended text discussions;
ing arguments from the literature. • Concludes with a summary that is an actual
• Students should know how to deal with the and detailed chapter synopsis, which stu¬
brass tacks of research: how to isolate a prob¬ dents will find very helpful when reviewing
lem statement, how to distinguish independent for examinations.
and dependent variables, how to criticize and
evaluate definitions, how to define theories and In addition, a glossary is included to help students de¬
know why they are important, how to use the fine critical terms swiftly.
library and electronic resources, how to apply This textbook is divided into four parts that
methods of sound research and standards for correspond to the major units successfully taught in
evaluating and proposing worthwhile studies, introductory communication research methods
how to compose scholarship, how to collect courses. The first part introduces the field of commu¬
data and execute a rudimentary but logical de¬ nication as a research area. Students are guided
sign, and how to analyze simple data. through Chapters 1 and 2, which introduce commu¬
nication research as a distinct form and then review
Second, to avoid overwhelming students with the issues involved in composing communication re¬
detailed elements of each methodological twist in com¬ search problems, using hypotheses, and isolating
munication research, this textbook spends time teach¬ types of variables.
ing the “survival skills” that students need to know, The second part of the textbook deals with un¬
supplemented with clearly identified enrichment infor¬ derstanding the rudiments of research reasoning. It
mation labeled as “Special Discussions.” These discus¬ begins with Chapter 3 concerning conceptualizations
sions range from such things as ways of knowing to the in communication research including use of theory
confidence interval/significance testing debate. and definitions. Chapter 4 discusses the use of com¬
Third, this book uses research examples from munication research sources and focuses on library
the broad range of communication studies. Since research skills, strategies, and using the Internet. This
communication research courses serve students from chapter emphasizes hands-on skills that students
several communication areas—including speech need almost immediately. Chapter 5 emphasizes a
communication, journalism, telecommunications, point of view for the book by addressing methods to
public relations, and speech and hearing science— compose communication research, including under¬
examples from all these areas are deliberately in¬ standing the anatomy of a research article, mechanics
cluded in discussions of content. of writing different forms of scholarly and classroom
Fourth, to assist students, the textbook format reports, evaluating the logic of the research argu¬
is designed to promote efficient study and review. ment, and ways to evaluate research and evidence.
Each chapter The third part of the book focuses on the design
of research for both qualitative and quantitative stud¬
• Starts with an outline of all major topics; ies (though most of the space is spent on quantitative
• Begins with an orienting paragraph to de¬ methods since neophyte students tend to be least
scribe the thrust of the chapter; conversant with these tools). The primary task in this
• Ends with a list of key terms to review when part lies in presenting essential materials that stu¬
studying the chapter; dents need to know most, without ignoring other
• Includes margin notes to point out important unique applications that have invigorated the field.
concepts covered in the text; Six chapters are dedicated to these research building
xii Preface

blocks. Chapters 6 and 7 deal with conducting textual dents of introductory research methods courses for
analyses of messages and undertaking participant ob¬ more than a decade deserve thanks since this book
servation studies. Chapter 8 describes measurement and workbook reflect the product of experimenting
in communication so that students understand the with them to find ways to teach this course most ef¬
transition from conceptualization to operationaliza¬ fectively. I am very grateful to the scholars and teach¬
tion in research. Chapters 9 and 10 focus on design¬ ers who reviewed drafts of this work and provided in¬
ing descriptive empirical research (including ques¬ valuable advice and support for the direction of this
tionnaire and interview studies) and conducting project:
experimental studies. The remaining chapter (Chap¬ These individuals offered invaluable insights
ter 11) involves sampling in communication re¬ in preparing this third edition, in addition to those
search. In each case, examples across the broad realm who gave expert criticism and advice on previous
of communication studies are covered. versions—James A. Danowski of the University of
The fourth part of the book concerns the statis¬ Illinois at Chicago, Diane Fumo-Lamude of the Uni¬
tical analysis of data. The individual chapters involve versity of New Mexico, Len Shyles of Villanova
traditional topics of such an introductory treatment. University, B. Scott Titsworth of the University of
Chapter 12 addresses beginning descriptive and cor¬ Nebraska, Lincoln, Samuel P. Wallace of the Uni¬
relational statistics. Chapter 13 introduces the logic versity of Dayton, Sharmila Pixy Ferris of William
of statistical hypothesis testing and applies it to the Patterson College, Susan Holton of Bridgewater
case of comparisons between two means. The final State College, Rebecca Ann Lind of the University
chapter (Chapter 14) extends significance testing to of Illinois at Chicago, John D. Bee of the University
cases that go beyond two means, including analysis of Akron, Judith Dallinger of Western Illinois State,
of variance and chi square tests. In this final chapter, Lyle Flint of Ball State University, William J.
special discussions include “survival guide” intro¬ Schenck-Hamlin of Kansas State University, and Judy
ductions to advanced statistics, which students may R. Sims of the University of Wisconsin at Eau Claire.
read but should not be expected to use in the intro¬ I wish to thank the staff at McGraw-Hill including
ductory course. Marge Byers and Jennie Katsaros, who offered both
Many people helped me develop this work. My vision and indefatigable energies in shepherding this
sincere thanks must go to my own teachers of re¬ project to completion and gave their wise counsel and
search methods. These teachers included not only assistance to create this third edition. Finally I wish to
those who provided instruction in empirical methods thank my family. Without their willingness to permit
but those who directed my studies in rhetorical the¬ my dedication of many hours, it would not have been
ory, argumentation, and qualitative methods. My stu¬ possible to complete this volume.
 PART

Introduction to the Field

The Role of Research in Communication

Communication Research Problems and Hypotheses

(

'

.
 CHAPTER 1

The Role of Research in

Communication
If politics is the art of the possible, research is surely the art of the soluble.
—Sir Peter Medawar

WHAT IS RESEARCH IN The Scholarly Rigor Challenge

COMMUNICATION? The Personal Challenge, or What Do I
Research Need to Do to Study
Communication Research Communication Research Methods
THE CHALLENGES OF Successfully?
COMMUNICATION RESEARCH The Ethical Challenge
The Challenge of Breadth and Focus The Structure of the Field Challenge
The Multiple Methods Challenge

BEFORE WE GET STARTED ...

Welcome to communication research! Though you may be skeptical, “doing” commu¬
nication scholarship is an exciting and very enjoyable personal experience. Rather than
just accepting what others tell you, you will learn how scholars (a term that includes you
now) draw conclusions in our field. You will see how research should look so that you
can evaluate the stuff that often gets passed off to us. Along the way, you will learn how
to improve your thinking, your scholarly writing, and your ability to evaluate research
arguments. Getting there can be challenging, but it is well worth the trip. This book does
not assume that you have any background in research methods—just an interest. To get
started, you need to know why you are here and what communication research is. This
chapter is designed to get you moving in the right direction.

WHAT IS RESEARCH IN COMMUNICATION?

A field defines itself by its research. Research determines what content is taught in
courses, the social contribution the field makes, and the sort of publicity an area gets.

Research
Research is the systematic effort to secure answers to questions. These questions are not research defined
mundane ones, such as, Have you seen my keys? or Want to see a movie? Instead, research

3
4 Introduction to the Field

questions deal with issues requiring reference to data1 and information, such as. Did
Patrick Henry deliver the “Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death! speech that is reprinted in
all those anthologies?2 Do women self-disclose private information more often than men
do?3 and Do people who arrive “fashionably late” to parties receive higher credibility rat¬
ings than people who arrive on time?4 Research is not an “ivory tower’ activity by a few
elect scholars. It is a very practical effort to get answers for questions. Research usually re¬
quires examining past inquiry into the issue. We often rely on reports found in libraries to
learn about related work and to avoid repeating past mistakes. Regardless of sources of in¬
formation, all research involves gathering information that goes beyond personal feelings
or hunches alone. We search for some light on the facts of matters when we do research.
basic research Sometimes people distinguish between two types of research. Basic research is
distinguished from completed to leam about relationships among variables, regardless of any immediate
commercial product or service. Most things we call “pure” scientific research fall into
this category. Though researchers hope to make useful contributions, no economic pay¬
applied research offs are imminent. Applied research is completed to develop a product or solve an im¬
mediate practical problem. When communication researchers survey employee attitudes
as part of a consulting contract, the work is considered applied research. Even so, trying
to separate basic and applied research causes problems. Regardless of whether pure or
applied research is involved, the methods of inquiry are identical. Furthermore, last
year’s basic research may be today’s source of new products. Work that started to find
out how to store information in digital form now is the basis for patents on satellite trans¬
mission of television signals. Though the terms have their place, for our purposes, it is
enough to know that good research can be basic or applied.

Communication Research
Regrettably, some people have difficulty separating communication research from work
in psychology, sociology, or literature. They figure that since “meanings are in people”
(Berio, 1960, p. 175), any study of people is communication research. Straightening out
this exaggerated view has taken a little work. In 1968 a group of communication schol¬
communication ars met in New Orleans under a grant from the National Science Foundation to wrestle
research defined in with the basic issues of distinguishing communication research and instruction. They
New Orleans concluded that “research in speech-communication focuses on the ways in which mes¬
conference sages link participants during interactions” (Kibler & Barker, 1969, p. 33). The scope of
our research area was clear. Other fields may study personality traits, trends in society,
medicine, or the beauty of poetry. Yet, communication research is a specialty that stud¬
ies message-related behavior.

1 Let’s get something straight right now. The word “data” is plural. Thus, we have to say “data are" and “data
were," not “data is" and “data was." A single piece of data is called a datum, but people do not use that word
very often. Instead they refer to a datum as “a piece of data,” a usage that sounds natural to most people.
2 He didn’t. Though Henry said “Give me liberty or give me death," the text of the often reprinted “speech"
was written by his biographer, William Wirt.
3 They do.
4 We don’t know.
 The Role of Research in Communication 5

SPECIAL DISCUSSION 1-1

Behavior of Researchers

It is possible to overstate the matter, but there is a set of norms—almost a culture—

that distinguishes most people who do research. In his book Foundations of Be¬
havioral Research, Fred Kerlinger described these characteristics:

Universal ism: Scientific laws are the same everywhere. A scientific law states a re¬
lation between phenomena that is invariable under the same conditions.

Organized skepticism: Researchers are responsible for verifying the results on

which they base their work. [Researchers do not accept claims blindly. They ques¬
tion research claims and offer criticism for each other.]

Communality: Researchers are willing to share knowledge freely and contribute to

public knowledge.

Disinterestedness: Researchers must ban ulterior motives and be relatively free

from bias. Any known or possible biases must not be admitted. [“Disinterested”
does not mean “uninterested”: it only means that one can be impartial because one
does not have a financial or personal stake in the outcome. Certainly, researchers
do not study matters without passion. They care. But they must be willing to let their
conclusions be influenced by the data and by the data only. If a researcher receives
a grant from sponsors who specify the results they wish the researcher to find, the
researcher loses the “disinterest” that separates research from ordinary pander¬
ing.] (Kerlinger, 1986, p. 9)

Communication might be defined as “the process by which participants trans¬ communication

act and assign meaning to messages” (Reinard, 1991, p. 4). You may have been asked studies message-
by a relative or acquaintance what your major is. When you have told them “com¬ related behavior as
munication,” you might have received a puzzled expression in response. Unless you a specialty
explain things, they may have thought you were learning to install telephones. Next
time you might tell them that you are training to be a “message specialist” or “mes¬
sage scientist.” You may also explain that your concentration in communication pre¬
pares you in a specific area of communication. To be clear, you need to explain that
a message is the set of verbal and nonverbal cues communicators exchange. Verbal messages are
cues are the words people use in communication. Sometimes people confuse “ver¬ composed of:
bal” cues with “spoken” cues (as in the phrase verbal agreement). Yet, spoken cues 1. verbal cues
are called “oral cues” (from the orifice, or mouth). Nonverbal cues are communica¬ 2. nonverbal cues
tion elements beyond the words themselves. Variations in voice, facial expression,
gesture, movement, touch, timing, physical closeness, media treatments, and format
are all nonverbal cues. Taken together, these verbal and nonverbal cues provide plenty
for us to study.
6 Introduction to the Field

THE CHALLENGES OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

Communication covers a broad set of topics, and no single research method is embraced
by the field. To study communication—even its specialties of journalism and speech and
hearing science—we must have very broad knowledge. This breadth will challenge you
and invite you to enter the field to make contributions.

The Challenge of Breadth and Focus

communication The number of communication applications can seem enormous, but there really is a ra¬
covers a wide scope tional order to it. James H. McBath and Robert C. Jeffrey (1978), were asked to identify
of topics the professional areas in communication on behalf of the Speech Communication Asso¬
ciation and the National Center For Educational Statistics, which were trying to organ¬
ize information about careers in many fields. The list of communication specialties used
by the NCES is shown in Table LI. The left column shows the official taxonomy with
an emphasis on the career areas of scholars.5 In the column to the right you will see some
of the sorts of research issues that are addressed in each of these areas. As you can tell,
each area is broad enough to promote many interesting studies.

The Multiple Methods Challenge

communication uses In studying literature, qualitative methods most often are used. In history, the historical
both qualitative and method is employed. In psychology, the experiment holds a prominent position. Yet,
quantitative methods communication researchers use all these methods to answer questions. Thus, modem
students are exposed to many methods. Though single studies may use multiple meth¬
ods, for the most part, a piece of research tends to rely on qualitative or quantitative
methods.6

Qualitative Methods
qualitative methods Qualitative methods describe observations in predominantly nonnumerical terms. Of
defined course, qualitative methods sometimes make passing reference to statistics (as when TV
critics refer to the Nielsen ratings of various programs), but statistics are largely sec¬
ondary to the attempt to answer research questions. Table 1.2 lists some chief types of
qualitative methods.
approach of There is more to qualitative methods than the type of data alone—though the type
qualitative research of data plays a very big part. Most qualitative research in our field tends to describe or
methods: description interpret communication exchanges. These studies try to describe the human condition
and interpretation by using general views of social action. They may critique communication by relying on
standards from a body of existing theory. Researchers who use qualitative methods

Well, almost. A couple ot areas have been added here, including conflict management, journalism, radio
and television, public relations, family communication, health communication, and communication and the
law. In the original effort, mass communication careers already were distinguished from other careers in
communication.
6 Reasonable people differ on the classification of some of these types of studies. Many scholars like to dis¬
tinguish rhetorical/critical studies from the sorts of qualitative studies often done by field researchers. Though
that view has justification, the introduction to different methods provided in this book represents a mainstream
view that you are likely to find others using.
 The Role of Research in Communication 7

TABLE 1.1 Communication Specialties

COMMUNICATION TAXONOMY DESCRIPTION

(MCBATH & JEFFREY, 1978) (CRAWFORD, 1980, WITH PERMISSION)

1. The Broad Areas of Mass Media

Communication:
Advertising The study of mass media methods of influence to promote a product, service, or
cause
Communication Technology The study of the mechanisms and technologies of mass media
Communication Policy The study of public policy and regulation of mass media communication and
freedom of speech
Film as Communication The role of popular and technical cinema in society
Journalism The study of the methods of reporting and organizing news for presentation in print
media
Public Relations The study of methods of managing publicity and press relations for an
organization, person, or cause
Radio The study of the methods and uses of radio
Television The study of the methods and uses of televised communication
2. Specific Areas of Speech
Communication Research:
Code Systems The study of the uses of verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs in human
communication
Intercultural Communication The study of communication among individuals of different cultural backgrounds
Interpersonal Communication The study of communication interactions occurring in person-to-person and small
group situations
Conflict Management The study of the role of communication in the creation and control of conflict
Family Communication The study of communication transactions within the constraints of families of all
sorts
Organizational Communication The study of interrelated behaviors, technologies, and systems functioning within
an organization
Health Communication The study of communication issues among participants involved in medical and
health systems
Oral Interpretation The study of literature through performance involving the development of skilled
verbal and nonverbal expression based on critical analysis of written texts
(aesthetics of literature in performance, criticism of literature in performance, group
performance, oral traditions)
Pragmatic Communication The study and practice of communication, the object of which is to influence or
facilitate decision making
Argumentation The study of reason-giving behavior
Debate The study of decision making in which adversaries present arguments for decision
by a third party
Discussion and Conference The study of methods of decision making in which participants strive to discuss,
(including Group Decision explore, and make decisions on issues
Making)
8 Introduction to the Field

TABLE 1.1—Continued

COMMUNICATION TAXONOMY DESCRIPTION

Parliamentary Procedure The study of the means used to handle deliberation in large legislative bodies
through the use of formal rules and procedures to regulate debate and discussion
Persuasion The study of the methods used to influence the choices made by others
Communication and the Law The study of communication issues involved in the legal system and the practice of
law
Public Address The study of speakers and speeches, including the historical and social context of
platforms, campaigns, and movements
Rhetorical and Communication The study of the principles that account for human communicative experiences and
Theory behavior
Communication Education The study of communication in pedagogical contexts (communication development,
oral communication skills, instructional communication)
Speech and Hearing Science The study of the physiology and acoustical aspects of speech and hearing
(biological aspects of speech and hearing, phonological aspects of speech and
hearing, physiological aspects of speech and hearing)

often try to interpret the meanings to be found in communication exchanges. They may
look at individual examples of communication research, rather than searching for pat¬
terns that run across individuals. Our language is very broad here, but the differences in
emphasis will become pronounced as we continue.

Quantitative Methods
quantitative methods Some research data are in numbers. In fact, quantitative research methods are in¬
defined quiries in which observations are expressed predominantly in numerical terms. As
Table 1.3 shows, quantitative research has two major branches: surveys (of all varieties)
and experiments.
approach of Why would researchers in their right minds want to represent the world of com¬
quantitative research munication as a bunch of numbers? Surely there must be something going on other than
methods: explanation a love of numbers by some people. Though the types of data distinguish these methods
and prediction from qualitative tools, the research issues probed also tend to be different. Quantitative
research tends to be explanatory, especially when experiments are involved, or it at¬
tempts to use precise statistical models to achieve comprehensive understandings of hu¬
man communication (as in survey studies and polls of public opinion). These methods
often try to explain communication behavior by looking at processes that allow re¬
searchers to predict future behavior, frequently using models of causal processes. Thus,
some research skills quantitative research usually attempts to answer questions about people. Hence, any sta¬
are important tistical tools are means to ends—not ends in themselves. If researchers wish to have pre¬
regardless of the cise explanations that characterize processes, or if they wish to develop methods to study
methods used communication behavior, quantitative research methods are invited. Of course, the re¬
search question guides selection of methods, not the other way around. It is improper to
 The Role of Research in Communication 9

TABLE 1.2 Types of Qualitative Studies

DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

Historical-critical methods: • Studying whether Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address really met with negative
research designed to describe reaction at the time it was delivered
a period, person, or • Studying the actual impact on Americans from Orson Welles’s 1938 “War of
phenomenon for the purpose the Worlds” broadcast.
of interpreting or evaluating
• Studying dominant methods of treating stuttering during the last 200 years
communication and its effects
Criticism:
• Assessing use of argument by Bill Clinton in his presidential debates
• Assessing whether newspaper reports gave politically balanced accounts of
U.S. entry into the Kosovo-Albanian crisis
• Assessing the ethical use of surgery in the treatment of speech-handicapped
patients in the nineteenth century

Qualitative observational studies:

methods designed to use
predominantly attribute-type
data to interpret
contemporaneous
communication interactions
Case studies and interpretive • Investigating the practice of a successful speech therapist to pick up some
studies: intensive inquiries pointers
about single events, people, or • Studying the communication inside a newspaper that is in the process of
social units (interpretive being sold
studies attempt to look for
themes or stories that are
helpful to interpret or
understand the case
Participant observation studies: • Studying the process of news writing for a television station by joining the
inquiries in which the writing staff to report events from the inside
researcher takes the role of an • Investigating the development of public strategy for a political campaign by
active agent in the situation joining a campaign as an active worker who makes observations from within
under study (sometimes may the organization
be used to gather quantitative
data)
Ethnomethodology: originally • Investigating how people react to television by living with an isolated group of
developed by anthropologists people without television and watching their reactions in the days and weeks
to study societies of humans, that follow introduction of televisions
an approach (rather than a • Inquiring into the specialized language of street gang members by moving
rigorous method) in which around with a gang during an extended time period
researchers find an ethnic
group, live within it, and
attempt to develop insight into
the culture; emphasis is on
ordinary behavior, which
participants take for granted, to
find hidden meanings and
unwritten rules people use to
make sense of their world
10 Introduction to the Field

DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

Discourse/conversational • Studying the structure of interpersonal arguments among husbands and

analysis: a method of wives
examining utterances people • Examining judge and attorney communication by looking at the structure of
exchange—for the purpose of their abbreviated exchanges in court
discovering the rules and • Inquiring into children’s speech development by identifying language
strategies people use to competency levels among six-year-old and eight-year-old school children
structure, sequence, and take
turns in speaking—to learn
how people manage their
interactions with others
Creative studies: use of the • Examining the problems of communicating Renaissance poetry to modern
method of performance or audiences by undertaking special performances in oral interpretation to
demonstration to explore an contemporary student audiences
aesthetic or creative • Examining whether a public relations campaign using multimedia news
experience releases is perceived as a suitable way to transmit information by designing
such a campaign directly

decide that you want to be either a quantitative or qualitative researcher. You have to
choose methods to suit research questions.

You and Forms of Research Methods

All research methods require the same basic skills of framing a question, looking in the
library (and the Internet these days), and reasoning to conclusions from data. This book
will start by helping you with these common tasks. The first part introduces the field as
a research area and discusses methods for isolating the research problem (a surprisingly
difficult task, as it turns out!), hypotheses, and the use of theories and definitions. The
second part, “Understanding Rudiments of Research Reasoning,” deals with locating in¬
formation in the library and on the Internet, writing a logical research argument, and
evaluating research evidence and arguments. As you can see, the first two parts of the
book consider topics all researchers must know, regardless of the particular methods they
eventually select to analyze data.
The third part examines the design of research, including participant observation
methods and documentary studies that sometimes are considered qualitative methods
(content and interaction analyses). Empirical methods are dominant in this part of the
book since they reflect the sorts of things that reasonably can be learned in a one-term
course on research methods and they fit some major interests of current communication
advanced studies of students. Other qualitative methods—such as conversation analysis, rhetorical analysis,
applied methods and ethnography—are defined but not covered in depth. Completing such research re¬
require coursework quires that you study sets of underlying theoretic material properly covered in other
beyond the scope of classes. Hence, after taking advanced coursework in linguistics you may demonstrate
the introduction to your skill by completing a conversational analysis. After taking advanced coursework in
research class rhetorical theory you can count on completing rhetorical criticisms. After completing
 The Role of Research in Communication 11

TABLE 1.3 Types of Quantitative Studies

DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

Survey methods: techniques that

involve carefully recorded
observations that provide
quantitative descriptions of
relationships among variables
Descriptive or observational Discovering what sorts of things small-group communicators say that predict
surveys: direct observations of their becoming group leaders
behavior by use of some Identifying the relationship between the number of newspapers a person reads
measurement (the researcher on a regular basis and the amount of fear of society the person reports
does not manipulate or change
any variables)
Content analysis: “a systematic, Studying the amount of violence on children’s television programs
quantitative study of verbally Inquiring into the amount of newspaper space dedicated to stories about the
communicated material (articles, women’s movement
speeches, films) by determining
Analyzing the types of speech defects shown by children in samples of
the frequency of specific ideas,
spontaneous speech
concepts, or terms” (Longman
Dictionary of Psychology and
Psychiatry, 1984, p. 176; used
through courtesy of Walter Glanze
Word Books)
Opinion surveys: assessments of Analyzing surveys regarding which candidate people think won a political debate
reports from individuals about Examining whether the public believes that speech correction therapy should
topics of interest receive increased funding in the public schools
Assessing surveys of the favorite television programs people watch

Experimental methods: a method of Studying the impact of the use of evidence by exposing one group to a speech
studying the effect of variables in with evidence and another group to a speech without evidence
situations where all other Studying the effect of color in advertising by exposing one group to an ad with
influences are held constant. color printing and another group to an ad without color printing
Variables are manipulated or
introduced by experimenters to
see what effect they may have.

work in social interactionism, you may be expected to complete an ethnographic study

(though rarely at the undergraduate level). Each of these methods presumes advanced
study that you must complete elsewhere. This choice is not a judgment about the value
of one method over another (no single method is best for all research questions) but re¬
flects a practical decision to make your learning reasonable.
The final part of this book addresses statistical analysis of data and introduces
some fundamentals of these methods. The common theme throughout this book is that
research is an argument in which scholars (including you) are supposed to employ their
best thinking and available evidence. Both the merit of the data and worth of research
reasoning must be evaluated. Therefore, research requires us to train our minds and our
abilities to express ourselves—as well as to be familiar with tools for inquiry.
12 Introduction to the Field

The Scholarly Rigor Challenge

scholarly rigor: Research must meet standards of excellence. In particular, we must conduct our research
with the recognition of five key challenges (after Tuckman, 1978, pp. 10—12).

1. systematic 1. Research is systematic. Productive research follows steps that carry out some sort of
design. Researchers ask questions and implicitly agree in advance to search for an¬
swers by examining pertinent information. Unexpected results often emerge. The ef¬
serendipity defined fect is called serendipity and refers to finding something valuable while looking for
something else. It seems that systematic researchers stand the best chance of grasp¬
ing the importance of unexpected findings.
2. data driven 2. Research is data driven. Issues that ask us to investigate things that cannot be tested
in this life (e.g., does God exist?) are not matters that we can settle by our research
methods. Furthermore, researchers are supposed to be willing to change their minds
in light of new data. If data cannot be collected, or if we are unwilling to alter our
opinions, the issue is not suitable for research.
3. sound argument 3. Research is a sound argument. Though students sometimes are surprised to learn it,
research actually is a process of advancing arguments. But this statement does not
mean that researchers are just trying to “win over” others with clever appeals. Though
in everyday life people can be persuasive by the force of their styles or personalities,
research arguments reason from research data and information to draw conclusions.
arguments defined Thus, arguments in this context are defined as claims advanced on the basis of rea¬
soning from evidence. Sound reasoning is vital for effective research. Flippant or
sloppy thinking is not valued. Thus, logic and the methods to evaluate arguments are
valuable tools to judge research.
4. capable of 4. Research is capable of replication. By attempting to replicate or reproduce the re¬
replication search of scholars, we can tell if research findings are generally true or accidental. If
research methods are so vaguely described that it is impossible to repeat the proce¬
dures in a study, the worth of the entire research project is questioned. Regardless of
whether replications actually are completed, the ability to replicate studies is essen¬
tial for any piece of sound research.
5. partial 5. Research is partial. There is always more that could be said about a topic. Research
findings are partial because we may discover new relationships involving other vari¬
ables that make us modify or qualify the conclusions we have found. Thus, commu¬
nication researchers do not claim to have discovered “The Truth” for all time. Instead,
they advance tentative—but meaningful—insights for communication phenomena.

The Personal Challenge, or What Do I Need to Do to Study

Communication Research Methods Successfully?
Researchers hardly ever tell you how much fun they have making new discoveries. In
fact, they might be a little embarrassed to tell you about the rush they get from com¬
pleting successful research projects. But for all the excitement that research provides
(and it can be an addicting pleasure), it can also be demanding. As you begin to look at
research methods, it might help to know that students who do well in research methods
classes tend to satisfy certain needs:
 The Role of Research in Communication 13

1. The need to think in an orderly way. Though learning research methods will help im¬ 1. orderly thinking
prove your critical thinking abilities, orderly thinking also is a key to success. Re¬
searchers quickly find that half-considered ideas are exposed as weak. We must train
our minds to separate the relevant from the irrelevant, the observable from the unob¬
servable, and the complete from the incomplete.
2. The need to write clearly. Research includes communicating the effort to others. To 2. clear writing
succeed, you must write crisply and clearly. Writing research and scholarship is not
the same as writing a typical essay, short story, or letter. Research writing is very pre¬
cise, structured, and to the point. Effective writing does not mean writing beautiful
prose, but using crystal clear language, grammar, and support. While we are on the
subject, we might as well get something else straight: first drafts are not acceptable
in scholarship. Everybody’s first draft of a paper is lousy. Despite what you may have
been told in high school, you must revise, edit, and polish research to put it in proper
form. You may be familiar with the writing of William Faulkner. After having been
awarded the Nobel Prize for literature, a reporter asked him what it felt like to be rec¬
ognized as one of the world’s greatest writers. He responded, “I am not one of the
world’s greatest writers, but I am among the world’s top two or three greatest rewrit¬
ers.” Faulkner had to revise his work, and so do the rest of us. Taking a course in re¬
search should help you improve your writing abilities.
3. The need to set aside personal prejudices in light of data. In research and scholarship, 3. set aside prejudice
we must be willing to let the data decide our conclusions, even if we do not like them
very much. When Galileo first observed moons around planets other than earth, many
Church fathers refused to look through his telescope. Church doctrine had decided
that such things were impossible, and no data were allowed to contradict it. Galileo
was persecuted for letting data—not prejudice—guide his conclusions. Though the
world now respects Galileo’s position, many people are unwilling to let data decide
matters. They have a difficult time studying research methods since research meth¬
ods place priority on the data, not on prior beliefs.
4. The need to stay organized and follow instructions. Research requires carefully fol¬ 4. stay organized and
lowing protocols and methods. Thus, it is important for scholars—even those study¬ follow instructions
ing research methods for the first time—to follow directions and stay organized. Stu¬
dents must fight the urge to leave out steps, take shortcuts, or ignore instructions. There
is much that is creative in research, but we must harness that creativity by being or¬
ganized and following instructions in detail. Researchers know that details matter.
5. The need to know the reason for studying research methods. Students sometimes take 5. know reasons to
a required class in research methods, but they may not know why. Yet, most success¬ study research
ful students take time to learn the reasons for studying this subject (and all others, for methods
that matter). Why study communication research methods? Among the most potent
reasons are:

• To learn to think rigorously and critically, especially about research evidence

that is advanced for acceptance in a variety of popular and scholarly outlets
• To learn how to find answers to questions about communication
• To acquire survival skills to help read and use the field’s literature
• To learn how to sort through past research for answers to research questions
14 Introduction to the Field

Any of these reasons justifies studying research methods. Your personal goals for
approaching this subject can be a great resource for you.

The Ethical Challenge

Research is not amoral. Indeed, over 2,400 years ago, Aristotle, the intellectual father of
our field, explained that “rhetoric [communication studies, as it was called at the time]
is a branch of ethics.”7 Thus, ethics is not just something that is “tacked on to commu¬
nication studies. Each choice made in communication and communication research is
both a practical and an ethical move. Conducting research is bound up in the ethical stan¬
dards our society has accepted. Research is judged not only by the rigor of procedures
and the results obtained but by the ethics of the researchers. The Archbishop of York
challenged British scientists to consider the ethical consequences of their research by
urging them to ask “What applications will be made of my research?' before they un¬
dertake their studies.
professional codes of Many organizations have developed formal codes of conduct to guide practition¬
conduct ers and researchers. The most well known of these guides is the Code of Conduct for the
American Psychological Association. Others exist in our field as well. The National
Communication Association’s Credo for Ethical Communication expresses the ethical
values of the communication community (see Table 1.4). The American Association for
Public Opinion Research developed a Code of Conduct for researchers involved prima¬
rily in public survey research. Similarly, the American Forensic Association has a de¬
tailed code of conduct to guide debate and contest speaking activities. Regulations of the
United States Office of Education, the Department of Health and Human Services, and
some federal laws protect the rights of individuals who participate in our research. Clear
breaches of ethical standards are treated harshly in the field. Violations can—and have—
resulted in termination of employment and virtual expulsion from the field. Ignorance of
such codes is not considered an excuse. Reasonable adults are supposed to think about
the likely consequences of their conduct before they act. Paul Reynolds (1979) put to¬
gether a composite list from 24 organizations whose research touches on the social sci¬
ences. This list is found in Table 1.5 and involves a total of 78 prescriptions. In addition
to this list, this book includes a number of “Special Discussions” dedicated to ethical is¬
sues (listed under the heading “A Question of Ethics”).

The Structure of the Field Challenge

People in communication, speech and hearing science, journalism, and telecommunica¬
tions work in a field that is structured across many departmental lines. Similarly, com¬
munication research has been promoted by many organizations whose members often
cross the barriers created by the organization of different schools. It is helpful to know
how the diverse and major organizations in our field showcase our research.

Aristotle defined rhetoric as ‘the faculty for discovering in the particular case what are the available means
of persuasion. The term persuasion can be traced back to suasori acts, which refer to giving advice. When
we give advice, we suggest to others what would be “good” for them to do or believe. The study of the good
is called ethics. Hence, from the early beginnings, communication studies has been part of the study of
ethics.
 The Role of Research in Communication 15

TABLE 1.4 NCA Credo for Communication Ethics

Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people communicate. Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking,
decision making, and the development of relationships and communities within and across contexts, cultures, channels, and
media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility,
personal integrity, and respect for self and others. We believe that unethical communication threatens the quality of all
communication and consequently the well-being of individuals and the society in which we live. Therefore we, the members of the
National Communication Association, endorse and are committed to practicing the following principles of ethical communication:
We advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of communication.
We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and
responsible decision making fundamental to a civil society.
We strive to understand and respect other communicators before evaluating and responding to their messages.
We promote access to communication resources and opportunities as necessary to fulfill human potential and contribute
to the well-being of families, communities, and society.
We promote communication climates of caring and mutual understanding that respect the unique needs and
characteristics of individual communicators.
We condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and
violence and through the expression of intolerance and hatred.
We are committed to the courageous expression of personal convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice.
We advocate sharing information, opinions, and feelings when facing significant choices while also respecting privacy and
confidentiality.
We believe that unethical communication threatens the quality of all communication and consequently the well-being of
individuals and the society in which we live.
We accept responsibility for the short- and long-term consequences for our own communication and expect the same of others.

National Communication Association (www.natcom.org)

Founded in November 1914, the National Communication Association was the first or¬
ganization to sponsor research publications.8 9 Originally called the National Association
of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking, it changed its name to the Speech Associa¬
tion of America until 1970, when the organization adopted the Speech Communication
Association (SCA) as its title. In March 1997 the current name was adopted, reflecting
the breadth of the field. In addition to promoting research and employment networking
at its annual convention, this organization publishes several journals that report research:

• Quarterly Journal of Speech (founded 1915) Call # PN 4071.Q3.10 The oldest

journal in the field, it deals with general speech communication focusing heav¬
ily on communication and rhetorical theory and criticism.

8 These Web addresses change from time to time, and you should examine the website for this book or for the
author for updates.
9 The Eastern Communication Association was founded before the National Communication Association, but
it did not begin publishing a research journal until 1953.
10 For these journals the Library of Congress call numbers are provided, so that you may conveniently find
these periodicals in your local library. Newsletter call numbers are not included. Some minor variation in call
numbers may occur as local operations make their own clerical lists and as new volumes of multivolume se¬
ries are acquired.
16 Introduction to the Field

The numerals in parentheses indicate the number of ethical codes that list the item.
PRINCIPLES

GENERAL ISSUES RELATED TO THE CODE OF ETHICS

1. The social scientist(s) in charge of a research project is (are) responsible for all decisions regarding procedural matters
and ethical issues related to the project whether made by themselves or subordinates (7).
2. Teachers are responsible for all decisions made by their students related to ethical issues involved in research (1).
3. All actions conducted as part of the research should be consistent with the ethical standards of both the home and host
community (1).
4. Ethical issues should be considered from the perspective of the participant’s society (2).
5. If unresolved or difficult ethical dilemmas arise, assistance or consultation should be sought with colleagues or
appropriate committees sponsored by professional associations (2).
6. Any deviation from established principles suggests: (a) that a greater degree of responsibility is being accepted by the
investigator, (b) a more serious obligation to seek outside counsel and advice, and (c) the need for additional
safeguards to protect the rights and welfare of the research participants (2).

DECISION TO CONDUCT THE RESEARCH

7. Research should be conducted in such a way as to maintain the integrity of the research enterprise and not to diminish
the potential for conducting research in the future (3).
8. Investigators should use their best scientific judgment for selection of issues for empirical investigation (1).
9. The decision to conduct research with human subjects should involve evaluation of the potential benefits to the
participant and society in relation to the risks to be borne by the participant(s)—a risk-benefit analysis (2).
10. Any study which involves human subjects must be related to an important intellectual question (4).
11. Any study which involves human subjects must be related to an important intellectual question with humanitarian
implications, and there should be no other way to resolve the intellectual question (2).
12. Any study which involves human participants must be related to a very important intellectual question if there is a risk of
permanent, negative effects on the participants (2).
13. Any study involving risks as well as potential therapeutic effects must be justified in terms of benefits to the client or
patient (2).
14. There should be no prior reason to believe the major permanent negative effects will occur for the participants (1).
15. If the conduct of the research may permanently damage the participants, their community, or institutions within their
community (such as indigenous social scientists), the research may not be justified and might be abandoned (2).

CONDUCT OFTHE RESEARCH

16. All research should be conducted in a competent fashion, as an objective, scientific project (4).
17. All research personnel should be qualified to use any procedures employed in the project (7).
18. Competent personnel and adequate facilities should be available if any drugs are involved (4).
19. There should be no bias in the design, conduct, or reporting of the research—it should be as objective as possible (4).
 The Role of Research in Communication 17

TABLE 1.5—Continued

EFFECTS ON AND RELATIONSHIPS WITH THE PARTICIPANTS

INFORMED CONSENT

General
20. Informed consent should be used in obtaining participants for all research; investigators should honor all commitments
associated with such agreements (10).
21. Participants should be in a position to give informed consent; otherwise it should be given by those responsible for the
participant (2).
22. Informed consent should be used if the potential effects on participants are ambiguous or potentially hazardous (7).
23. If possible, informed consent should be obtained in writing (1).
24. Seek official permission to use any government data, no matter how it was [sic] obtained (1).

Provision of Information
25. Purposes, procedures, and risks of research (including possible hazards to physical and psychological well-being and
jeopardization of social position) should be explained to the participants in such a way that they can understand (7).
26. Participants should be aware of the possible consequences, if any, for the group or community from which they are
selected in advance of their decision to participate (1).
27. The procedure used to obtain the participant’s name should be described to him or her (1).
28. Sponsorship, financial and otherwise, should be specified to the potential participants (2).
29. The identity of those conducting the research should be fully revealed to the potential participants (2).
30. Names and addresses of research personnel should be left with participants so that the research personnel can be
traced subsequently (1).
31. Participants should be fully aware of all data gathering techniques (tape and video recordings, photographic devices,
physiological measures, and so forth), the capacities of such techniques, and the extent to which participants will
remain anonymous and data confidential (2).
32. In projects of considerable duration, participants should be periodically informed of the progress of the research (1).
33. When recording videotapes or film, subjects should have the right to approve the material to be made public (by viewing
it and giving specific approval to each segment) as well as the nature of the audiences (1).

Voluntary Consent
34. Individuals should have the option to refuse to participate and know this (1).
35. Participants should be able to terminate involvement at any time and know that they have this option (3).
36. No coercion, explicit or overt, should be used to encourage individuals to participate in a research project (6).

PROTECTION OF RIGHTS AND WELFARE OF PARTICIPANTS

General Issues
37. The dignity, privacy, and interests of the participants should be respected and protected (8).
38. The participants should not be harmed; welfare of the participants should take priority over all other concerns (10).
18 Introduction to the Field

39. Damage and suffering to the participants should be minimized through procedural mechanisms and termination of risky
studies as soon as possible; such effects are justified only when the problem cannot be studied in any other fashion (8).
40. Potential problems should be anticipated, no matter how remote the probability of occurrence, to ensure that the
unexpected does not lead to major negative effects on the participants (1).
41. Any harmful aftereffects should be eliminated (4).
42. The hopes or anxieties of potential participants should not be raised (1).
43. Research should be terminated if danger to the participant arises (3).
44. The use of clients seeking professional assistance for research purposes is justified only to the extent that they may
derive direct benefits as clients (1).

Deception
45. Deceit of the participants should only be used if it is absolutely necessary, there being no other way to study the
problem (3).
46. Deception may be utilized (1).
47. If deceit is involved in a research procedure, additional precautions should be taken to protect the rights and welfare of
the participants (2).
48. After being involved in a study using deception, all participants should be given a thorough, complete, and honest
description of the study and the need for deception (5).
49. If deception is not revealed to the participants, for humane or scientific reasons, the investigator has a special obligation
to protect the interests and welfare of the participants (1).

Confidentiality and Anonymity

50. Research data should be confidential and all participants should remain anonymous, unless they (or their legal
guardians) have given permission for release of their identity (15).
51. If confidentiality or anonymity cannot be guaranteed, the participants should be aware of this and its possible
consequences before involvement in the research (4).
52. Persons in official positions (studied as part of a research project) should provide written descriptions of their official
roles, duties, and so forth (which need not be treated as confidential information) and be provided with a copy of the
final report on the research (1).
53. Studies designed to provide descriptions of aggregates or collectivities should always guarantee anonymity to individual
respondents (1).
54. “Privacy” should always be considered from the perspective of the participant and the participant’s culture (1).
55. Material stored in databanks should not be used without the permission of the investigator who originally gathered the
data (1).
56. If promises of confidentiality are honored, investigators need not withhold information on misconduct of participants or
organizations (1).
57. Specific procedures should be developed for organizing data to ensure anonymity of participants (1).

Benefits to Participants
58. A fair return should be offered for all services of participants (1).
59. Increased self-knowledge, as a benefit to the participants, should be incorporated as a major part of the research
design or procedures (1).
60. Copies or explanations of the research should be provided to all participants (2).
61. Studies of aggregates or cultural subgroups should produce knowledge which will benefit them (1).
 The Role of Research in Communication 19

TABLE 1.6—Continued

Effects on Aggregates or Communities

62. Investigators should be familiar with, and respect, the host cultures in which studies are conducted (1).
63. Investigators should cooperate with members of the host society (1).
64. Investigators should consider, in advance, the potential effects of the research on the social structure of the host
community and the potential changes in influence of various groups or individuals by virtue of the conduct of the
study (1).

INTERPRETATIONS AND REPORTING OF THE RESULTS OF THE RESEARCH

65. Investigators should consider, in advance, the potential effects of the research and the report on the population or
subgroup from which participants are drawn (1).
66. Participants should be aware, in advance, of potential effects upon aggregates or cultural subgroups which they
represent (1).
67. The interests of collectivities and social systems of all kinds should be considered by the investigator (1).
68. All reports of research should be public documents, freely available to all (4).
69. Research procedures should be described fully and accurately in reports, including all evidence regardless of the
support it provides for the research hypotheses; conclusions should be objective and unbiased (14).
70. Full and complete interpretations should be provided for all data and attempts made to prevent misrepresentations in
writing research reports (6).
71. Sponsorship, purpose, sources of financial support, and investigators responsible for the research should be made
clear in all publications related thereto (3).
72. If publication may jeopardize or damage the population studied and complete disguise is impossible, publication should
be delayed (2).
73. Cross-cultural studies should be published in the language and journals of the host society, in addition to publication in
other languages and other societies (2).
74. Appropriate credit should be given to all parties contributing to the research (9).
75. Full, accurate disclosure of all published sources bearing on or contributing to the work is expected (8).
76. Publication of research findings on cultural subgroups should include a description in terms understood by the
participants (2).
77. Whenever requested, raw data or other original documentation should be made available to qualified investigators (1).
78. Research with scientific merit should always be submitted for publication and not withheld from public presentation
unless the quality of research or analysis is inadequate (1).

Note: From “Ethics and Status: Value Dilemmas in Professional Conduct of Social Science,” by P. D. Reynolds, 1975, International Social
Science Journal, 27 (4), pp. 563-611. © UNESCO, adapted with permission of Blackwell Publishers, Ltd.
20 Introduction to the Field

• Communication Monographs (founded 1934) PN 4077. S61. Originally de¬

signed to publish lengthy research pieces, it is now dedicated to communication
theory with emphasis on quantitative studies.
• Communication Education (founded 1952—formerly Speech Teacher) PN
4071.S741. In the 1980s, this journal was divided into two publications: Com¬
munication Education and Speech Communication Teacher. The latter publica¬
tion also plans to introduce an online edition.
• Text and Performance Quarterly (founded 1981) PN 2.T49. Dedicated to oral in¬
terpretation of literature and aesthetics in communication.
• Critical Studies in Mass Communication (founded 1984) P 87.C74. Study and
analysis of mass media communication.
• Journal of Applied Communication Research (founded 1973, SCA sponsorship
began in 1991) HM 258.J67. Research on applied topics in field settings.

Two additional yearbooks are also published by the SCA, the International and Inter-
cultural Communication Annual (HM 2581.58) and the Free Speech Yearbook (P
87.F853).

International Communication Association (www.icahdq.org)

Founded in 1949 as the National Society for the Study of Communication, the or¬
ganization changed its name to the International Communication Association in the
mid-1960s. The ICA encourages participation from all branches of communication
(except speech and hearing science), drawing especially strong links between those
studying mass communication and those studying interpersonal communication.
Every three years the annual convention is held outside the United States. Its major
journals are:

• Journal of Communication (founded 1951; from 1974 through 1991 ICA turned
over editorship to the Annenberg School for Communication at the University
of Pennsylvania) P 90.J6. Designed to promote the broad study of communica¬
tion, it is oriented primarily toward studies of mass media, television, and pop¬
ular culture.
• Human Communication Research (founded 1974) P 91.3 H85. A premier outlet
for research in communication theory with emphasis on quantitative studies.
• Communication Theory (founded 1991) P 87.C59737. Dedicated to essays on
theoretic and metatheoretic developments in communication.

At the time of the writing of this book, the ICA is preparing to inaugurate a new journal.
Political Communication." ICA also sponsors the Communication Yearbook (P
87.C5974) containing commissioned essays and top papers from its annual convention.

11 Starting in 1980, the ICA’s Division of Political Communication and its sister division in the American Po¬
litical Science Association collaborated to produce a journal titled Political Communication (JF 1525.P8 P64).
It was previously called Political Communication and Persuasion (JF 1525.P8 P639).
 The Role of Research in Communication 21

SPECIAL DISCUSSION 1-2

Classical Roots of the Communication Field

Communication is one of the world’s oldest academic studies. The first book on
communication was written in Egypt sometime around 2675 b.c.e. by Ptah
Hotep, the governor of Memphis and Grand Vizier (Prime Minister). Upon his re¬
tirement he wrote a book of advice called Precepts, and it served as a textbook
on communication for many centuries. Yet, widespread communication studies
did not really begin until around 500 b.c.e., when the city-state of Athens insti¬
tuted a democratic system and people found that they had to speak for them¬
selves to exercise their rights. Athenian freemen were expected to participate in the
popular assembly (if they gave consistently bad advice, they could be banished out¬
right) and on juries (ranging in size from a low of 51 to a high of 1,501 members—
though most were 501). People needed communication skills, and they were eager
to find teachers to help them. The first groundswell of teachers to make their way
to Athens were called sophists. Today that term means a person who uses clever
but fallacious arguments. In ancient times, however, sophists (from the Greek word
sophos meaning wisdom) were teachers who traveled around instructing people
wherever there was a market. These teachers gave very practical instruction that
was useful to common folk who direly needed to improve their skills.
Sometime around 470 b.c.e. a Sicilian named Corax (generally believed to be
the earliest of these teachers) “invented” the study of communication (called rhet¬
oric). At the very least, he wrote the first detailed work on the art of effective public
speaking, Rhetorike Techne, including details on organization and uses of argu¬
ments from probability. Other sophists included Protagoras (called the father of de¬
bate), Theodorus of Byzantium (who studied figures of speech such as puns), and
Prodicus of Ceos (an early expert in the study of words, or philology).
Surely the greatest contributor to communication studies in the classical age
was Aristotle (384-322 b.c.e.). He made the first attempt to develop a complete
rhetoric that was philosophically compelling. In his book Rhetoric, he defined our
study as “the faculty of discovering in the particular case what are the available
means of persuasion.” Thus, rhetoric was not a practice but a field of study—an ad¬
vance that still gives us intellectual integrity as a distinct field. Though Aristotle did
not write about all “canons of rhetoric,” he became associated strongly with them
because he discussed many of them in detail. These canons were five major cate¬
gories that may be studied to help understand communication: invention (types and
sources of ideas), arrangement (organization of ideas), style (use of words), deliv¬
ery (use of voice and gesture), and memory (ability to recall passages and exam¬
ples for utterance). When European universities were founded during the Middle
Ages, three primary subjects were studied: logic, rhetoric, and grammar. Remnants
of this tradition can be seen today in the speech communication student’s wearing
of a silver tassel at graduation ceremonies to symbolize study of “oratory” in the sil¬
ver age.
(continued)
22 Introduction to the Field

SPECIAL DISCUSSION 1-2

Continued

The study of speech and hearing science also had its roots in ancient times.
Plutarch, the Greek biographer, recounted that Demosthenes had a monotonous
voice and stammered when he spoke. Under the guidance of an actor named
Satyrus (the oldest known speech therapist?) Demosthenes improved his diction
by practicing a number of drills including speaking with pebbles in his mouth.
Though the deaf were routinely put to death in ancient Rome and Greece, during
the Middle Ages, speech and hearing science was pursued as a sacred duty. In the
seventh century, when Bishop St. John of Beverly was successful in teaching a
deaf-mute to speak, the Roman Catholic Church promptly declared it a miracle.
Later, developing a code of charitable deeds, the Church promoted compassion for
handicapped people in general, but it also unknowingly declared speech and hear¬
ing science not a profession but an act of charity.
Journalism and mass communication professions also began in the classical
period. At the order of Julius Caesar, the world’s first “newspaper,” Acta Diurna
(Daily Events), was published in Rome during the first century b.c.e. In reality, the
newspapers were little more than hand-duplicated bulletins that were posted in the
Forum, but large numbers of people made a daily routine of reading them. It would
not be until the seventh and eighth centuries that the world’s first printed newspa¬
pers would appear in Beijing. The method of printing employed wood blocks, which
was a time-consuming process since blocks were prepared individually for each is¬
sue and then discarded. Since reporting the news was controlled by the govern¬
ment, only a very limited form of journalism appears to have been practiced.
Though a form of movable-type printing was invented in China at least as far back
as the eleventh century, it was rapidly abandoned since Chinese has no alphabet
and over 40,000 characters. When movable mitered type was developed in Europe
in the fifteenth century, widespread and rapid dissemination of the news became
possible and journalism emerged as a recognized profession.

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (www.asha.org)

Though once part of the Speech Communication Association, the American Academy
of Speech Correction was founded in 1926. The organization changed its name four
times after 1926, settling on its current name in 1979. ASLHA is best known for its cer¬
tification programs for practitioners of speech correction and speech and hearing sci¬
ence. It also promotes research and scholarship by its publications:

• Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders (founded 1936) RC 423. J68. Called
the Journal of Speech Disorders until 1948, this publication features research
and theoretic essays across the realm of speech and hearing science.
• Journal of Speech and Hearing Research (founded 1958) RC 423. J86. Ded¬
icated to research, measurement, and applied work in speech and hearing
science.
 The Role of Research in Communication 23

• ASHA (founded 1959) RC 423.A2. Focuses on professional speech and hearing

research issues and the administration of the organization.
• Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools (founded 1970) RC 423.A1
L25. Attention paid to issues of interest to speech and hearing specialists with
emphasis on speech-handicapped children.
• American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology (founded 1991) RC 423. A1
A43. Focuses on clinical practice issues for therapists.
• American Journal of Audiology (founded 1991) RC 1.A416. Clinical issues in au¬
diology and hearing disorders. Now available online (jouraals.asha.org/aja),
the journal is published twice a year.

From time to time, the association also publishes a Monograph series (HD 929.H65 C45x)
and ASHA Reports (W 1.AS151) containing proceedings from annual meetings.

Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication

(www.facsnet.org/AEJMC)
This organization is the largest national professional organization in mass communica¬
tion. Founded as the American Association of Teachers of Journalism in 1912, it adopted
its current name in 1982. In addition to its annual meetings that showcase research, the
organization sponsors these journals:

• Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly (founded 1924) PN 4700.J7.

Originally called Journalism Bulletin, then Journalism Quarterly, it features
predominantly nonquantitative studies of journalism.
• Journalism & Mass Communication Educator (founded 1945) PN 4700.J6.
Originally called Journalism Educator, it focuses on educational issues and es¬
says related to instruction.
• Journalism & Mass Communication Monographs (founded 1966) PN 4722.J6.
Originally called Journalism Monographs, this publication includes extended
studies in mass communication issues and theory.
• Mass Communication Review (founded 1973) P 87.M28. Studies on the influ¬
ence of mass communication on society.
• Newspaper Research Journal (founded 1979) PN 4700.N525. Includes com¬
mentary and research related to print communication.
• Public Relations Research Annual (founded 1989) HD 59.P72. Includes reviews
of special research topics in public relations.

Interest groups also publish materials that have nearly the full status of journals in¬
cluding The Journalist (PN 4700.E4 A), the International Communication Bulletin
(PN 4700.132), the Journal of Public Relations Research (HM 263.J65), and Media
Law Notes (KF 2750.A15 M4).

Broadcast Education Association ( www.beaweb.org)

Called the Association of Professional Broadcast Education for many years, this organ¬
ization held its first annual convention in 1954 and focuses its attention exclusively on
electronic media and its effects. This group publishes these journals:
24 Introduction to the Field

• Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media (founded in 1956) PN 1991.J61.

Originally called the Journal of Broadcasting, this publication features essays
and research on broadcasting with emphasis on showcasing quantitative re¬
search and applied commentaries.
• Feedback (founded 1959) PN 1990.83 F38. Includes essays and news on broad¬
cast education.

American Forensic Association

Founded in 1949 by a group of debate coaches and teachers of competitive forensics, the
American Forensic Association (AFA) is dedicated to issues surrounding competitive
forensics. Through 1963, the AFA published the Register, a quarterly newsletter that in¬
cluded some research. The Journal of the American Forensic Association began in 1964
and is now called Argumentation and Advocacy (PN 4171.A51), reflecting the expan¬
sion in content beyond the traditional arenas of competitive forensics. The organization
sponsors national forensic events and promotes research through a program of compet¬
itively awarded grants.

American Communication Association (www.americancomm.org)

The American Communication Association was founded in 1993 to promote communi¬
cation studies in North America. This organization was one of the first to embrace the
Internet to promote its efforts. Membership in this organization is free It hosts an annual
research conference, and since 1998 it has published The American Communication
Journal, an electronic journal produced three times annually (www.americancomm.
org/%7Eaca/acj/acj.html). The ACA sponsors electronic discussion groups, collects
directories of communication research available online, and offers accrediting services.

Special Interest Organizations

The number of organizations with specialized concerns in communication has blos¬
somed in recent years. Some have their own publications and conferences, whereas oth¬
ers meet with other professional organizations. Though a complete listing would be in¬
appropriate here, some of the most prominent of these groups are:

• Business communication: Association for Business Communication (publishes

Business Communication Quarterly, founded 1969, HF 5718.B941).
• Forensics: American Debate Association (www2.be.edu/ada) (publishes
newsletter Extensions and meets with the AFA and NCA); Cross Examination
Debate Association (debate.uvm.edu/ceda.html) (publishes an Annual)-, Delta
Sigma Rho-Tau Kappa Alpha, Pi Kappa Delta, and Phi Rho Phi (www.blc.
edu/prphone.html) honor societies (all publish their own journals); Interna¬
tional Forensic Association; National Federation of State High School Associa¬
tions (www.nfhs.org) (publishes Forensic Quarterly, PN 4177.F6); National
Forensic Association (www.bethel.edu/Majors/Communication/nfa.html)
(publishes a journal. National Forensic Journal, founded 1977, PN 4177.N38);
National Forensic League (high school) (debate.uvm.edu/nfl. html) (publishes
a magazine, The Rostrum, founded 1918).
 The Role of Research in Communication 25

• General semantics: The International Society for General Semantics (publishes

ETC: A Review of General Semantics, founded 1943, B 840.E851).
• Intercultural and international communication: International Society for Inter-
cultural Education Training and Research (publishes International Journal of
Intercultural Relations, founded 1977, GN 496.115); International and Intercul¬
tural Communication Association (founded 1983); Israeli Association for
Speech Communication and Debate; Korean American Communication Asso¬
ciation (publishes KACA Newsletter); Pacific and Asian Communication Asso¬
ciation (publishes journal, Human Communication, founded 1996); Prologos,
Finnish Speech Communication Association (publishes Prologos Newsletter)-,
World Communication Association (ilc2.doshisha.ac.jp/users/kkitao/organi)
(publishes journal, World Communication, founded 1972, P 87A.C58).
• Journalism and telecommunications: Alpha Epsilon Rho and Sigma Delta Chi
(honor societies); American Journalism Historians Association (publishes
American Journalism, founded 1983, PN 4700.A48); American Newspaper
Publishers Association; International Television Association (www.itva.org)
(emphasis on visual communication from film to Web design); National Asso¬
ciation of Broadcasters (nab.org).
• Media use in education: Association for Educational Communication and Tech¬
nology (publishes Educational Technology Research and Development, founded
1953, LB 1028.35 E38).
• Public relations: Public Relations Society of America (publishes Public Rela¬
tions Journal, HM 263.A1 P83, founded 1945); Foundation for Public Relations
Research (Public Relations Review, HM 263.P767, founded 1975; and the Pub¬
lic Relations Quarterly, founded 1937, HM 263.P76).
• Rhetorical studies: American Society for the History of Rhetoric
(artemis.austinc.edu/acad/cml/rcape/ashr/); Kenneth Burke Society (www.siu.
edu/departments/english/acadareas/rhetcomp/burke/index.html) (publishes
Kenneth Burke Society Newsletter)-, Rhetoric Society of America (publishes
Rhetoric Society Quarterly, founded 1971, PN 171.4.R46).
• Speech and hearing science: American Academy of Audiology (www.audiology.
com) (publishes Journal of the American Academy of Audiology, founded 1990,
RF 286.A92; and Audiology Today, founded 1989, RF 286.J68x); International
Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association; International Phonetic Associa¬
tion (www.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ipa.html) (holds annual International Congress;
publishes the Journal of the International Phonetic Association, founded 1886,
P 215.16, and foNETiks, a monthly electronic newsletter [www.mailbase.
ac.uk/lists-f-j/fonetiks/]).
• Women and gender issues in communication: The Organization for Research on
Women and Communication (publishes journal, Women’s Studies in Communi¬
cation, founded 1977, P 96.S48 W66); Women in Communication, Inc.; Orga¬
nization for the Study of Communication, Language, and Gender (founded
1978, hosts annual convention).
• Other applied communication areas: Association of Communication Adminis¬
trators (publishes a journal, Journal of the Association for Communication
26 Introduction to the Field

Administration, founded 1972); Commission on American Parliamentary Prac¬

tice (faculty.ssu.edu/~capp/) (publishes a newsletter, CAPP News)', Interna¬
tional Listening Association (www.listen.org) (publishes International Jour¬
nal of Listening, founded 1987, and a newsletter, Listening Post)', Lambda Pi
Eta (national communication honor society) (cotton.uamont.edu/ scauso/
lambda); Religious Speech Communication Association (gcc.bradley.edu/com/
faculty/lamoureux/rsca/index.html) (publishes Journal of Communication and
Religion, founded 1977, BV4319.R46).

Regional and Local Organizations

Every region and nearly every state has at least one organization representing the interests
of that area and publishing at least one journal. Become familiar with the organization that
is dominant in your area. It will greatly enhance your study of research methods. Your in¬
structor can give you information about joining your regional organization. All these or¬
ganizations have student membership rates and agreements with other regional associa¬
tions to give complimentary copies of their publications to sustaining members of the other
associations. These regional organizations often change the names of the journals they
publish. Table 1.6 indicates the various name changes. Such information may be helpful
when you start reading research and wonder why all those old copies of journals are miss¬
ing (in reality, the journals simply changed names).
It is beyond the scope of this book to list all the state and local organizations in the
field. Ask your instructor about them since many—such as the California Speech Com¬
munication Association, the New York State Speech Communication Association, and
the Tennessee Speech Communication Association—regularly publish research of more
than local interest. Many schools and departments also publish their own outlets for
scholarship. For example, the Columbia Journalism Review (PN 4700.C72) was estab¬
lished in 1962 by the Columbia University School of Journalism, the University of Iowa
Center for Communication Study began publishing the Journal of Communication In¬
quiry (P 87.J62) in 1974, and Washburn University started the Journal of Radio Studies
(PN 1991.3 U6 J65) in 1992. The trend toward numbers of school-sponsored publica¬
tions seems to be growing, not diminishing.

Organizations Outside the United States

Interest in communication studies has been blossoming outside the United States. Fur¬
thermore, the growth has been worldwide. Thus, students of today must think internation¬
ally when they consider research questions. Such groups as the following represent the tip
of the iceberg in a very exciting development in our field: the Association for Chinese
Communication Studies (which publishes the ACCS Newsletter); the Association for
Rhetoric and Communication in Southern Africa (www.uct.ac.za/depts/rhetoricafrika),
which hosts a biennial symposium; the Canadian Communication Association; the Center
for Global Communications (Japan); the Center for Languages and Intercultural Studies
(Denmark); the Chinese Communication Association (www.sjmc.joum.umn.edu/cca/);
the Chinese Communication Society, based in Taiwan (ccs.nccu.edu.tw/), which pub¬
lishes the Chinese Communication Society Magazine yearly; the European Communica¬
tion Association; the European Speech Communication Association (www.esca-speech.
 The Role of Research in Communication 27

TABLE 1.6 REGIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL NAMES

REGIONAL ASSOCIATION ORIGINAL TITLE REVISED TITLE

Eastern Today’s Speech Communication Quarterly

Communication (founded 1953) PN 4071 .T61
Association PN 4071 ,T6
Communication Research Reports
(founded 1984)
P 87.C65
Central States Central States Speech Journal Communication Studies Journal
Communication (founded 1949) PN 4001 ,C4
Association PN 4001.C4
Southern States Southern Speech Bulletin Southern Speech
Communication (founded 1935) PN 4071.S651
Association PN 4001.S68 Southern Speech Communication Journal
Southern Speech PN 4071 .S651
Southern Speech Communication Southern Communication Journal
Journal PN 4071.S651
Western States Western Speech Western Speech Communication
Communication (founded 1937) PN 4071 .W451
Association PN4071.W45 Western Journal of Speech Communication
Western Speech Communication PN 4071.W4511
Western Journal of Speech Western States Communication Journal
Communication PN 4071.W4511
Communication Reports
(founded 1988)
PN 4700.C64

org), which publishes Speech Communication; the European Institute for Media Research
Projects; the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association (which publishes
Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics)-, the International Telecommunication Society (which
publishes Information Economics and Policy)-, the Japan Center for Intercultural Commu¬
nications; the Nordic Documentation Center for Mass Communication Research (which
publishes the Nordicom Review of Nordic Research on Media & Communication).
With the rise of the Internet, “electronic journals” (such as the Electronic Journal
of Communication [www.cios.org/www/ejcmain.htm]. Effective Communication
[www.hodu.com], Communications News [www.comnews.com], and Computer-Medi¬
ated Communication Magazine [www.december.com/cmc/mag/index.htm]) have
emerged as very real research publication options. Newly formed organizations have
been able to use this “information superhighway” to create new journals and promote
their research interests. So, we should expect growth in the lists of research sources
available to help us answer questions. Fortunately, because of the Internet, we should be
able to get at such information sources rapidly and inexpensively.
28 Introduction to the Field

SUMMARY when experiments are involved, or it attempts to use

precise statistical models to get comprehensive un¬
Research is the systematic effort to secure answers to derstandings of human communication (as in survey
questions. Research questions deal with issues requir¬ studies and polls of public opinion). These methods
ing reference to data and information. Research regu¬ often try to explain communication behavior by look¬
larly invites examining past inquiry into the issue. Ba¬ ing at processes that allow researchers to predict fu¬
sic research is completed to learn about relationships ture behavior, frequently using models of causal
among variables, regardless of any immediate com¬ processes. Thus, quantitative research usually at¬
mercial product or service. Applied research is com¬ tempts to answer questions about many people.
pleted to develop a product or solve an immediately Third, the scholarly rigor challenge means that
practical problem. Yet, regardless of whether pure or research involves recognition of five key conditions:
applied research is involved, the methods of inquiry research is systematic (though unexpected results of¬
are identical. In 1968 the New Orleans Conference
ten emerge—the effect is called serendipity and
concluded that “research in speech-communication
refers to researchers’ finding something of value
focuses on the ways in which messages link partici¬
while looking for something else); research is data
pants during interactions.” Thus, communication re¬
driven; research is a sound argument (arguments in
search is a specialty that studies message-related be¬
this context are claims advanced on the basis of rea¬
havior. Communication might be defined as “the
soning from evidence); research is capable of repli¬
process by which participants transact and assign
cation; research is partial. Fourth, the personal chal¬
meaning to messages.” A message is the set of verbal
lenge means that successful students of research
and nonverbal cues communicators exchange. Verbal
tend to meet the need to think in an orderly way,
cues are the words people use in communication (as
write clearly, set aside personal prejudices in light of
opposed to oral cues, which are spoken). Nonverbal
data, stay organized and follow instructions, and rec¬
cues are communication elements beyond the words
ognize reasons to study communication research
themselves.
methods (to learn to think rigorously and critically,
There are many challenges in communication
to learn how to find answers to questions about com¬
studies. First, the challenge of breadth and focus in¬
munication, to acquire survival skills to help read
volves the large number of communication applica¬
and use the field's literature, and to learn how to sort
tions. Second, the multiple methods challenge means
through research for an answer). Fifth, the ethical
that communication researchers use both qualitative
challenge means that researchers must recognize the
and quantitative methods. Qualitative methods of
central role of ethics in communication research and
study use descriptions of observations expressed in
they must abide by formal codes of conduct. Sixth,
predominantly nonnumerical terms. Most qualitative
the structure of the field challenge involves recog¬
research in our field tends to describe or interpret
nizing that communication research is promoted by
communication exchanges. Quantitative research
many organizations whose members often cross the
methods are inquiries in which observations are ex¬
barriers created by organizational frameworks at dif¬
pressed predominantly in numerical terms. Quantita¬
ferent schools.
tive research tends to be explanatory, especially
 The Role of Research in Communication 29

TERMS FOR REVIEW 5. What prejudices have prevented research

Research P; findings from being widely shared with people?
Participant observation
Basic research 6. Can’t research be viewed as “amoral”—neither
studies
good nor bad, but just a set of tools?
Applied research El
Ethnomethodology
Communication Di
Discourse/conversational
Message ACTIVITIES TO PROBE FURTHER
analysis
Verbal cues Ci
Creative studies Using the card you received with this book, go to the
Nonverbal cues Qi
Quantitative methods website and look for the Student Study Materials for
Qualitative methods Si
Survey methods Chapter 1.
Historical-critical I)<
Descriptive or
1. Take the study quiz and print out your answers.
methods observational surveys
(Word of caution: These questions are tricky and
Qualitative C<
Content analysis
require some of your best thinking. Do not give a
observational O]
Opinion surveys
simple answer until you have thought out your
studies E?
Experimental methods
response.)
Case studies and Se
Serendipity
2. Look at the COMFILE website at
interpretive studies Ai
Arguments
http://commfaculty.fullerton.edu/jreinard/
internet.htm. Identify the websites for the
JUST FOR THE SAKE OF ARGUMENT:
national and (as relevant) the regional
A REVIEW
organizations that guide work in your specialty,
Look at the following questions and prepare your and contact them to find out the latest news and
own answers to them. Be careful. They are more membership arrangements.
complicated than they appear at first. Rather than try 3. Find an electronic source in your field that you
to come up with simple answers, ask yourself what have never read and review it. Be prepared to
sorts of issues and controversies are raised by them. share your reactions in a class discussion and
1. What are the differences between basic and perhaps on a study sheet or journal.
applied research? 4. Look in popular newsmagazines and
2. How is communication research distinct from newspapers. Are there any stories that deal
studies in psychology, sociology, or English? with the issues that could be the object of
3. What is the difference between qualitative and communication research? What does this
quantitative research methods? information tell you about the practicality of
4. Why is it necessary to be both a clear thinker and a communication research?
clear writer to be successful in research methods?
 CHAPTER 2

Communication Research
Problems and Hypotheses
The one real object of education is to leave a man in the condition of con¬
tinually asking questions.

—Bishop Creighton

QUALITIES OF RESEARCH Requirements of Hypotheses

PROBLEMS Constructing Sound Hypotheses
Useful Problem Statements Types of Hypotheses in Quantitative
Criteria for Sound Problem Statements Studies
Constructing Problem Statements IDENTIFYING VARIABLES IN
USING HYPOTHESES HYPOTHESES AND PROBLEMS
Using Hypotheses to Test Explanations Isolating Variables in Hypotheses
A Note on Hypothesis in Qualitative Independent Variables
Studies Dependent Variables

BEFORE WE GET STARTED ...

Students who study research methods for the first time tend to think that the hardest part
of inquiry is carrying out a study. In fact, one of the hardest parts is finding the right ques¬
tion to ask and the right hypothesis to advance. Accordingly, this chapter will explain
problem statements, hypotheses, and steps to guide you in developing them.

QUALITIES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

problems isolated Problems we investigate are the questions we expect to answer through research. Hence,
selecting and wording purpose statements are vital parts of the research craft. Inexperi¬
enced researchers sometimes do not recognize how important problem statements are—
problem statements until they have gotten in over their heads. There are two reasons problem statements
1. set limits on must be identified before completing studies. First, they set limits on relevant informa¬
relevant information tion. They allow researchers to know what information to examine and what informa¬
tion to set aside.
2. structure inquiry Second, clear puiposes structure inquiry. Problem statements invite certain meth¬
ods and techniques. This fact is the basic reason that researchers must state the problem
before launching a study. Consider, for instance:

• A study that recently has seen renewed citation among scholars. Phifer (1961,
p. 72) phrased a problem question as: “What is the relationship between what

30
 Communication Research Problems and Hypotheses 31

Andrew Johnson said and did on his famous 1866 ‘swing around the circle’
[speeches] and the victory of his Radical opponents in the congressional elec¬
tions?” Since this question involved describing a phenomenon for the purpose of
interpreting or evaluating communication and its effects, the historical-critical
method of research (a form of qualitative research) was invited.
• An inquiry into studying conversation by Patterson and his associates (1996,
p. 78) seeking to “demonstrate the ability or inability of conversation analysts to
produce similar transcripts from the same conversation.” Since this study dealt
with a qualitative method of research (conversational analysis) but asked about
direct observations of behavior by some measurement (without manipulating or
changing any variables), it actually invited a quantitative study.
• An investigation of advertising messages by Cantor and Venus (1980, p. 14) that
proposed the question. What is “the effect of humor on the memorability and
persuasiveness of a rigorously manipulated radio advertisement that was heard
in a quasi-naturalistic setting?” Since this problem asked about the effects of a
variable while holding all other influences constant, the experimental quantita¬
tive method was invited.
• A study of the failed 1928 presidential campaign of A1 Smith that was based on
the purpose “to explain Smith’s rhetorical errors at Oklahoma City [where he re¬
sponded to attacks that a Roman Catholic should not be president] that factored
into his political demise” (Voth, 1994, p. 333). Given the concern for assessing
a particular speech, the qualitative method known as historical-critical research
was invited.

Our research questions guide us to the methods that are relevant to a proper answer. Of
course, problem statements may be revised—usually involving fine-tuning language or
adding qualifiers—after some inquiry into the topic. Yet, a working problem statement
should be constructed to get the process rolling.

Useful Problem Statements

It is important to pose problem statements that are possible to answer. Thus, there are
two prerequisites for useful problem statements.

Problem Statements Must Be within the Researcher’s Capabilities

Let’s be honest about it: many questions you care about cannot be answered by you questions must be

now—or ever. Some questions cannot be answered unless you have the money or spe¬ within the

cial skills that may not yet be yours. You may want to learn if the disintegration of the researcher’s

former Soviet Union led to increases in the number of “underground press” publications competence

in the independent states. But if you do not speak Russian, you probably cannot com¬
plete such a study. Furthermore, you may not have a way to get access to formal collec¬
tions of underground publications. Fundamentally, you must choose problem statements
that are “do-able” given your resources and abilities.

Problem Statements Must Be Narrow but Not Trivial

Perhaps the biggest difficulty with problem statements is that some are either too broad questions must be
to answer or so limited as to be insignificant. Students often are assigned the task of narrow but nontrivial
32 Introduction to the Field

composing problem statements to investigate at a later time. Without thinking, some

students propose such problems as the causes of stuttering, the rise of public relations
as a profession, ways to increase communication among spouses, or the speaking habits
of American preachers. Writing a term paper or research article on these matters is un¬
realistic. Conversely, a subject can be narrowed to the point where its answer is trivial.
Under the appropriate heading, “Brilliant Deductions,” comedian Jay Leno (1991,
pp. 1-7) reported on newspaper accounts of studies that seemed to ask trivial questions:
With investigative techniques that rival Sherlock Holmes’s, today’s scientists are peeling back the lay¬
ers of knowledge—arriving at undreamed-of discoveries. Take the following headlines for example ...
Smaller families require less food [Leno’s comment: So that would mean bigger families require
more food? I’m confused.]
Farmers buy most farmland [Leno’s comment: Gee, I wonder what they do with it?]
Ability to swim may save children from drowning [Leno’s comment: I guess we'll just have to use
bigger weights.]
Sewers are not good playgrounds [Leno’s comment: Sounds like just another overprotective mom.]
Americans are unlikely to give up eating during recession [Leno’s comment: “We thought about it,
but then we got hungry” department.]
Jail crowding caused by increase in criminals, new study concludes [Leno’s comment: Let’s not
jump to any conclusions.]

Good research questions must avoid the extremes of triviality and excessive breadth.
Sometimes problem statements are so isolated that communication researchers
forget that they are supposed to be studying communication. One student-scholar asked,
“What is the relationship between sex of employees and rates of promotion?” Unfortu¬
nately, there is no communication variable here. As obvious as it might sound at first, it
is important that communication research problem questions ask about message-related
behavior.

Criteria for Sound Problem Statements

Proper phrasing of problems is required to make them useful. We will consider some cri¬
teria for worthwhile research problems.1

unambiguous 1. Problem statements must be stated unambiguously, usually as questions. These

statements, usually in problem statements have been found in published research articles:
question form
• Does the Intercultural Communication Workshop significantly improve the
American participants' intercultural communication competence? (Hammer,
1984, p. 253)
• What differences in motivation for attendance are there between [sic] infre¬
quent, occasional, and frequent movie-goers? (Austin, 1986, pp. 117-88)

Some scholars believe that quantitative and qualitative methods are selected by researchers because they like
the philosophical assumptions that underlie them. Then, this reasoning goes, researchers select problem ques¬
tions that are compatible with the methods. The position taken here, however, is that research questions should
guide selection of methods, not the other way around. After a coherent problem question is advanced, the most
appropi iate method may be chosen. Nevertheless, hypotheses most often are differentiated by whether they
guide qualitative or quantitative studies, and such a recognition will be accepted here.
 Communication Research Problems and Hypotheses 33

SPECIAL DISCUSSION 2-1

Where Do We Discover Research Questions?

At first, finding solid research questions may sound like a very sterile process. But
scholars select problem questions that they care about very deeply. They often
have sources that you might check to develop your own research questions. Ronald
Schutt lists six places to look for interesting research problem questions (1999):

“Subjective beliefs” (p. 31). You might look at your personal hunches about
communication processes to see if your guesses and curiosity guide your selection of
problem questions.

“Your own experience” (p. 31). If you have gone through a romantic breakup that
caused you pain, you might ask about the things that were said in the breakup that were
most hurtful. Such research might even help you find ways to deal with this situation in
the future.

“Others’ experiences” (p. 31). If you had a brother or sister with a speech handicap,
your concern for finding effective therapy might lead you to compose a research question
exploring different options.

“Other researchers” (p. 31). Research articles often include suggestions for future
research. Some of these ideas may stimulate your thinking to explore interesting research
avenues.

“Social theory” (p. 32). The exploration and testing of fascinating theories, such as
Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory or Ting-Toomey’s face-saving theory may stimulate
a host of useful research questions.

“Pragmatic sources” (p. 32). Sometimes you may be hired to do research or you may
volunteer to help a group explore its communication issues. In these cases, research
questions may come out of a formal request for proposals or a practical problem of
immediate interest.

Sometimes problems have “subproblems” that narrow the issues further. In some arti¬
cles, the research problem is phrased as a purpose statement. In other research pieces,
the problem statement is placed near the end of the literature review as a summary claim
to be tested. A problem statement may or may not be followed by a question mark.

2. Except for simple exploratory studies, problem statements must include at least two must include two
variables. Researchers try to relate one variable to another. The term “variable” has variables
a very special meaning in research. A variable is a characteristic to which numbers variable defined
can be assigned. This statement sounds as though it is restricted to quantitative stud¬
ies, but it is not. The following question has clear variables in it: Has the use of threat
appeals declined in American preaching from 1900 to 2000? To answer this ques¬
tion, we might survey manuscripts of preachers of each time period to identify the
34 Introduction to the Field

frequency of such appeals at each time frame. The use of threat appeals is a varia e.
It is capable of taking on two values: either preachers use them in sermons or they do
not (100 percent or 0 percent use). Of course, the number of such threats is an obvi¬
ous variable. The time frame, 1900 to 2000, also is a variable. The opposite of a vari¬
constant defined
able is a “constant.” A constant is a characteristic to which only one number may be
assigned. Many research questions ask about relationships between some variables
while holding others constant. Look at this problem statement: What is the relation¬
ship between communication apprehension and grades in public speaking among
upper-division college students? The class level of the college students is held con¬
stant, since it is restricted only to upper-division college students. You might some¬
times hear researchers talk about the need to have control in their studies. What they
mean is that they want to take variables that can be nuisances and make constants out
of them. Some problem statements involve such low-level questions that only one
variable is involved, such as:

• What proportion of daily newspapers do people read?

• Which medium of advertising is most popular among small businesses?
• How many women chair communication departments in America?

Though in the early stages of research such questions may be useful to characterize a
process or field, they elicit rather low levels of information.

problems must be 3. Problem statements must be testable. A testable problem must be capable of
testable yielding more than one answer. Yet sometimes researchers ask questions that can
have only one answer. Look at these examples from the work of pupils and some
established scholars:

Example Deficiency

How can politicians sell The example asks about a logical possibility: what can
themselves to the public? politicians do? Future options are nearly endless, and
there is no way to find an appeal that is not possible
in the future.
Is there a pattern to the ways The example is answerable only by saying “yes.”
people watch television? Anything forms a pattern, even if the regularity is
random. The question answers itself by its own
construction.
Do charismatic leaders increase This example cannot be answered because notions of
group productivity? “charismatic leaders” and “productivity” may be so
broad that they cannot be pinned down. The problem
is not in testable language.

problems make no 4. Problem statements must not advance personal value judgments. Research can reveal
personal value whether computerized therapy reduces stuttering in children. But it cannot tell if
judgments computerized therapy should be used for stutterers. That choice requires moving be¬
yond research and evaluating pragmatic choices. Research questions, therefore, may
 Communication Research Problems and Hypotheses 35

not substitute value judgments for appeals to facts, as in the following attempts: Is
public speaking training better at reducing communication apprehension than coun¬
seling therapy? Should trials be videotaped? Is it a bad idea for newspapers to use un¬
named sources for news reports?

In qualitative studies employing rhetorical criticism some research questions might rhetorical criticism
seem to deal with value judgments, but a close look reveals that they are just as rig¬ studies do not just
orous as any problem questions in so-called clearly “scientific” research. For in¬ make personal value
stance, in Chapter 1 the following examples were used for rhetorical criticism topics judgments
in qualitative studies:

• Evaluating use of argument by Bill Clinton in his presidential debates

• Evaluating whether newspaper reports gave politically balanced accounts of
U.S. entry into the Kosovo-Albanian crisis
• Evaluating the ethical use of surgery in the treatment of speech handicapped pa¬
tients in the nineteenth century

Though these topics (and specific problem questions derived from them) clearly criticism applies
ask for assessments based on systems and standards, you will notice that they do standards to draw
not invite researchers to make personal recommendations. Each of these exam¬ conclusions virtually
ples invites a study to apply a standard of assessment (such as tests of arguments regardless of the
listed in argumentation textbooks, isolation of positive and negative phrases researcher’s value
identified in books on language, or standards of ethics [e.g., the categorical im¬ judgments about the
perative, the golden mean, or situation ethics] clearly described in texts on the way things ought to
subject). In each case, the scholar takes the applicable standards, applies them be
to examples of communication, and asks what conclusions must be drawn, re¬
gardless of the critic’s personal value judgments about the way things ought to
be in the future. It makes no difference if the researcher likes the results of the
assessment. Using the chosen standards, the researcher must accept the results
obtained. As you can see, applying standards of assessment involves great at¬
tention to detail and places strong checks on interference from personal value
judgments.

5. Problem statements must be clear grammatical statements. In the fever of enthusi¬ must be grammatical
asm, some scholars may compose incomplete or ungrammatical problem statements
that are inevitably unclear. By expressing problem statements with great clarity, it is
possible to promote thoughtful research that gets the job done efficiently. Using non¬
standard grammar can also cause misunderstandings. A student turned in this prob¬
lem statement: “Does humor make a speech more persuasive?” In standard English
one cannot say more without following it with a than. Anything less than this form is
a sentence fragment. More than what? one might ask. More than nothing? More than
it once was? More than messages using other types of appeals? Indeed all compara¬
tive forms (such as higher, lower, less, and fewer) require than to complete the sen¬
tence. It is wise to use standard grammar if problem statements are to be capable of
standing on their own and guiding research.
36 Introduction to the Field

Constructing Problem Statements

format for phrasing Once a meaningful problem issue has been found, composing a problem statement can
problem questions be handled with relative ease. The following format can be used to construct worthwhile
problem statements. The format involves filling in blanks in the following question.

What is the relationship between_and_?

By substituting variables of interest, many research questions can be composed. Of
course, this format is just a starting point since statements may require great modifica¬
tion to put them in their final form. Some problems involve more than two variables.
Even so, all problems ask about relationships between variables, and useful problems
may be found as clear formal statements. Pupils sometimes advance first drafts of prob¬
lem statements that are sentence fragments (little more than topic titles). Yet, useful
problems can be developed by thoughtful revisions as in these examples:

First Draft Example Revised Example

(from a student of mass “What is the relationship between the frequency of

communication) “The image girls as characters in children’s programming and
of girls in children’s their portrayal in submissive or dominant roles?”
programming”
(from a student of interpersonal “What is the relationship between the amount of self¬
communication) “Self¬ disclosure among romantic partners and their
disclosure and relationship level of communication satisfaction?”
development”
(from a student of speech and “What is the relationship between the use of group or
hearing science) “Adult individual therapy for adult aphasic patients and
aphasia and therapy” their use of correct initiation and response to
questions?”

problems should Sometimes problem statements are overwritten. Difficulties emerge when problem
exclude statements include motives or explanations of observations. This submission is an exam¬
interpretation of ple of such an overwritten statement: “In an effort to avoid potential charges of sexual ha¬
results rassment, do male managers avoid socially oriented interpersonal communication
episodes with female employees?” The introductory phrase is not a meaningful part of the
problem statement, but a possible interpretation of results. Eventually the question be¬
came, “Do male managers in complex organizations report fewer socially oriented inter¬
personal communication episodes with female employees than with male employees?”
Now that we have noticed that problem statements play a vital role in research, it
is obvious that each area in our field makes great use of them. Table 2.1 shows examples
of the sorts of research questions we might probe. Both qualitative and quantitative re¬
search efforts require full problem statements to guide efforts. You might wish to look at
the list of sample questions to see if any stimulate your interest or give you some ideas
of directions you may wish to take on your own.

USING HYPOTHESES
Whereas problem statements ask about relationships that might be found, hypotheses
hypothesis defined give direct declarative answers to the problem. A hypothesis is “an expectation about
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
we have thus been forced, has impelled us to apply a portion of our
industry and capital to internal manufactures and improvements.
The extent of this conversion is daily increasing, and little doubt
remains that the establishments formed and forming will—under the
auspices of cheaper materials and subsistence, the freedom of labor
from taxation with us, and of protecting duties and prohibitions—
become permanent. The commerce with the Indians, too, within our
own boundaries, is likely to receive abundant aliment from the same
internal source, and will secure to them peace and the progress of
civilization, undisturbed by practices hostile to both.
The accounts of the receipts and expenditures during the year
ending on the 30th day of September last, being not yet made up, a
correct statement will hereafter be transmitted from the Treasury. In
the meantime, it is ascertained that the receipts have amounted to
near eighteen millions of dollars, which, with the eight millions and a
half in the treasury at the beginning of the year, have enabled us,
after meeting the current demands and interest incurred, to pay two
millions three hundred thousand dollars of the principal of our
funded debt, and left us in the treasury, on that day, near fourteen
millions of dollars. Of these, five millions three hundred and fifty
thousand dollars will be necessary to pay what will be due on the
first day of January next, which will complete the reimbursement of
the eight per cent. stock. These payments, with those made in the
six years and a half preceding, will have extinguished thirty-three
millions five hundred and eighty thousand dollars of the principal of
the funded debt, being the whole which could be paid or purchased
within the limits of the law and our contracts; and the amount of
principal thus discharged will have liberated the revenue from about
two millions of dollars of interest, and added that sum annually to
the disposable surplus. The probable accumulation of the surpluses
of revenue beyond what can be applied to the payment of the public
debt, whenever the freedom and safety of our commerce shall be
restored, merits the consideration of Congress. Shall it lie
unproductive in the public vaults? Shall the revenue be reduced? Or
shall it rather be appropriated to the improvements of roads, canals,
rivers, education, and other great foundations of prosperity and
union, under the powers which Congress may already possess, or
such amendment of the constitution as may be approved by the
States? While uncertain of the course of things, the time may be
advantageously employed in obtaining the powers necessary for a
system of improvement, should that be thought best.
Availing myself of this the last occasion which will occur of
addressing the two houses of the legislature at their meeting, I
cannot omit the expression of my sincere gratitude for the repeated
proofs of confidence manifested to me by themselves and their
predecessors since my call to the administration, and the many
indulgences experienced at their hands. The same grateful
acknowledgments are due to my fellow citizens generally, whose
support has been my great encouragement under all
embarrassments. In the transaction of their business I cannot have
escaped error. It is incident to our imperfect nature. But I may say
with truth, my errors have been of the understanding, not of
intention; and that the advancement of their rights and interests has
been the constant motive for every measure. On these
considerations I solicit their indulgence. Looking forward with anxiety
to their future destinies, I trust that, in their steady character
unshaken by difficulties, in their love of liberty, obedience to law,
and support of the public authorities, I see a sure guaranty of the
permanence of our republic; and retiring from the charge of their
affairs, I carry with me the consolation of a firm persuasion that
Heaven has in store for our beloved country long ages to come of
prosperity and happiness.

SPECIAL MESSAGE.—December 30, 1808.

To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States:—

I lay before the legislature a letter from Governor Claiborne, on the
subject of a small tribe of Alabama Indians, on the western side of
the Mississippi, consisting of about a dozen families. Like other
erratic tribes in that country, it is understood that they have hitherto
moved from place to place, according to their convenience, without
appropriating to themselves exclusively any particular territory. But
having now become habituated to some of the occupations of
civilized life, they wish for a fixed residence. I suppose it will be the
interest of the United States to encourage the wandering tribes of
that country to reduce themselves to fixed habitations, whenever
they are so disposed. The establishment of towns, and growing
attachment to them, will furnish, in some degree, pledges of their
peaceable and friendly conduct. The case of this particular tribe is
now submitted to the consideration of Congress.

SPECIAL MESSAGE.—January 6, 1809.

To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States:—

I now lay before Congress a statement of the works of defence
which it has been thought necessary to provide in the first instance,
for the security of our seaports, towns, and harbors, and of the
progress toward their completion; their extent has been adapted to
the scale of the appropriation, and to the circumstances of the
several places.
The works undertaken at New York are calculated to annoy and
endanger any naval force which shall enter the harbor, and, still
more, one which should attempt to lie before the city. To prevent
altogether the entrance of large vessels, a line of blocks across the
harbor has been contemplated, and would, as is believed, with the
auxiliary means already provided, render that city safe against naval
enterprise. The expense, as well as the importance of the work,
renders it a subject proper for the special consideration of Congress.
At New Orleans, two separate systems of defence are necessary; the
one for the river, the other for the lake, which, at present, can give
no aid to one another. The canal now leading from the lake, if
continued into the river, would enable the armed vessels in both
stations to unite, and to meet in conjunction an attack from either
side; half the aggregate force would then have the same effect as
the whole; or the same force double the effect of what either can
have. It would also enable the vessels stationed in the lake, when
attacked by superior force, to retire to a safer position in the river.
The same considerations of expense and importance renders this
also a question for the special decision of Congress.

Circumstances, fellow citizens, which seriously threatened the peace

of our country, have made it a duty to convene you at an earlier
period than usual. The love of peace, so much cherished in the
bosoms of our citizens, which has so long guided the proceedings of
the public councils, and induced forbearance under so many wrongs,
may not insure our continuance in the quiet
States:—
 PART III.
REPLIES TO PUBLIC ADDRESSES.

MESSRS. NEHEMIAH DODGE, EPHRAIM ROBBINS, AND

STEPHEN S. NELSON, A COMMITTEE OF THE DANBURY
BAPTIST ASSOCIATION, IN THE STATE OF CONNECTICUT.

January 1, 1802.

Gentlemen,—The affectionate sentiments of esteem and approbation

which you are so good as to express towards me, on behalf of the
Danbury Baptist Association, give me the highest satisfaction. My
duties dictate a faithful and zealous pursuit of the interests of my
constituents, and in proportion as they are persuaded of my fidelity
to those duties, the discharge of them becomes more and more
pleasing.
Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between
man and his God, that he owes account to none other for his faith or
his worship, that the legislative powers of government reach actions
only, and not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that
act of the whole American people which declared that their
legislature should "make no law respecting an establishment of
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof," thus building a wall
of separation between church and State. Adhering to this expression
of the supreme will of the nation in behalf of the rights of
conscience, I shall see with sincere satisfaction the progress of those
sentiments which tend to restore to man all his natural rights,
convinced he has no natural right in opposition to his social duties.
I reciprocate your kind prayers for the protection and blessing of the
common Father and Creator of man, and tender you for yourselves
and your religious association, assurances of my high respect and
esteem.

TO WILLIAM JUDD, ESQUIRE, CHAIRMAN.

Washington, November 15, 1802.

Expressions of confidence from the respectable description of my

fellow citizens, in whose name you have been pleased to address
me, are received with that cordial satisfaction which kindred
principles and sentiments naturally inspire.
The proceedings which they approve were sincerely intended for the
general good; and if, as we hope, they should in event produce it,
they will be indebted for it to the wisdom of our legislative councils,
and of those distinguished fellow laborers whom the laws have
permitted me to associate in the general administration.
Exercising that discretion which the constitution has confided to me
in the choice of public agents, I have been sensible, on the one
hand, of the justice done to those who have been systematically
excluded from the service of their country, and attentive, on the
other, to restore justice in such a way as might least affect the
sympathies and the tranquillity of the public mind. Deaths,
resignations, delinquencies, malignant and active opposition to the
order of things established by the will of the nation, will, it is
believed, within a moderate space of time, make room for a just
participation in the management of the public affairs; and that being
once effected, future changes at the helm will be viewed with
tranquillity by those in subordinate station.
Every wish of my heart will be completely gratified when that portion
of my fellow citizens which has been misled as to the character of
our measures and principles, shall, by their salutary effects, be
corrected in their opinions, and joining with good will the great mass
of their fellow citizens, consolidate an union which cannot be too
much cherished.
I pray you, Sir, to accept for yourself, and for the general meeting of
the Republicans of the State of Connecticut at New Haven, whose
sentiments you have been so good as to convey to me, assurances
of my high consideration and respect.

TO THE LEGISLATURE OF THE STATE OF TENNESSEE.

December 24, 1803.

Amidst the anxieties which are felt for the favorable issue of
measures adopted for promoting the public good, it is a consolation
to meet the approbation of those on whose behalf they are
instituted. I shall certainly endeavor to merit a continuance of the
good opinion which the legislature of Tennessee have been pleased
to express in their address of the 8th November, by a zealous
attention to the interests of my constituents; and shall count on a
candid indulgence whenever untoward events may happen to
disappoint well-founded expectations.
In availing our western brethren of those circumstances which occur
for promoting their interests, we only perform that duty which we
owe to every portion of the Union, under occurrences equally
favorable; and, impressed with the inconveniences to which the
citizens of Tennessee are subjected by a want of contiguity in the
portions composing their State, I shall be ready to do for their relief,
whatever the general legislature may authorize, and justice to our
neighbors permit.
The acquisition of Louisiana, although more immediately beneficial
to the western States, by securing for their produce a certain
market, not subject to interruption by officers over whom we have
no control, yet is also deeply interesting to the maritime portion of
our country, inasmuch as by giving the exclusive navigation of the
Mississippi, it avoids the burthens and sufferings of a war, which
conflicting interests on that river would inevitably have produced at
no distant period. It opens, too, a fertile region for the future
establishments in the progress of that multiplication so rapidly taking
place in all parts.
I have seen with great satisfaction the promptitude with which the
first portions of your militia repaired to the standard of their country.
It was deemed best to provide a force equal to any event which
might arise out of the transaction, and especially to the preservation
of order, among our newly-associated brethren, in the first moments
of their transition from one authority to another. I tender to the
legislature of Tennessee assurances of my high respect and
consideration.

TO THE TWO BRANCHES OF THE LEGISLATURE OF

MASSACHUSETTS.

February 14, 1807.

It is with sincere pleasure that I receive, from the two branches of

the legislature of Massachusetts, an address, expressive of their
satisfaction with the administration of our government. The
approbation of my constituents is truly the most valued reward for
any services it has fallen to my lot to render them—their confidence
and esteem, the greatest consolation of my life. The measures which
you have been pleased particularly to note, I have believed to have
been for the best interests of our country. But far from assuming
their merit to myself, they belong first, to a wise and patriotic
legislature, which has given them the form and sanction of law, and
next, to my faithful and able fellow-laborers in the Executive
administration.
The progression of sentiment in the great body of our fellow citizens
of Massachusetts, and the increasing support of their opinion, I have
seen with satisfaction, and was ever confident I should see;
persuaded that an enlightened people, whenever they should view
impartially the course we have pursued, could never wish that our
measures should have been reversed; could never desire that the
expenses of the government should have been increased, taxes
multiplied, debt accumulated, wars undertaken, and the tomahawk
and scalping knife left in the hands of our neighbors, rather than the
hoe and plough. In whatever tended to strengthen the republican
features of our constitution, we could not fail to expect from
Massachusetts, the cradle of our revolutionary principles, an ultimate
concurrence; and cultivating the peace of nations, with justice and
prudence, we yet were always confident that, whenever our rights
would be to be vindicated against the aggression of foreign foes, or
the machinations of internal conspirators, the people of
Massachusetts, so prominent in the military achievements which
placed our country in the right of self-government, would never be
found wanting in their duty to the calls of their country, or the
requisitions of their government.
During the term, which yet remains, of my continuance in the station
assigned me, your confidence shall not be disappointed, so far as
faithful endeavors for your service can merit it.
I feel with particular sensibility your kind expressions towards myself
personally; and I pray that that Providence in whose hand are the
nations of the earth, may continue towards ours his fostering care,
and bestow on yourselves the blessings of His protection and favor.
 TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE SENATE, AND SPEAKER OF THE
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES OF MASSACHUSETTS.

Washington, February 14, 1807.

Gentlemen,—I acknowledge, in the first moment it has been in my

power, the receipt of your joint letter of January 26th, with the
address of the two branches of legislature of Massachusetts,
expressing their approbation of the proceedings of our government.
This declaration cannot fail to give particular and general satisfaction
to our fellow citizens, and to produce wholesome effects at home
and abroad. The remarkable union of sentiment which pervaded
nearly the whole of the States and territories composing our nation,
was such, indeed, as to inspire a just confidence in the course we
had to pursue. Yet something was sensibly wanting to fill up the
measure of our happiness, while a member so important, so
esteemed as Massachusetts, had not yet declared its participation in
the common sentiment. That it is now done, will be a subject of
mutual congratulation.
I am sensible that the terms in which you have been pleased to
make this communication, are not merely those of official duty. I feel
how much I am indebted to the kind and friendly disposition they
manifest; and I cherish them as proofs of an esteem highly valued.
Permit me, through you, to return to the two branches of the
legislature the enclosed answer, and accept the assurances of my
esteem and high consideration.

TO MESSRS. THOMAS, ELLICOT, AND OTHERS.

November 13, 1807.

Friends and Fellow Citizens,—I thank you for the address you have
kindly presented me, on behalf of that portion of the Society of
Friends of which you are the representatives, and I learn with
satisfaction their approbation of the principles which have influenced
the councils of the general government in their decisions on several
important subjects confided to them.
The desire to preserve our country from the calamities and ravages
of war, by cultivating a disposition, and pursuing a conduct,
conciliatory and friendly to all nations, has been sincerely
entertained and faithfully followed. It was dictated by the principles
of humanity, the precepts of the gospel, and the general wish of our
country, and it was not to be doubted that the Society of Friends,
with whom it is a religious principle, would sanction it by their
support.
The same philanthropic motives have directed the public endeavors
to ameliorate the condition of the Indian natives, by introducing
among them a knowledge of agriculture and some of the mechanic
arts, by encouraging them to resort to these as more certain, and
less laborious resources for subsistence than the chase; and by
withholding from them the pernicious supplies of ardent spirits. They
are our brethren, our neighbors; they may be valuable friends, and
troublesome enemies. Both duty and interest then enjoin, that we
should extend to them the blessings of civilized life, and prepare
their minds for becoming useful members of the American family. In
this important work I owe to your society an acknowledgment that
we have felt the benefits of their zealous co-operation, and approved
its judicious direction towards producing among those people habits
of industry, comfortable subsistence, and civilized usages, as
preparatory to religious instruction and the cultivation of letters.
Whatever may have been the circumstances which influenced our
forefathers to permit the introduction of personal bondage into any
part of these States, and to participate in the wrongs committed on
an unoffending quarter of the globe, we may rejoice that such
circumstances, and such a sense of them, exist no longer. It is
honorable to the nation at large that their legislature availed
themselves of the first practicable moment for arresting the progress
of this great moral and political error; and I sincerely pray with you,
my friends, that all the members of the human family may, in the
time prescribed by the Father of us all, find themselves securely
established in the enjoyment of life, liberty, and happiness.

TO CAPTAIN JOHN THOMAS.

Washington, November 18, 1807.

Sir,—I received on the 14th instant your favor of August 31, and I
beg you to assure my fellow citizens of the Baptist church of
Newhope meeting-house, that I learn with great satisfaction their
approbation of the principles which have guided the present
administration of the government. To cherish and maintain the rights
and liberties of our citizens, and to ward from them the burthens,
the miseries, and the crimes of war, by a just and friendly conduct
towards all nations, were among the most obvious and important
duties of those to whom the management of their public interests
have been confided; and happy shall we be if a conduct guided by
these views on our part, shall secure to us a reciprocation of peace
and justice from other nations.
Among the most inestimable of our blessings, also, is that you so
justly particularize, of liberty to worship our Creator in the way we
think most agreeable to his will; a liberty deemed in other counties
incompatible with good government, and yet proved by our
experience to be its best support.
Your confidence in my dispositions to befriend every human right is
highly grateful to me, and is rendered the more so by a
consciousness that these dispositions have been sincerely
entertained and pursued. I am thankful for the kindness expressed
towards me personally, and pray you to return to the society in
whose name you have addressed me, my best wishes for their
happiness and prosperity; and to accept for yourself assurances of
my great esteem and respect.

TO HIS EXCELLENCY GOVERNOR SMITH.

Washington, December 1, 1807.

Sir,—The Secretary of State has communicated to me your letter to

him of the 14th of November, covering the resolutions of the General
Assembly of Vermont of the 4th of the same month.
The sentiments expressed by the General Assembly of Vermont on
the late hostile attack on the Chesapeake by the Leopard ship-of-
war, as well as on other violations of our maritime and territorial
rights, are worthy of their known patriotism; and their readiness to
rally around the constituted authorities of their country, and to
support its rights with their lives and fortunes, is the more honorable
to them as exposed by their position, in front of the contest. The
issue of the present misunderstandings cannot now be foreseen; but
the measures adopted for their settlement have been sincerely
directed to maintain the rights, the honor, the peace of our country;
and the approbation of them expressed by the General Assembly is
to me a confirmation of their correctness.
The confidence they are pleased to declare in my personal care of
the public interests, is highly gratifying to me, and gives a new claim
to everything which zeal can effect for their service.
I beg leave to tender to the General Assembly of Vermont, and to
yourself, the assurances of my high consideration and respect.

TO THE LEGISLATURE OF VERMONT.

 December 10, 1807.

I received in due season the address of the Legislature of Vermont,

bearing date the 5th of November 1806, in which, with their
approbation of the general course of my administration, they were
so good as to express their desire that I would consent to be
proposed again, to the public voice, on the expiration of my present
term of office. Entertaining, as I do, for the legislature of Vermont
those sentiments of high respect which would have prompted an
immediate answer, I was certain, nevertheless, they would approve
a delay which had for its object to avoid a premature agitation of the
public mind, on a subject so interesting as the election of a chief
magistrate.
That I should lay down my charge at a proper period, is as much a
duty as to have borne it faithfully. If some termination to the
services of the chief magistrate be not fixed by the constitution, or
supplied by practice, his office, nominally for years, will, in fact,
become for life; and history shows how easily that degenerates into
an inheritance. Believing that a representative government,
responsible at short periods of election, is that which produces the
greatest sum of happiness to mankind, I feel it a duty to do no act
which shall essentially impair that principle; and I should unwillingly
be the person who, disregarding the sound precedent set by an
illustrious predecessor, should furnish the first example of
prolongation beyond the second term of office.
Truth, also, requires me to add, that I am sensible of that decline
which advancing years bring on; and feeling their physical, I ought
not to doubt their mental effect. Happy if I am the first to perceive
and to obey this admonition of nature, and to solicit a retreat from
cares too great for the wearied faculties of age.
For the approbation which the legislature of Vermont has been
pleased to express of the principles and measures pursued in the
management of their affairs, I am sincerely thankful; and should I
be so fortunate as to carry into retirement the equal approbation
and good will of my fellow citizens generally, it will be the comfort of
my future days, and will close a service of forty years with the only
reward it ever wished.

"Addresses approving the general course of his administration, were

also received from Georgia, December 6th, 1806; from Rhode
Island, February 27th, 1807; from New York, March 13th, 1807;
from Pennsylvania, March 13th, 1807; and from Maryland, January
3d, 1807; to all which answers like that sent to Vermont, were
returned."—Ed.

TO THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE PEOPLE OF NEW JERSEY

IN THEIR LEGISLATURE.

December 10, 1807.

The sentiments, fellow citizens, which you are pleased to express in

your address of the 4th inst., of attachment and esteem for the
general government, and of confidence and approbation of those
who direct its councils, cannot but be pleasing to the friends of
union generally, and give a new claim on all those who direct the
public affairs, for everything which zeal can effect for the good of
their country.
It is indeed to be deplored that distant as we are from the storms
and convulsions which agitate the European world, the pursuit of an
honest neutrality, beyond the reach of reproach, has been
insufficient to secure to us the certain enjoyment of peace with
those whose interests as well as ours would be promoted by it. What
will be the issue of present misunderstandings cannot as yet be
foreseen; but the measures adopted for their settlement have been
sincerely directed to maintain the rights, the honor, and the peace of
our country. Should they fail, the ardor of our citizens to obey the
summons of their country, and the offer which you attest, of their
lives and fortunes in its support, are worthy of their patriotism, and
are pledges of our safety.
The suppression of the late conspiracy by the hand of the people,
uplifted to destroy it whenever it reared its head, manifests their
fitness for self-government, and the power of a nation, of which
every individual feels that his own will is a part of the public
authority.
The effect of the public contributions in reducing the national debt,
and liberating our resources from the canker of interest, has been so
far salutary, and encourages us to continue in the same course; or, if
necessarily interrupted, to resume it as soon as practicable.
I perceive with sincere pleasure that my conduct in the chief
magistracy has so far met your approbation, that my continuance in
that office, after its present term, would be acceptable to you. But
that I should lay down my charge at a proper period is as much a
duty as to have borne it faithfully. If some termination to the
services of the chief magistrate be not fixed by the constitution, or
supplied by practice, his office, nominally for years, will, in fact,
become for life, and history shows how easily that degenerates into
an inheritance. Believing that a representative government,
responsible at short periods of election, is that which produces the
greatest sum of happiness to mankind, I feel it a duty to do no act
which shall essentially impair that principle; and I should unwillingly
be the person who, disregarding the sound precedent set by an
illustrious predecessor, should furnish the first example of
prolongation beyond the second term of office.
Truth also obliges me to add, that I am sensible of that decline
which advancing years bring on, and feeling their physical, I ought
not to doubt their mental effect. Happy if I am the first to perceive
and to obey this admonition of nature, and to solicit a retreat from
cares too great for the wearied faculties of age.
Declining a re-election on grounds which cannot but be approved, I
am sincerely thankful for the approbation which the Legislature of
New Jersey are pleased to manifest of the principles and measures
pursued in the management of their affairs; and should I be so
fortunate as to carry into retirement the equal approbation and good
will of my fellow citizens generally, it will be the comfort of my future
days, and will close a service of forty years with the only reward it
ever wished.

TO THE TAMMANY SOCIETY OF THE CITY OF WASHINGTON.

December 14, 1807.

The appearances for some time past, threatening our peace, fellow
citizens, have justly excited a general anxiety; and I have been
happy to receive from every quarter of the Union the most
satisfactory assurances of fidelity to our country, and of devotion to
the support of its rights. Your concurrence in these sentiments,
expressed in the address you have been pleased to present me, is a
proof of your patriotism, and of that firm spirit which constitutes the
ultimate appeal of nations. What will be the issue of present
misunderstandings, is, as yet, unknown. But, willing ourselves to do
justice to others, we ought to expect it from them. If any among us
view erroneously the rights which late events have brought into
question, let us hope that they will be corrected by the further
investigation of reason; but, at all events, that they will acquiesce in
what their country shall authoritatively decide, and arrange
themselves faithfully under the banners of the law.
Your approbation of the measures which have been pursued, is a
pleasing confirmation of their correctness; and, with particular
thankfulness for the kind expressions of your address towards myself
personally, I reciprocate sincere wishes for your welfare.
 TO MESSRS. ABNER WATKINS AND BERNARD TODD.

December 21st, 1807.

I have duly received, fellow citizens, the address of October 21st,

which you have been so kind as to forward me on the part of the
society of Baptists, of the Appomatox Association, and it is with
great satisfaction when I learn from my constituents that the
measures pursued in the administration of their affairs, during the
time I have occupied the presidential chair, have met their
approbation. Of the wisdom of these measures, it belongs to others
to judge; that they have always been dictated by a desire to do what
should be most for the public good, I may conscientiously affirm.
Believing that a definite period of retiring from this station will tend
materially to secure our elective form of government; and sensible,
too, of that decline which advancing years bring on, I have felt it a
duty to withdraw at the close of my present term of office; and to
strengthen by practice a principle which I deem salutary. That others
may be found whose talents and integrity render them proper
deposits of the public liberty and interests, and who have made
themselves known by their eminent services, we can all affirm, of
our personal knowledge. To us it will belong, fellow citizens, when
their country shall have called them to its helm, to give them our
support while there, to facilitate their honest efforts for the public
good, even where other measures might seem to us more direct, to
strengthen the arm of our country by union under them, and to
reserve ourselves for judging them at the constitutional period of
election.
I pray you to tender to your society, of which you are a committee,
my thanks for the indulgence with which they have viewed my
conduct, with the assurance of my high respect, and to accept
yourselves my friendly and respectful salutations.
 TO THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NORTH CAROLINA.

January 10, 1808.

The wrongs our country has suffered, fellow citizens, by violations of

those moral rules which the Author of our nature has implanted in
man as the law of his nature, to govern him in his associated, as
well as individual character, have been such as justly to excite the
sensibilities you express, and a deep abhorrence at indications
threatening a substitution of power for right in the intercourse
between nations. Not less worthy of your indignation have been the
machinations of parricides who have endeavored to bring into
danger the union of these States, and to subvert, for the purposes of
inordinate ambition, a government founded in the will of its citizens,
and directed to no object but their happiness.
I learn, with the liveliest sentiments of gratitude and respect, your
approbation of my conduct, in the various charges which my country
has been pleased to confide to me at different times; and especially
that the administration of our public affairs, since my accession to
the chief magistracy, has been so far satisfactory, that my
continuance in that office after its present term, would be acceptable
to you. But, that I should lay down my charge at a proper period, is
as much a duty as to have borne it faithfully. If some termination to
the services of the chief magistrate be not fixed by the constitution,
or supplied by practice, his office, nominally for years, will in fact
become for life; and history shows how easily that degenerates into
an inheritance. Believing that a representative government,
responsible at short periods of election, is that which produces the
greatest sum of happiness to mankind, I feel it a duty to do no act
which shall essentially impair that principle; and I should unwillingly
be the person who, disregarding the sound precedent set by an
illustrious predecessor, should furnish the first example of
prolongation beyond the second term of office.
Truth also obliges me to add, that I am sensible of that decline
which advancing years bring on; and feeling their physical, I ought
not to doubt their mental effect. Happy if I am the first to perceive
and obey this admonition of nature, and to solicit a retreat from
cares too great for the wearied faculties of age.
Declining a re-election on grounds which cannot but be approved, it
will be the great comfort of my future days, and the satisfactory
reward of a service of forty years, to carry into retirement such
testimonies as you have been pleased to give, of the approbation
and good will of my fellow citizens generally. And I supplicate the
Being in whose hands we all are, to preserve our country in freedom
and independence, and to bestow on yourselves the blessings of his
favor.

TO THE SOCIETY OF TAMMANY, OR COLUMBIAN ORDER,

NO. 1, OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK.

February 29, 1808.

I have received your address, fellow citizens, and, thankful for the
expressions so personally gratifying to myself, I contemplate with
high satisfaction the ardent spirit it breathes of love to our country,
and of devotion to its liberty and independence. The crisis in which it
is placed, cannot but be unwelcome to those who love peace, yet
spurn at a tame submission to wrong. So fortunately remote from
the theatre of European contests, and carefully avoiding to implicate
ourselves in them, we had a right to hope for an exemption from the
calamities which have afflicted the contending nations, and to be
permitted unoffendingly to pursue paths of industry and peace.
But the ocean, which, like the air, is the common birth-right of
mankind, is arbitrarily wrested from us, and maxims consecrated by
time, by usage, and by an universal sense of right, are trampled on
by superior force. To give time for this demoralizing tempest to pass
over, one measure only remained which might cover our beloved
country from its overwhelming fury: an appeal to the deliberate
understanding of our fellow citizens in a cessation of all intercourse
with the belligerent nations, until it can be resumed under the
protection of a returning sense of the moral obligations which
constitute a law for nations as well as individuals. There can be no
question, in a mind truly American, whether it is best to send our
citizens and property into certain captivity, and then wage war for
their recovery, or to keep them at home, and to turn seriously to
that policy which plants the manufacturer and the husbandman side
by side, and establishes at the door of every one that exchange of
mutual labors and comforts, which we have hitherto sought in
distant regions, and under perpetual risk of broils with them.
Between these alternatives your address has soundly decided, and I
doubt not your aid, and that of every real and faithful citizen,
towards carrying into effect the measures of your country, and
enforcing the sacred principle, that in opposing foreign wrong there
must be but one mind.
I receive with sensibility your kind prayers for my future happiness,
and I supplicate a protecting providence to watch over your own and
our country's freedom and welfare.

TO THE DELEGATES OF THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLICANS OF

THE CITY OF PHILADELPHIA IN GENERAL WARD
COMMITTEE ASSEMBLED.

May 25, 1808.

The epoch, fellow citizens, into which our lot has fallen, has indeed
been fruitful of events, which require vigilance, and embarrass
deliberation. That during such a period of difficulty, and amidst the
perils surrounding us, the public measures which have been pursued
should meet your approbation, is a source of great satisfaction. It
was not expected in this age, that nations so honorably
distinguished by their advances in science and civilization, would
suddenly cast away the esteem they had merited from the world,
and, revolting from the empire of morality, assume a character in
history, which all the tears of their posterity will never wash from its
pages. But during this delirium of the warring powers, the ocean
having become a field of lawless violence, a suspension of our
navigation for a time was equally necessary to avoid contest, or
enter it with advantage. This measure will, indeed, produce some
temporary inconvenience; but promises lasting good by promoting
among ourselves the establishment of manufactures hitherto sought
abroad, at the risk of collisions no longer regulated by the laws of
reason or morality.
It is to be lamented that any of our citizens, not thinking with the
mass of the nation as to the principles of our government, or of its
administration, and seeing all its proceedings with a prejudiced eye,
should so misconceive and misrepresent our situation as to
encourage aggressions from foreign nations. Our expectation is, that
their distempered views will be understood by others as they are by
ourselves; but should wars be the consequence of these delusions,
and the errors of our dissatisfied citizens find atonement only in the
blood of their sounder brethren, we must meet it as an evil
necessarily flowing from that liberty of speaking and writing which
guards our other liberties; and I have entire confidence in the
assurances that your ardor will be animated, in the conflicts brought
on, by considerations of the necessity, honor, and justice of our
cause.
I sincerely thank you, fellow citizens, for the concern you so kindly
express for my future happiness. It is a high and abundant reward
for endeavors to be useful; and I supplicate the care of Providence
over the well-being of yourselves and our beloved country.

TO THE LEGISLATURE, COUNCIL, AND HOUSE OF

REPRESENTATIVES OF THE TERRITORY OF ORLEANS.
 Washington, June 18, 1808.

I received, fellow citizens, with a just sensibility, the expressions of

esteem and approbation, communicated in your kind address of the
29th of March, and am thankful for them. The motives which have
led to my retirement from office were dictated by a sense of duty,
and will, I trust, be approved by my fellow citizens generally.
It is, indeed, a source of real concern that an impartial neutrality
scrupulously observed towards the belligerent nations of Europe, has
not been sufficient to protect us against encroachments on our
rights; and, although deprecating war, should no alternative be
presented us but disgraceful submission to unlawful pretensions, I
have entire confidence in your assurances that you will cheerfully
submit to whatever sacrifices and privations may be necessary for
vindicating the rights, the honor, and independence of our nation.
Far from a disposition to avail ourselves of the peculiar situation of
any belligerent nation to ask concessions incompatible with their
rights, with justice, or reciprocity, we have never proposed to any
the sacrifice of a single right; and in consideration of existing
circumstances, we have ever been willing, where our duty to other
nations permitted us, to relax for a time, and in some cases, that
strictness of right which the laws of nature, the acknowledgments of
the civilized world, and the equality and independence of nations
entitle us to. Should, therefore, excessive and continued injury
compel at length a resort to the means of self-redress, we are strong
in the consciousness that no wrong committed on our part, no
precipitancy in repelling the wrongs committed by others, no want of
moderation in our exactions of voluntary justice, but undeniable
aggressions on us, and the avowed purpose of continuing them, will
have produced a recurrence so little consonant with our principles or
inclinations.
To carry with me into retirement the approbation and esteem of my
fellow citizens, will, indeed, be the highest reward they can confer
on me, and certainly the only one I have ever desired. I invoke the
favor of heaven, fellow citizens, towards yourselves and our beloved
country.

TO THE LEGISLATURE OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

August 2, 1808.

In the review, fellow citizens, which, in your address of the 14th of

June, you have taken of the measures pursued since I have been
charged with their direction, I read with great satisfaction and
thankfulness, the approbation you have bestowed on them; and I
feel it an ample reward for any services I may have been able to
render.
The present moment is certainly eventful, and one which peculiarly
requires that the bond of confederation connecting us as a nation
should receive all the strength which unanimity between the national
councils and the State legislatures can give it.
The depredations committed on our vessels and property on the
high seas, the violences to the persons of our citizens employed on
that element, had long been the subject of remonstrance and
complaint, when, instead of reparation, new declarations of wrong
are issued, subjecting our navigation to general plunder. In this state
of things our first duty was to withdraw our sea-faring citizens and
property from abroad, and to keep at home resources so valuable at
all times, and so essential, if resort must ultimately be had to force.
It gave us time, too, to make a last appeal to the reason and
reputation of nations. In the meanwhile I see with satisfaction that
this measure of self-denial is approved and supported by the great
body of our real citizens; that they meet with cheerfulness the
temporary privations it occasions, and are preparing with spirit to
provide for themselves those comforts and conveniences of life, for
which it would be unwise evermore to recur to distant countries.
How long this course may be preferable to a more serious appeal,
must depend for decision on the wisdom of the legislature; unless,
indeed, a return to established principles should remove the existing
obstacles to a peaceable intercourse with foreign nations. In every
event, fellow citizens, my confidence is entire that your resolution to
maintain our national independence and sovereignty will be as firm
as it has been forbearing; and looking back on our history, I am
assured by the past, that its future pages will present nothing
unworthy of the former.
I am happy that you approve of the motives of my retirement. I shall
carry into it ardent prayers for the welfare of my country, and the
sincerest wishes for that of yourselves personally.

TO HIS EXCELLENCY GOVERNOR LANGDON.

August 2, 1808.

I received in due time your favor of June 24th, covering the address
of the House of Representatives and Senate of New Hampshire, and
I ask leave, through the same channel, to return the enclosed
answer, to be communicated to them in whatever way you think
most acceptable. Highly gratified by this approbation of the
legislature of your State, as it respects myself personally, the
moment at which it is expressed gives it peculiar value as a public
document. It is the testimony of a respectable legislature in favor of
a measure submitting our fellow citizens to some present sufferings
to preserve them from future and greater, and cannot fail to
strengthen the disposition to maintain it which I am happy to
perceive is so general. I tender you my affectionate salutations, and
with every wish for your health and happiness, the assurance of my
high respect and consideration.
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.

More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge

connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an
elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can
quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally,
our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time
and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and

personal growth every day!

ebookbell.com