LECTURE NO.

5
Machine Design, Materials and Shop Practice
(Pressure Vessels, Shafts, Keys, Couplings, Flywheels, Screw Fastenings, Power Screws, Springs, Belts, Chains, and Wire
Ropes)

1. PRESSURE VESSELS
1.1 Thin-wall Pressure Vessel
Thin-wall pressure vessel – is one whose plate thickness is small compared to the diameter of the vessel. The
ratio t/Di is equal to or less than 0.1

Circumferential tensile stress (hoop, or tangential stress)

pD
σt = i
2t

Longitudinal tensile stress (thin-wall cylinder and thin-wall sphere)

pD
σl = i
4t

Where
σt = circumferential stress, psi
σl = longitudinal stress, psi
p = internal pressure, psi
Di = internal diameter, in.
t = wall thickness, in

Joint efficiency or relative strength

Minimum strength of joint
η=
Strength of solid plate
Then considering joint efficiency,
Circumferential tensile stress
pD
σt = i
2tη
Longitudinal tensile stress

pDi
σl =
4tη
1
 Factor of safety on specified material strengths is taken as 5.

Example No. 01
Design a vertical steel cylindrical water tank 30 m in diameter and 45 m high. Consider the pressure variation in
the water to follow a straight line from the edge of the top to the center of the bottom and the allowable stress
of the steel plate is 120 MPa. Without reinforcing angle bars and rods, find the thickness of the steel plate. (ME
Board October 2006).
A. 55 mm
B. 75 mm
C. 85 mm
D. 25 mm
Solution:
( )
p = γH = 9.81 kN m 3 (45 m ) = 441.45 kPa
pDi
σt =
2t
441.45(30)
120,000 =
2t
t = 0.055 m = 55 mm

1.2 Thick-Wall Cylinder

Thick-wall cylinder – is one whose plate thickness is large compared to the diameter of the vessel. The ratio t/Di
is greater than 0.1.

Lame’s formula
Tangential stress, σt.
p r 2 − poro2 + ri2 ro2 (pi − po ) r 2
σt = i i
ro2 − ri2
Radial stress, σr,
p r 2 − poro2 − ri 2ro2 (pi − po ) r 2
σr = i i
ro2 − ri 2
where:
ro = outer radius of cylinder, in.
ri = inner radius of cylinder, in.
pi, po = internal and external pressure, respectively, psi
t = wall thickness, ro – ri
σt = tangential stress, psi
σr = radial stress, psi

Maximum tangential stress at the inside.

( )
p r 2 + r 2 − 2p r 2
σt = i o 2i 2 o o
ro − ri
Maximum tangential stress at the outside.

σt =
( )
2pi ri 2 − po ro2 + ri 2
ro2 − ri 2
Maximum shear stress at the inside surface.

2
 ro2 (pi − po )
τ=
ro2 − ri2
Tangential and radial stress with zero value for the external pressure.
p r2  r2 
σ t = 2 i i 2 1 + o2 
ro − ri  r 
pi ri 2  ro2 
σr = 1 − 
ro2 − ri 2  r 2 
Maximum tangential and radial stress with zero value for the external pressure.
(
p r2 + r2
σ t (max ) = i 2o 2i
)
ro − ri
σ r (max ) = −pi

1.2.1 Maximum-normal-stress theory

 σ t + pi 
t = ri  − 1
 σ −p 
 t i 
1.2.2 Maximum-shear theory
 σs 
t = ri  − 1
 σ −p 
 s i 
σt
Usually, σ s =
2
1.2.3 Maximum-strain theory
Birnie’s equation for open-end cylinders
 σ t + (1 − µ )pi 
t = ri  − 1
 σ − (1 + µ )p 
 t i 
Clavarino’s equation for closed-end cylinders
 σ t + (1 − 2 µ )pi 
t = ri  − 1
 σ − (1 + µ )p 
 t i 
Where µ= poisson’s ratio

1.2.4 Maximum energy of distortion theory (Octahedral shear stress theory)

 σt 
t = ri  − 1
 σ − 3p 
 t i 

3
 1.2.5 Longitudinal stress
p r2 −p r2
σ l = i i 2 o2 o
ro − ri
For zero value of external pressure
p r2
σl = 2 i i 2
ro − ri

Example No. 02
The work cylinder of a hydraulic system is acted by a hydraulic pressure of 370 psi while the maximum load
of the piston is 5500 lbs. If the allowable tensile stress is 2000 psi, what is the required wall thickness of the
cylinder.
A. 0.402 in
B. 0.448 in
C. 0.240 in
D. 0.284 in
Solution:
F = pA
π 
5500 = (370) D 2
4
D = 4.35 in
Assume thick-wall cylinder then check.
D  σ t + pi 
t= − 1
2  σ t − pi 

4.35  2000 + 370 
t=  − 1
2  2000 − 370 
t = 0.448 in
To check:
t D = 0.448 4.35 = 0.103 > 0.10 , thick cylinder. Thin cylinder is approximation of thick cylinder with t/D <
0.10. Using thin cylinder equation yields 0.402 in with t/D = 0.0924 < 0.10, but this is used only if in thick
cylinder equation t/D < 0.10.

2. SHAFTS
2.1 Shafts Subjected to Twisting Moment Only
T τ
=
J r
where T = Twisting moment (or torque) acting upon the shaft,
J = Polar moment of inertia of the shaft about the axis of rotation,
τ = Torsional shear stress, and
d
r = ; where d is the diameter of the shaft.
2
For solid shaft:
π
J= ×d4
32
Then

4
 π
T= ×τ × d 3
16
For hollow shaft:
J=
32
π
[(d ) o
4
− (d i )4 ]
Then
π  (d )4 − (d i )4 
T= ×τ  o 
16  do 

Example No. 03
A 4-inch shaft, with a 2-inch hole through it, has a weight 25 percent less than a solid 4-inch shaft, but its
strength is decreased only by what approximate percentage?
A. 12.25
B. 5.56
C. 6.25
D. 20.25
Solution:
T −T
% Reduction = s h ×100%
Ts
τπd 3
Ts =
16
τπ (do4 − di4 )
Th =
16do
d o4 − d i4
d3 −
do
% Reduction = 3
×100%
d
 d o4 − d i4 
% Reduction = 1 −  × 100%

 dod 3 
 44 − 24 
% Reduction = 1 −  ×100% = 6.25%
3 
 (4 )(4) 

2.2 Shafts Subjected to Bending Moment Only

M σb
=
I y
where M = Bending moment,
I = Moment of inertia of cross-sectional area of the shaft about the axis of rotation,
σ b = Bending stress, and
y = Distance from neutral axis to the outer-most fibre.
For round solid shaft,
π d
I = × d 4 and y =
64 2
Then
π
M= ×σ b × d 3
32
5
 For hollow shaft:
I=
π
64
[(d ) o
4
− (di )4 ]
Then
π  (d )4 − (d i )4 
M= ×σ b  o 
16  do 
2.3 Shafts Subjected to Combined Twisting Moment and Bending Moment
2.3.1 Maximum shear theory or Guest’s theory. It is used for ductile materials such as mild steel.
2.3.2 Maximum normal stress theory or Rankine’s theory. It is used for brittle materials such as cast iron.
Maximum Shear Stress Theory
τ max =
1
(σ b )2 + 4τ 2
2

[ M +T ]
2 2
1  32M   16T  16
τ max =    
 π d 3  + 4 π d 3  = π d 3
2 2
2    
π
×τ max × d 3 = M 2 + T 2
16

The expression M 2 + T 2 is known as equivalent twisting moment and is denoted by Te .

Maximum Normal Stress Theory
1
σ b(max ) = σ b +
1
(σ b )2 + 4τ 2
2 2
2 2
1 32M 1  32M   16T 
σ b(max ) = × + 
 πd 
 + 4 3 
πd 
2 π d3 2 
3
  

σ b(max ) =
321
( 2 
 2 M + M + T 
π d3
2
)
π
32
1
× σ b(max ) × d 3 = M + M 2 + T 2
2
( )
1
( )
The expression M + M 2 + T 2 is known as equivalent bending moment, is denoted by Me .
2
2.4 Shaft Subjected to Fluctuating Loads
Te = (K mM )2 + (K tT )2
Me = K mM + (K mM )2 + (K t T )2 
1
2  
Where K m = Combined shock and fatigue factor for bending, and
Kt = Combined shock and fatigue factor for torsion.

From Design of Machine Elements by V.M. Faires

σ K σ
σ es = ns σ ms + fs as for torsion
σ ys SF
σn K σ
σe = σ m + f a for bending
σy SF

Where σ is a symbol for stresses.

SF = size factor or load factors
6
 Maximum Shear Theory
1

1  σ e   σ es  
2 2 2

=   +   
N  σ n   0.5σ n  
 

von Mises-Hencky theory of failure (Octahedral shear theory)

1

1  σ e   σ es  
2 2 2

=   +   
N  σ n   0.577σ n  
 
2.5 Shaft Subjected to Axial Load in addition to Combined Torsion and Bending Loads
Resultant Stress
M⋅y F
σ1 = +
I A
2.6 Design of Shafts on the basis of Rigidity
2.6.1 Torsional rigidity
T ⋅L
θ=
J ⋅G
2.6.2 Lateral rigidity
From strength of materials
d 2y M
=
dx 2 EI

Example No. 04
A steel shaft 1.4375 inches in diameter transmits 40 hp at 1400 rpm. Assuming a modulus of rigidity of 12 x 106
psi, find the torsional deflection of the shaft in degrees per foot length.
A. 0.246
B. 0.624
C. 0.426
D. 1.246
Solution:
P = 2πTN
(40 )(33,000 ) = 2π (T )(1400 )
T = 150 ft − lb = 1800 in − lb
TL
θ=
JG
(1800)(12)  180 
θ=  
π
(1.4375)4 (12 ×106 )  π 
32
θ = 0.246 o (a)

2.7 Shaft Design by PSME Code/Machinery’s Handbook

Allowable stresses:
27.6 MPa (4000 psi) for main power-transmitting shafts.
41.5 MPa (6000 psi) for lineshafts carrying pulleys.
58.7 MPa (8500 psi) for small, short shafts, counter shafts, etc.

7
 IP Units
Torque
63,000P
T=
N
Diameter of solid shaft
5.1T
D=3
σs
321,000P
D=3
Nσ s
SI Units
Torque
9.55 ×10 6 P
T=
N
6
10 P
T=
ω
Diameter of solid shaft
5.1T
D=3
σs
48.7 ×10 6 P
D=3
Nσ s
5.1×106 P
D=3
ωσ s
2.8 For main power-transmitting shafts.
D 3N
P= in IP units
80
D 3N
P= in SI units
1.755 ×10 6
Where P = power transmitted, hp or kW
N = angular velocity of the shaft in revolutions per minute (rpm).
D = diameter of the haft, in or mm.

Example No. 05
What would be the diameter of a main power transmitting shaft to transmit 150 kw at 500 rpm?
A. 70.8 mm
B. 91.5 mm
C. 81 mm
D. 61 mm
Solution:
PSME CODE, main power transmission shaft
D 3N
P=
80
P = 150 kw = 201.07 hp

8
 D 3 (500 )
201.07 =
80
D = 3.18 in = 80.77 mm (a)

2.9 For lineshafts carrying pulleys.

D 3N
P= in IP units
53.5
D 3N
P= in SI units
1.1738 ×10 6

Example No. 06
Find the diameter of a steel lineshaft to transmit 10 hp at 150 rpm with a torsional deflection not exceeding 0.08
degree per foot of length.
A. 3.25 inches
B. 2.38 inches
C. 1.53 inches
D. 2.75 inches

Solution:
PSME CODE, lineshaft
D 3N
P=
53 .5
D 3 (150 )
10 =
53.5
D = 1.53 in

2.10 For small, short shafts.

D 3N
P= in IP units
38
D 3N
P= in SI units
0.837 ×106

Example No. 07
A short 61 mm shaft transmit 120 hp. Compute the linear speed of a pulley 55 cm mounted on the shaft. (ME
Board October 1995).
A. 1796 fpm
B. 1766 fpm
C. 1856 fpm
D. 2106 fpm
Solution:
PSME CODE, short shaft
D 3N
P=
38

9
 3
 61 
  N
120 = 
25.4 
38
N = 329.2 rpm
 3.281 ft 
V = πDpN = π (0.55 m ) (329.2 rpm )

 1m 
V = 1866 fpm (c)

2.11 Shaft Design by Machinery’s Handbook

2.11.1 Torsional deflection
According to some authorities, the allowable twist in steel transmission shafting should not exceed 0.08
degree per foot length of the shaft. The diameter D(in.) of a shaft that will permit a maximum angular
deflection of 0.08 degree per foot of length for a given torque T (in-lb) or for a given horsepower P can
be determined from the formulas:
D = 0.294 T
P
D = 4.6 4
N
Using metric SI units and assuming an allowable twist in steel transmission shafting of 0.26 degree per
meter length,
D = 2.264 T
P
D = 125.7 4
N
Another rule that has been generally used in mill practice limits the deflection to 1 degree in a length
equal to 20 times the shaft diameter. For a given torque or horsepower, the diameter of a shaft having
this maximum deflection is given by:
D = 0.13 T
P
D = 4.03
N

Example No. 08
Compute the diameter (in inches) of a SAE 1030 steel shaft to transmit 12 hp at 120 rpm with torsional
deflection below 0.08 degree/foot length as required. (ME Board October 2002) (ME Board April 2002).
A. 2 7/8
B. 2 5/8
C. 2 ¼
D. 2 3/8
Solution:
From Machinery’s Handbook, max. angular deflection = 0.08 deg per foot length
P 12
D = 4 .6 4 = 4.64 = 2.59 in say 2 5/8 in (b)
N 120

2.11.2 For steel line shafting, it is considered good practice to limit the linear deflection to a maximum of 0.010
inch per foot of length. The maximum distance in feet between bearings, for average conditions, in
order to avoid excessive linear deflection, is determined by the formulas:
L = 8.953 D 2 for shafting subject to no bending action except its own weight
10
 L = 5.23 D 2 for shafting subject to bending action of pulleys, etc.
in which D = diameter of shaft in inches and L = maximum distance between bearings in feet. Pulleys
should be placed as close to the bearings as possible.

Example No. 09
A 16 ft steel lineshaft has no bending action except its own weight. What power in hp can the shaft
deliver at a speed of 200 rpm. Consider that the torsional deflection will not exceed 0.08 deg/ ft length.
(ME Board April 1998).
A. 13.2
B. 15.8
C. 24.4
D. 14.6
Solution:
From Machinery’s Handbook, for no bending action
L = 8.953 D 2
16 = 8.953 D 2
D = 2.39 in
From Machinery’s Handbook, max. angular deflection = 0.08 deg per foot length
P
D = 4.64
N
P
2.39 = 4.64
200
P = 14.6 hp (d)

3. Keys
3.1 Shearing and Crushing of the key
Torque transmitted by the shaft,
FD
T=
2
63,000hp
T= in-lb
n
P
T=
2π n
Shearing stress
2T F
τ= =
wLD wL
Crushing (Compressive) stress
2T 2F
σc = =
tLD tL
where
D = shaft diameter
w = width of key
t = thickness of key
F = tangential force

11
 T = torque

Example No. 10
Determine the key length of square key for gear driven shaft to withstand a torque of 2891.4 N-m. The shaft
diameter is 65 mm with design stress of 72.6 MPa in shear, the thickness and width of key is 5/8 in. (ME Board
October 1998).
A. 3.12 cm
B. 3.42 cm
C. 4.22 cm
D. 7.7 cm
Solution:
FD
T=
2
F (0.065)
2891.4 =
2
F = 88,966.2 N
F
τ=
wL
88,966.2 N − m
72.6 ×106 N m 2 =
5 
 in (0.0254 m in )L
8 
L = 0.07719 m = 7.719 cm (d)

3.2 Proportions of key

The usual proportions of the square key are
D
w =t =
4
Typical hub lengths fall between 1.25D and 2.4D.
For the same material and w = t = D/4, σ c = 2τ , L = 1.1571D.

Example No. 11
A pulley is keyed to a 2 ½ inches diameter shaft by a 7/16 inch by 3 inches flat key. The shaft rotates at 50 rpm.
The allowable shearing stress for the key is 22 ksi. The allowable compressive stress for the key, hub and shaft
are 66 ksi, 59 ksi and 72 ksi, respectively. Determine the maximum torque the pulley can safely deliver.
A. 51,562.5 in-lbs
B. 54,140.6 in-lbs
C. 67,495.1 in-lbs
D. 48,398.4 in-lbs
Solution:
The given is thickness,
D 2.5 5
w= = = in = 0.625 in
4 4 8
Torque carried by the key:
In shear
F 2T
τk = = k
wL DwL
2Tk
22,000 =
(3)(0.625)(3)
Tk = 61,875 in − lb
12
 In compression
F 2F 4Tk
σc = = =
t  tL DtL
 L
2
4Tk
66,000 =
(2.5)(7 16)(3)
Tk = 54,141 in − lb
Torque carried by the shaft: Shear stress equal to shear stress for key. No compressive stress.
16T
τ s = 3s
πD
16Ts
22,000 =
π (2.5)3
Ts = 67,495 in − lb
Torque carried by the hub:
4T
σc = h
DtL
4Th
59,000 =
(2.5)(7 16)(3)
Th = 48,399 in − lb
Answer (d).

4. COUPLINGS
Stresses in Flange Coupling

Torque
P FD
T= =
2π n 2
Where
F = total transmitted load on bolts
D = diameter of bolt circle
d = bolt diameter
t = thickness
n1 = number of bolts
Fb = Force per bolts
F
Fb =
n1
13
 Shear stress in bolts
F 4F
τ = b = b2
As π d
Compressive stress
F
σc = b
td

Example No. 12
A flange coupling has an outside diameter of 200 mm and connects two 40 mm shafts. There are four 16 mm bolts
on a 140 mm bolt circle. The radial flange thickness is 20 mm. If the torsional stress in the shaft is not to exceed 26
MPa, determine the shearing stress in the bolts if uniformly distributed. (ME Board October 1990).
A. 8.5 N/mm2
B. 5.8 N/mm2
C. 6.5 N/mm2
D. 7.5 N/mm2
Solution:
Shaft
16T
τ= 2
πd s
16T
26 =
π (40)3
T = 326,725.6 N − mm
2T 2(326,725.6)
F= = = 4667.5 N
D 140
F 4667.5
Fb = = = 1166.875 N
n1 4
Shear stress in bolts
4F 4(1166.875)
τ = b2 =
πd π (16)2
4F 4(1166.875)
τ = b2 = = 5.8 N mm 2 (b)
πd π (16)2

5. FLYWHEELS
5.1 Kinetic Energy, KE
Iω 2 mv s2
KE = =
2 2
(
∆KE = 1
)
=
( ) ( )
I ω − ω22 mk 2 ω12 − ω22 m v s21 − v s22
2
=
2 2 2
where:
I = mk2 = moment of inertia
m = mass of flywheel = W/g
r = radius of gyration
ω1 = maximum angular velocity, rad/sec = 2πn1/60
ω2 = minimum angular velocity, rad/sec = 2πn2/60
vs1 = maximum speed = πDn1
vs2 = minimum speed = πDn2

14
5.2 Coefficient of fluctuation, Cf
Maximum fluctuation of speed - the difference between the maximum and minimum speeds during a cycle.
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed - the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed.
ω − ω2 n1 − n2 v s1 − v s 2
Cf = 1 = =
ω n vs
2(ω1 − ω2 ) 2(n1 − n2 ) 2(v s1 − v s 2 )
Cf = = =
ω1 + ω2 n1 + n2 v s1 + v s 2

5.3 Weight of Flywheel, W

Engineers frequently neglect the effect of the hub and arms.
W = πDbtρ
where:
D = mean diameter
b = width of flywheel
t = thickness of flywheel
ρ = density of flywheel = 72,00 kg/m3 for cast-iron = 7,860 kg/m3 for steel
Also
g∆KE
W=
C f v s2
5.4 Stress in flywheel
σ = ρ v s2
Rules of thumb from experience specify the conventional limits of operation; 6000 fpm for cast iron and 10,000
fpm for cast steel.
5.5 Energy required for punching a metal
∆KE = Ft = τ u At = τ u (π dt )t = τ u (π d )t 2
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
where:
F = force required to punch a metal
τu = ultimate shearing stress
t = thickness of metal plate
d = diameter of hole
5.6 Equations from Dynamics
θ
ω=
t
ω = 2π n
ω −ω
α= 2 1
t
1
θ = ω1t + α t 2
2
Example No. 13
A 48-inch spoked flywheel having 12 inch wide x 10 inch deep rim rotates at 200 rpm. How long a cut be
stamped to a 1 inch thick aluminum plate if the stamping energy is obtained from this flywheel? The ultimate
shearing strength of the aluminum is 40 ksi. Use a specific weight of 0.28 lb/in3 and neglect the weight of the
flywheel’s hub and arms.
A. 34.6 inches
B. 52.2 inches
C. 41.1 inches
D. 64.2 inches

15
Solution:
1 W 
KE =  V 2
2 g 
πDm n
V= fps
12(60 )
Dm = Do − t = 48 − 10 = 38 in
π (38 )(200 )
V= = 33.16 fps
12(60 )
W = ρV = ρ (πDm )(bt )
W = 0.28(π )(38 )(12 )(10 ) = 4011 .2 lb
1  4011.2 
KE =   (33.16 ) = 68,488.5 ft − lb
2
2  32.2 
Energy in shearing = KE
1
Ft = 68,488.5 ft − lb
2
1
( )
τ u Lt p t p = 68,488.5 ft − lb
2
1
(40,000)(L)(1)2 = (68,488.5)(12)
2
L = 41.1 in (c)

Example No. 14
A flywheel weighing 910 kg has a radius of gyration of 1524 mm. The shaft journals are 304.8 mm in diameter
and have a coefficient of friction of 0.06. After the wheel reaches 120 rpm, the driving force is withdrawn and
the wheel slows to 60 rpm. How much energy thus the wheel loss? (ME Board October 1992).
A. 125 kN-m
B. 140 kN-m
C. 130 kN-m
D. 150 kN-m
Solution:
1
(
KE = mk 2 ω12 − ω22
2
)
 2π rad  1 min 
ω1 = (120 rev min) 

 = 12.5664 rad sec

 1 rev  60 sec 
 2π rad  1 min 
ω 2 = (60 rev min) 

 = 6.2832 rad sec

 1 rev  60 sec 
m = 910 kg
1
[
KE = (910)(1.524)2 (12.5664)2 − (6.2832)2
2
]
KE = 125,159.7 N − m = 125.16 kN − m

Example No. 15
A shearing machine requires 150 kg-m of energy to shear a steel sheet, and has a normal speed of 3 rev/sec,
slowing down to 2.8 rev/sec during the shearing process. The flywheel has a mean diameter of 75 cm and

16
 weighs 0.018 kg/cm3. The width of the rim is 30 cm. If the hub and arms of the flywheel account for 15% of its
total weight, find the thickness of the rim.
A. 1 cm
B. 5 cm
C. 4 cm
D. 3 cm
Solution:
1 W 
(
KE =  t  V12 − V22
2 g 
)
V1 = πDn1 = π (0.75 )(3) = 7.0686 m s
V2 = πDn2 = π (0.75 )(2.8 ) = 6.5973 m s
1
150 kg − m = 
Wt
[

 (7.0686)2 − (6.5973)2 m 2 s 2
2 
2  9.81 m s 
]
Wt = 456.94 kg
Wr = (1 − 0.15 )Wt = 0.85(456.94 ) = 388 .4 kg
( )
Wr = ρπDbt = 0.018 kg cm3 (π )(75 cm)(30 cm)(t ) = 388.4 kg
t = 3.053 cm (d)

6. SCREW FASTENINGS
6.1 Design Stress:
σy  3 
σd = (A s ) 1 2
 D < in 
6  4 
 3 
σ d = 0.4σ y  D > in 
 4 
Where
σy = yield strength of material, ksi
σd = design tensile strength, ksi
As = stress area, in2
D = nominal diameter, in.

Example No. 16
An eyebolt is lifting a block weighing 350 lbs. The eyebolts is of SAE C1040 material with su = 67 ksi and sy = 55
ksi, what is the stress area (in inches square) of the bolt if it is under the unified coarse series thread? (ME Board
October 1997).
A. 0.1341
B. 0.1134
C. 0.0991
D. 0.1043
Solution:
 σ y A1s 2  σ A3 2
Fe = σ d A s =  ( A s = ) = y s
 6  6
 
(55,000 )As3 2
350 =
6
As = 0.1134 in2 (b)

6.2 Tightening stress, initial tension & tightening torque

17
 Tightening stress when proof stress available.
σ i = 0.9σ p .
where σ p = proof stress
Tightening stress when no proof stress
σ i = 0.85σ y
Initial tension = Fi = σ i As
Tightening Torque = T = 0.2DFi
6.3 Elastic considerations
Equivalent area of connected parts
π π
Ac = De2 − D 2
4 4
h
De = (Nut or head width across flats) +
2

 k 
∆Fb = Fe  b 
 kb + kc 
AE
kc = c c
L
Ab E b
kb =
L
Bolts:
 kb 
Ft = Fi +  Fe
 k b + kc 
Ft
σt =
As
Tube or connected parts:
 kc 
Fc = Fi −  Fe
 k b + kc 
Fc
σc =
Ac
For zero stress in the tube
k +k 
Fo =  b c Fi
 kc 

18
6.4 Working Strength of Bolts (Machinery’s Handbook)
The following empirical formula was established for the working strength of bolts used for packed joints or joints
where the elasticity of a gasket is greater than the elasticity of the studs or bolts.
( )
W = σ t 0.55D 2 − 0.25D lbs
where
W = working strength of bolt or permissible load, in pounds, after allowance is made for initial load due to
tightening;
σt = allowable working stress in tension, pounds per square inch; and
D = nominal outside diameter of stud or bolt, inches.

Example No. 17
Compute the working strength of 1 in bolt if screwed up tightly in packed joint when the allowable stress is
13,000 psi. (ME Board October 1999).
A. 3,600 lbs
B. 3,700 lbs
C. 3,800 lbs
D. 3,900 lbs
Solution:
( )
W = σ t 0.55D 2 − 0.25D lb
[ ]
W = 13,000 0.55(1) − 0.25(1) = 3900 lb (c)
2

6.5 Set Screw

Diameter of setscrew, d = 0.125D
Power transmitted by a single set-screw
Dnd 2.3
P=
50
Torque transmitted by a single set-screw
T = 1250Dd 2.3
where:
P = horsepower transmitted, hp.
T = torque, in-lb
D = shaft diameter, in
n = speed, rpm
d = set-screw diameter

19
 Example No. 18
Compute how many 3/8 inch diameter set screws required to transmit 3 hp at a speed of 1000 rpm. The shaft
diameter is 1 inch. (ME Board April 1998).
A. 1 ½
B. 2
C. 3
D. 1
Solution:
Dnd 2.3
P=
50
(1)(1000 )(8)2.3
P= = 2.09 hp set screw
50
No. of screw = 3 hp / 2.09 hp = 1.4354 or 2 setscrew (b)

7. POWER SCREWS
7.1 Types of Screw Threads used for Power Screws
7.1.1 Square threads.

From Faires, Black and Adams.

7
h= p
16
7.1.2 Acme or Trapezoidal threads.

From Faires,
h = 0.5p
7.1.3 Buttress threads.

20
 From Faires,
h = 0.663p
7.2 Pitch and Lead
Axial pitch or pitch – is the distance, measured axially, from a point on on ethread to the corresponding point on
an adjacent thread.
Lead – is the distance that a thread advances in one turn; it is the distance the nut moves along the axis in one
turn.
Lead angle – is the angle between a tangent to the pitch helix and a plane normal to the axis of the screw.

Pitch
1
Pc = P =
No. of threads per inch
Lead Angle
Lead
λ = tan−1
π Dm
1
Dm = (Size + Dr )
2
where Dm is the mean thread diameter
7.3 Torque to turn screw

For square thread

Torque required to turn the thread against the load
WDm WDm (tan λ + tan β ) WDm (tan λ + f )
T= tan(β + λ ) = =
2 2(1 − tan β tan λ ) 2(1 − f tan λ )
Torque required to turn the thread with the load
WDm WDm (tan β − tan λ ) WDm ( f − tan λ )
T= tan(β − λ ) = =
2 2(1 + tan β tan λ ) 2(1 + f tan λ )

where f = tanβ = coefficient of friction and β = angle of friction

For Acme thread

Torque required to turn the thread against the load
WDm (cosφ tan λ + tan β ) WDm (cos φ tan λ + f )
T= =
2(cosφ − tan β tan λ ) 2(cos φ − f tan λ )
φ = pressure angle ≈ 14.5o

Torque required to overcome collar friction:

21
 fcW (Ro + Ri )
Tc =
2
Example No. 19
A double thread Acme screw driven by a motor at 400 rpm raises the attached load of 900 kg at a speed of 10
meters per minute. The screw has a pitch diameter of 36 mm. The coefficient of friction on threads is 0.15. The
friction torque on the thrust bearing of the motor is taken as 20% of the total torque input. Determine the
motor power required to operate the screw.
A. 3.932 kw
B. 2.592 kw
C. 3.239 kw
D. 2.529 kw
Solution:
Velocity 10 m min
Lead = L = = = 0.025 m
Rpm 400 rpm
L = 25 mm
L 25
tan λ = = = 0.221
πDm π (36 )
Torque to raise the load
WDm (cos φ tan λ + f )
Ts =
2(cos φ − f tan λ )
φ = 14.5o for ACME Thread
(900 )(9.81)(0.036 )[(cos14.5)(0.221) + 0.15]
Ts =
2[cos 14.5 − 0.15(0.221)]
Ts = 61.8626 N − m

T = Ts + Tb = Ts + 0.20T
61.8626 N − m
T= = 77.3283 N − m
1 − 0.20
2πTN 2π (77.3283)(400)
P= =
60 60
P = 3239 W = 3.239 kW (C)

Example No. 20
What is the frictional hp acting on a collar loaded with 100 kg weight? The collar has an outside diameter of 100
mm and an internal diameter of 40 mm. The collar rotates at 1000 rpm and the coefficient of friction between
the collar and the pivot surface is 0.15. (ME Board April 1995).
A. 0.8 hp
B. 0.5 hp
C. 0.3 hp
D. 1.2 hp
Solution:
f W (Ro + Ri )
Tc = c
2
 0.100 0.040 
0.15(100)(9.81) + 
Tc =  2 2 
2
Tc = 5.15 N − m

22
 2πTc N 2π (5.15)(1000)
P= = = 539.3 W
60 60
 1 hp 
P = (539.3 W )  = 0.723 hp

 746 W 
Ans. (A) 0.80 hp

7.4 Efficiency of a square-thread screw

ideal effort
e=
actual effort
Efficiency of square thread considering only the screw friction.
tan λ tan λ (1 − f tan λ )
e= =
tan(β + λ ) tan λ + f
Efficiency of square thread considering screw friction and collar friction
tan λ tan λ (1 − f tan λ )
e= =
tan(β + λ ) fD 
tan λ + f +  c c (1 − f tan λ )
 Dm 
Where Dc = Ro + Ri
Efficiency of acme thread considering screw friction and collar friction
tan λ (cos φ − f tan λ )
e=
fD 
tan λ cos φ + f cos φ +  c c (cos φ − f tan λ )
 Dm 
Example No. 21
What pitch is required for a double threaded square form screw having a mean diameter of 3 inches if its
efficiency is to be about 50%? Use a coefficient of friction of 0.15.
A. 0.5 in
B. 0.625 in
C. 0.75 in
D. 0.25 in
Solution:
tan λ tan λ (1 − f tan λ )
e= =
tan(β + λ ) tan λ + f
tan λ tan λ (1 − 0.15 tan λ )
0.50 = =
tan(β + λ ) tan λ + 0.15
0.50 tan λ + 0.075 = tan λ − 0.15 tan 2 λ
0.15 tan 2 λ − 0.50 tan λ + 0.075 = 0
tan 2 λ − 3.3333 tan λ + 0.5 = 0
tan λ = 0.15744
L 2P
tan λ = =
πDm πDm
2(P )
0.15744 =
π (3)
P = 0.742 in
Or P = 0.75 in

23
 Example No. 22
Find the horsepower required to drive a power screw lifting a load of 4000 lbs. A 2 ½ inches double square
thread with two threads/inch is to be used. The frictional radius of the collar is 2 inches and the coefficients of
friction are 0.1 for the threads and 0.15 for the collar. The velocity of the nut is 10 ft/min.
A. 4.935 hp
B. 4.395 hp
C. 3.945 hp
D. 5.349 hp
Solution:
1 1
P= = = 0.5 in
Threads per inch 2
Square thread
Dm = Do − h = Do − 0.5P
Dm = 2.5 − 0.5(0.5 ) = 2.25 in
Double thread
2P 2(0.5)
tan λ = = = 0.14147
πDm π (2.25)
tan λ (1 − f tan λ )
e=
fD
tan λ + f + c c (1 − f tan λ )
Dm
Dc = 2(2 ) = 4 in
0.14147[1 − (0.10)(0.14147 )]
e=
0.15(4 )
0.14147 + 0.10 + [1 − (0.10 )(0.14147 )]
2.25
e = 0.2765
WV
hp =
33,000e
(4000 )(10 )
hp = = 4.384 hp (B)
33,000(0.2765 )

7.5 Condition for self-locking screw

The condition for self-locking of a square thread is that β must be greater than λ, or that tan β (the coefficient of
friction) must be greater than tan λ (the tangent of the lead angle).
Self-locking Screw, β > λ
Torque to lower the load
WDm
T= tan(β − λ )
2

8. SPRINGS

8.1 Stresses in helical springs of circular wire

Helical compression spring.

D = Mean diameter of the spring coil,
d = Diameter of the spring wire,
n = Number of active coils,
G = Modulus of rigidity for the spring material,
F = Axial load on the spring,
24
τ = Maximum shear stress induced in the wire,
C = Spring index = D d ,
p = Pitch of the coils, and
δ = Deflection of the spring, as a result of an axial load W .

A.M. Wahl Equation:

8F ⋅ D 8F ⋅ C
τ =K× =K×
πd 3
π d2
4C − 1 0.615
where K = + = Wahl’s stress factor
4C − 4 C

K = K S KC

where K S = Stress factor due to shear, and

K C = Stress concentration factor due to curvature.

Example No. 23
A helical spring is compressed by 30 mm. The spring scale is 18 kN/m while its allowable shear stress is 345 MPa
and the spring index is 8. What is the diameter of the spring wire?
A. 3.12 mm
B. 4.23 mm
C. 9.24 mm
D. 6.14 mm
Solution:
8FC
τ =K× 2
πd
4C − 1 0.615 4(8) − 1 0.615
K= + = + = 1.1840
4C − 4 C 4(8) − 4 8
F = (18 kN m )(0.030 m ) = 0.54 kN = 540 N
 8(540)(8) 
345 = 1.1840 
 πd
2

d = 6.14 mm

25
8.2 Deflection of Helical Springs of Circular Wire

Angular deflection
 D
 F × (π D ⋅ n )
T ⋅l  2 16F ⋅ D 2 ⋅ n
θ= = =
J ⋅G π G ⋅d 4
× d 4G
32
Axial deflection
16F ⋅ D 2 ⋅ n D 8F ⋅ D 3 ⋅ n 8F ⋅ C 3 ⋅ n
δ= × = =
G ⋅d 4 2 G ⋅d4 G ⋅d

Stiffness of the spring or spring rate

F G ⋅d 4 G ⋅d
= = = constant
δ 8D 3 ⋅ n 8C 3n

Example No. 24
Compute the maximum deflection of a 20 coils helical spring having a load of 75 kgs. The spring is a squared and
ground ends with modulus of elasticity in shear of 79.84 GPa, outside diameter of 101.6 mm, wire diameter of
9.525 mm. (ME Board October 97).
A. 140.7 mm
B. 112.7 mm
C. 15.17 mm
D. 126.7 mm
Solution:
For steel, G = 79.84 GPa = 79.84 x 109 Pa
8FC 3n
δ=
Gd
n = 20 − 2 = 18 for squared and ground end.
D D − d 101.6 − 9.525
C= m = o = = 9.667
d d 9.525
( )
F = (75 kg) 9.81 m s 2 = 735.75 N
8(735.75)(9.667 ) (18)
3
δ= = 0.12586 m
( )
9  9.525 
79.84 ×10  
 1000 
δ = 125.86 mm (D)
8.3 Impact load on spring (Free fall)

26
 1
W (h + δ ) = Fδ
2
8.4 Bodies with velocity

W 2 1 1
v = mv 2 = Fδ
2g 2 2

8.5 Energy of a spring

1
E = kδ 2
2

8.6 Spring in Series

1 1 1 1
= + + +L
k k1 k2 k3

8.7 Spring in Parallel

k = k1 + k2 + k3 + L

Example No. 25
A three extension coil springs are hooked in series that support a single weight of 100 kgs. The first spring is rated at
0.40 kg/mm and the other 2 lower is rated at 0.64 kg/mm. Compute the total deflection. (ME Board October 1997
and ME Board October 2006).
A. 563 mm
B. 268 mm
C. 156 mm
D. 250 mm
27
 Solution:
1 1 1 1
= + +
k k1 k2 k3
1 1 1 1
= + +
k 0.4 0.64 0.64
k = 0.177778 kg mm
F 100
δ= = = 562.5 mm (A)
k 0.177778

9. BELTS
9.1 General Belt Equation
F1 − Fc F
= e fθ (neglecting centrifugal tension, 1 = e fθ )
F2 − Fc F2
 e fθ − 1 
F1 − F2 = (F1 − Fc ) fθ 
 e 
12 ρbv s2 wv s2
Fc = =
go go
F1 = σbt
 12 ρv s2  e fθ − 1 
F1 − F2 = bt  σ −  
 32.2  e fθ 
where:
F1 = is the maximum tension or the force on the approaching belt, lb.
F2 = is the force on the receding side, lb.
Fc = is the load on the belt due to the centrifugal force. Lb
σ = design stress,psi.
ρ = density of belt, lb/cu. in. for design, use ρ = 0.035 for leather and ρ = 0.045 lb for flat rubber belting.
vs = speed in fps.
f = coefficient of friction.
θ = angle of contact’

9.2 Net Belt Pull and Horsepower Equation

Net Belt Pull – is the difference of the forces F1 – F2.
Horsepower Equation:
(F − F )v (F − F )v
hp = 1 2 m = 1 2 s hp
33,000 550
Tn
hp = hp
63,000
Where:
vm = speed in fpm.
T = torque in in-lb
n = speed in rpm

28
 Example No. 26
A 500 rpm shaft is fitted with a 30 inch diameter pulley weighing 250 lb. This pulley delivers 35 hp to a load.
Determine the maximum concentrated load in the shaft considering a belt tension ratio of 2:1.
A. 2641.5 lb
B. 832.7 lb
C. 1132.4 lb
D. 3758.2 lb
Solution:
Fmax = W + Fb = W + F1 + F2
F1 = 2F2
63,000hp
T=
n
63,000(35)
T= = 4410 in − lb
500
2T 2(4410)
F1 − F2 = = = 294 lb
D 30
2F2 − F2 = F2 = 294 lb
Fmax = 250 + 2(294 ) + 294 = 1132 lb (C)

9.3 Coefficient of Friction

For normal design conditions for flat belts use the following:
Leather on iron or steel, f = 0.3
Leather on paper pulley, f = 0.5

9.4 Strength of Leather belts

For normal goof operating conditions and pulley sizes larger than the minimum, a design stress of
σ d = 400η
Where η is the relative strength of joint.
η = 1.0 when joined by cementing; 0.88 by wire lacing; 0.35 by metal hook.

9.5 Belt speed.

Experience suggest that the most economical designs are obtained for a belt speed of 4000 to 4500 fpm, but of
course, any particular application may require some other speed.

9.6 Length of Belts

9.6.1 Open Belt Drive.

29
 L ≈ 2C + 1.57(D2 + D1 ) +
(D2 − D1 )2
4C
where;
C is the center distance,
D2 is the diameter of the larger pulley,
D1 is the diameter of the smaller pulley

9.6.2 Crossed Belt Drive

L ≈ 2C + 1.57(D2 + D1 ) +
(D2 + D1 )2
4C
where;
C is the center distance,
D2 is the diameter of the larger pulley,
D1 is the diameter of the smaller pulley

Example No. 27
An open belt drive has a 6-in. pulley driving a 48-in. pulley. The distance between centers is 96 in. Find the
length of the belt needed.
A. 281.4 mm
B. 218.4 mm
C. 284.1 mm
D. 241.8 mm
Solution:
(D − D1 )2
L = 2C + 1.57 (D2 + D1 ) + 2
4C
(48 − 6 )2
L = 2(96 ) + 1.57(48 + 6 ) + = 281.4 mm (A)
4(96 )

9.7 Angle of Contact.

For an open belt, the angles of contact are

R −r D − D1
θ = π ± 2 sin −1 ≈π ± 2 radians
C C
Use the plus sign for the larger pulley and the minus sign for the smaller pulley.

30
For crossed belts, the angles of contact are the same on both pulleys.
R+r
θ = π + 2sin −1 radians
C
Where:
R = the radius (D2 = diameter) of the larger pulley,
r = the radius (D1 = diameter) of the smaller pulley,
C = the distance between pulley centers, and
θ = the angle of contact in radians.

In general, design equation used the minimum value of fθ, which is the smaller pulley when the pulleys are of
the same materials.

Example No. 28
A ¼ in flat leather belt with a specific weight of 0.035 lb/cu in. is 6 in. wide. The driving pulley is 6 in. in diameter
and the driven pulley is 18 in. in diameter. The center distance between pulleys is 56 in. The driving pulley
rotates 1800 rpm. The coefficient of friction is 0.3 for the driving pulley and 0.4 for the driven pulley. The
allowable belt pull is 450 lb. Find the belt capacity in horsepower.
A. 21.4 hp
B. 24.1 hp
C. 24.0 hp
D. 20.4 hp

Solution:
 12 ρv s2  e fθ − 1 
F1 − F2 = bt  σ −  
 32.2  e fθ 
Driving pulley, 6 in diamater
D −D
θ = π − 2 1 rad
C
18 − 6
θ =π − = 2.9273 rad
56
fθ = (0.3)(2.9273 ) = 0.8782
Driven pulley, 18 in
D −D
θ = π + 2 1 rad
C
18 − 6
θ =π + = 3.3559 rad
56
fθ = (0.4 )(3.3559 ) = 1.34236
Use the smaller one, fθ = 0.8782
πD1n1 π (6)(1800)
vs = = = 47.124 ft s
12 × 60 12 × 60
F1 = 450 lb
b = 6 in, t = 0.25 in,
F 450
σ= 1 = = 300 psi
bt (6 )(0.25 )
 12(0.035)(47.124 )2   e 0.8782 − 1 
F1 − F2 = (6 )(0.25)300 −   0.8782 
 32.2  e 
31
 F1 − F2 = 237 .62 lb
v m = (47.124 ft s )(60 min sec ) = 2827 .44 fpm
(F − F )v (237.62 )(2827.44 ) = 20.36 hp (D)
hp = 1 2 m =
33,000 33,000

9.8 Initial Tension.

Initial tension (Fo) is tension at rest. Taylor’s recommendation is 71 lb/in. of width.
2 Fo = F1 + F2

9.9 Rated Capacity of Leather Belts (ALBA Tables or Table 17.1 and Table 17.2 by V.M. Faires).

hp = (hp inK , Table 4)(bC mC p )(C f 1C f 2 K)

Which is the nominal horsepower that the belt is to transmit (or the nameplate horsepower for an electric
motor),and
b in. is the belt width
Cm is the correction factor for the type of drive; except for electric motors, use Cm = 1;
Cp is the correction factor for the size of the smallest pulley; the smaller the pulleys, the greater is the
flexure
Cf is the correction factor for the environmental conditions, and more than one of these factors may be
apply; thus a vertical drive in a dusty atmosphere and subjected to shock loads would correspond to a total
factor of Cf = (0.83)(0.74)(0.71).
9.10 Standard Multiple V-Belt Dimension

Section A - b x t = ½ x 5/16 in, Dmin = 3 in.

Section B – b x t = 21/32 x 13/32 in, Dmin = 5.4 in.
Section C – b x t = 7/8 x 17/32 in, Dmin = 9 in.
Section D – b x t = 1 ¼ x ¾ in, Dmin = 13 in.
Section E – b x t = 1 ½ x 29/32 in

32
9.11 Rated Capacity of V-belts
  103  0.09 c v m2  v m
Rated hp = a  − − e 
  v m  K d D1 10 6  103

where a, c, and e are constant for a particular belt section, D1 is the pitch diameter of the smaller sheave, Kd is a
small-diameter factor for the given velocity ratio (Table 17.4, Faires or Table 3.5.7, PSME Code 2008 pg. 23), and
vm fpm is the belt speed.
Factors a, c and e for use in the above formula. (X, Y, and Z in PSME Code 2008, pg. 24)
Regular Quality Belts (Used by Black and Adams book).
Section A, a = 1.945, b = 3.801, e = 0.0136
Section B, a = 3.434, b = 9.830, e = 0.0234
Section C, a = 6.372, b = 26.948, e = 0.0416
Section D, a = 13.616, b = 93.899, e = 0.0848
Section E, a = 19.914, b = 177.74, e = 0.1222

Premium Quality Belts (Used by V.M. Faires Book)

Section A, a = 2.684, b = 5.826, e = 0.0136
Section B, a = 4.737, b = 13.962, e = 0.0234
Section C, a = 8.792, b = 38.819, e = 0.0416
Section D, a = 18.788, b = 137.70, e = 0.0848
Section E, a = 24.478, b = 263.04, e = 0.1222

9.12 Design Horsepower, Adjusted Rated Horsepower and Number of Belts

Design Hp = Nsf(transmitted hp)

Adjusted rated hp = KθKL (rated hp).

Design hp
No. of belts =
Adjusted rated hp
Use the next larger whole number.
Where,
Kθ = arc-of-contact factor (Table 17.5, Faires or Table 3.8, PSME Code 2008 pg. 25).
KL = length correction factor (Table 17.5, Faires or Table 3.5.7, PSME Code 2008 pg. 24).
9.13 Minimum Center Distance
D + D2
C= 1 + D1 or C = D2
2
whichever is larger
9.14 Center Distance Unknown
B = 4L – 6.28(D2 + D1), we get
B + B 2 − 32(D2 − D1 )2
C=
16

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 Example No. 29
A slurry pump is to be driven by a 50 hp, 2400 rpm diesel engine and operating under moderate shock load with
a service factor of 1.20. The pump will operate at 800 rpm and using type B V-belt. The available small sheave
diameter is 6.22 inches and having a factor of 1.14. The arc of contact factor is 0.89 and the length of belt factor
is 0.97. Find the no. of belts used.
A. 9
B. 10
C. 11
D. 12
Solution:
Design hp = Transmitted hp × Nsf
Design hp = 50 ×1.2 = 60 hp
  103 
0.09
13.962  v m2  v m
Rated hp = 4.737  − − 0 .0234 6  3
   10  10
 vm  K d D1  
Kd = 1.14, D1 = 6.22 in
πD n π (6.22)(2400)
vm = 1 1 = = 3908 fpm
12 12

  10 3 
0.09
13.962  3908 2  3908
Rated hp = 4.737
   − − 0 .0234 
 10 6  103
 
 3908  (1.14)(6.22 )  
Rated hp = 7.2834 hp

Adjusted Rated hp = Kθ K L Rated hp

Kθ = 0.89, KL = 0.97
Adjusted Rated hp = (0.89 )(0.97 )(7.2834 ) = 6.2878 hp
Design hp 60
No. of belts = = = 9.54 say 10 belts (b)
Adjusted rated hp 6.2878

10. CHAINS
10.1 Pitch of chain (P)
It is the distance between the hinge centre of a link and the corresponding hinge centre of the adjacent link.

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 10.2 Pitch circle diameter of chain sprocket (D).
It is the diameter of the circle on which the hinge centers of the chain lie, when the chain is wrapped round a
sprocket.

10.3 Designation of Roller Chains

Chain
25 35 41 40 50 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 240
no.
Pitch ¼ 3/8 ½ ½ 5/8 ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 1¾ 2 2¼ 2 ½ 3
10.4 Tabulated Horsepower Ratings for Roller Chain Drives
Refer to PSME Code 2008, Table 3.11, page 27 and other references.
10.5 Pitch and Pitch Circle Diameter
 180 
P = D sin 
 Nt 
where:
D = Diameter of the pitch circle,
P = Pitch, and
Nt = Number of teeth on the sprocket.
10.6 Velocity and Velocity Ratio of Chain Drives
The velocity ratio of a chain drive is given by
n N
mw = 1 = 2
n2 N1
where
n1 = Speed of rotation of smaller sprocket in r.p.m.,
n2 = Speed of rotation of larger sprocket in r.p.m.,
N1 = Number of teeth on the smaller sprocket, and
N2 = Number of teeth on the larger sprocket.
The average velocity of the chain is given by
π Dn PNt n
vm = ≈ fpm
12 12
where
D = Pitch circle diameter of the sprocket in inches, and
P = Pitch of the chain in inches.
PNt = circumference of the sprocket.
10.7 Length of Chain and Centre Distance

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 The center distance for chain drives may of course be relatively short, but a minimum wrap of 120o is
desirable; this condition is inevitably met when mw < 3. An average good center distance would be D2 + D1/2,
where D2 is the pitch diameter of the larger sprocket, D1 of the smaller. The approximate length of chain is
N2 + N1 (N 2 − N1 )2
L ≈ 2C + + pitches ,
2 40C
where C is in pitches. The length should be an even number of pitches to avoid using an offset link. This is
the usual matter of adjusting chain length, center distance, and sprocket sizes so that everything fits.
10.8 Center Distance for Given Length in mm or inches.
P
C = 2L − N2 − N1 + (2L − N 2 − N1 )2 − 0.810(N 2 − N1 )2 
8  
10.9 Number of Teeth on the Smaller or Driving Sprocket or Pinion
For very low speeds, the recommended minimum number of teeth on the smaller sprocket is Nmin = 12;
for low speeds, Nmin = 17; for moderate speeds, Nmin = 21; for high speeds, Nmin = 25; for speed increasing drives,
Nmin = 23.
With odd tooth numbers on the smaller sprocket and an even number of pitches in the chain, the frequency of
contact between a particular tooth and a particular roller is a minimum, presumable better distributing the
wear.

Example No. 30
A 5.31 horsepower rating No. 40 roller chain has an input through a 12-tooth sprocket turning at 1,800 rpm and
the output turns at 900 rpm. Determine the length of chain in inches.
a. 15 inches
b. 19 inches
c. 31 inches
d. 41 inches
Solution:
n1N1 = n2 N 2
(1800 )(12 ) = (900 )(N 2 )
N 2 = 24 teeth
P 0 .5
D1 = = = 1.93 in
 180   180 
sin  sin 
 N1   12 
P 0 .5
D2 = = = 3.83 in
 180   180 
sin  sin 
 N2   24 
D 1.93
C = D2 + 1 = 3.83 + = 4.795 in
2 2
In pitches
4.795 in N + N1 (N 2 − N1 )2
C= = 9.59 L ≈ 2C + 2 +
0.5 in 2 40C
24 + 12 (24 − 12 )2
L ≈ 2(9.59) + +
2 40(9.59 )
L ≈ 37.56 pitches use even number 38
In inches
36
 L = (38)(0.5) = 19 inches
Answer (B) 19 inches.

10.10 Maximum Pitch

2
 900  3
p≤ 
 n 
Where p is the pitch in inches and n is the speed of the small sprocket.

Example No. 31
What is the largest roller chain size than can be used for power transmission at a sprocket speed of 1000 rpm?
A. RC 70
B. RC 50
C. RC 60
D. RC 80
Solution:
Maximum pitch
2
 900  3
p≤ 
 n 
2
 900  3
p≤ 
 1000 
p ≤ 0.932 in
For RC 80, p = 1 in, no. RC 70.
Use RC 60 (C)

10.11 Recommended Lubricant Viscosities.

Temperature, F Viscosity
20 to 40 SAE 20
40 to 100 SAE 30
100 to 120 SAE 40
120 to 140 SAE 50

10.12 Determining the Number of Strands

10.12.1 For a given transmitted power, get the design power by multiplying it by the service factor.
2. Find the horsepower rating per strand from tables.
3. Divide the design horsepower by the horsepower rating per strand to get the number of strands. Use a
certain factor as a function of the number of strands if any from tables.

11. WIRE ROPES

11.1 Stress in wire rope.
ED
σb = w
Ds
where,
E = modulus of elasticity (3 x 104 ksi for steel)
Dw = approximate wire diameter, in
Ds = sheave diameter, in
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11.2 Equivalent bending load
Fb = σ b Am
Where,
Am = cross-sectional area of metal in each rope, in2.

11.3 Extension of the wire rope

FL
δ=
AmE r
Where,
F = load , lb
L = length of rope, in
Er = modulus of the rope, ksi or psi

Example No. 32
Determine the bending stress of wire rope with drum diameter of 7.8 inches and wire diameter of 0.0987 inch.
A. 37.96 x 104 psi
B. 33.96 x 104 psi
C. 31.96 x 104 psi
D. 30.96 x 104 psi
Solution:
ED
σb = w =
( )
30 ×106 (0.0987)
= 37.96 ×104 psi (A)
Ds 7.8

11.4 Factor of safety, N (static)

F −F
N= u b
Ft
where,
Fu = breaking strength, lb
Fb = equivalent bending load, lb
Ft = tensile force in the rope, lb
11.5 Recommended Factor of Safety (Static)
Guys – 3.5
Miscellaneous hoisting equipment – 5
Haulage ropes, cranes, and derricks – 6
Small hoists – 7
Hot ladle cranes – 8
11.6 Factor of safety, N (fatigue)
D D (p σ u )σ u
N= r s
2Ft
where,
Dr = rope diameter, in
Ds = sheave diameter, in
p = bearing pressure per square inch of projected area of the rope on the sheave.
p/σu = values taken from Figure 17.30 (Faires).

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11.7 Properties of wire rope. (Table AT 28, Faires).
11.7.1 6 x 7 Wire Rope
Approximate weight of rope, w lb. per ft. = 1.52Dr2
Minimum sheave diameter, Ds in. = 42Dr
Desirable sheave diameter, Ds in. = 72Dr
Wire diameter, Dw ≈0.111Dr
Cross-section of area of metal, Am, sq. in. ≈ 0.38Dr2
Modulus of elasticity of the rope, Er, psi ≈ 13 x 106 psi
11.7.2 6 x 19 Wire Rope
Approximate weight of rope, w lb. per ft. ≈ 1.6Dr2
Approximate weight of rope, w lb. per ft. ≈ 1.76Dr2 (IWRC)
Minimum sheave diameter, Ds in. = 30Dr
Desirable sheave diameter, Ds in. = 45Dr
Wire diameter, Dw ≈0.067Dr
Cross-section of area of metal, Am, sq. in. ≈ 0.4Dr2
Modulus of elasticity of the rope, Er, psi ≈ 12 x 106 psi
Estimate of the ultimate strength in terms of Dr.
VHS, Fu ≈ 48Dr2 tons.
IPS, Fu ≈ 42Dr2 tons.
PS, Fu ≈ 36Dr2 tons.
MPS, Fu ≈32Dr2 tons.
IWRC – multiply the values given by 1.075.
11.7.3 6 x 37 Wire Rope
Approximate weight of rope, w lb. per ft. ≈ 1.55Dr2
Approximate weight of rope, w lb. per ft. ≈ 1.71Dr2 (IWRC)
Minimum sheave diameter, Ds in. = 18Dr
Desirable sheave diameter, Ds in. = 27Dr
Wire diameter, Dw ≈0.048Dr
Cross-section of area of metal, Am, sq. in. ≈ 0.4Dr2
Modulus of elasticity of the rope, Er, psi ≈ 12 x 106 psi
11.7.4 6 x 19 Traction Steel
- Fu = (0.87)(Fu for MPS).
Example No. 33
A wire rope lifts a load of 10 kips at a maximum speed of 1000 ft per min, attained in 5 seconds starting from
rest. The rope has a metallic cross sectional area of 0.4 in2. Determine the maximum tensile stress on the rope in
ksi.
A. 26.2
B. 25.0
C. 27.6
D. 32.4
Solution:
 a
F = W 1 + 
 g
V − V 1000 − 0
a= 2 1 = = 3.3333 fps
t 5(60 )

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  3.3333 
F = 101 +  = 11.035 kips
 32.2 
F 11.035 kips
σt = = = 27.6 ksi (C).
A 0.4 in 2
11.8 Traction Drives

Maximum value of the ratio of the forces (at the point of limiting friction), with negligible centrifugal effects.
F1
= e fθ
F2
Values of f:
Iron or steel sheave: greasy rope, 0.07; wet rope, 0.085; dry rope, 0.12
Wood-lined sheave: greasy rope, 0.14; wet rope, 0.17; dry rope, 0.235
Rubber- or leather-lined sheave: greasy rope, 0.205; wet rope, 0.4; dry rope, 0.495

- END OF LECTURE 01 -

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