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Unsteady Combustor Physics

Second Edition

Explore a unified treatment of the dynamics of combustor systems, including acous­

tics, fluid mechanics, and combustion in a single rigorous text. This updated new
edition features an expansion of data and experimental material, updates the coverage
of flow stability, gives an enhanced treatment of flame dynamics, and addresses the
system dynamics of clean energy and propulsion systems used in low emissions
systems; it synthesizes the fields of fluid mechanics and combustion into a coherent
understanding of the intrinsically unsteady processes in combustors. This is a perfect
reference for engineers and researchers in fluid mechanics, combustion, and
clean energy.

Tim C. Lieuwen is Regents’ Professor and Executive Director of the Strategic Energy
Institute at Georgia Tech. He is also the founder and CTO of TurbineLogic, an energy
analytics firm. He has authored 4 books and over 350 other publications. Board
positions include goveming/advisory boards for Oak Ridge National Lab, Pacific
Northwest National Lab, and the National Renewable Energy Lab, and appointment
by the DOE Secretary to the National Petroleum Counsel. He is an elected member of
the National Academy of Engineering, a fellow of ASME and AIAA, and recipient of
the AIAA Lawrence Sperry Award and ASME’s George Westinghouse Gold Medal.
Unsteady Combustor Physics
Second Edition

TIM C. LIEUWEN
Georgia Institute o f Technology

C a m b r id g e
U N IV E R SIT Y PR ESS
C a m b r id g e
U N IV E R S IT Y P R E SS

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

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education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108841313
DOI: 10.1017/9781108889001
© Tim C. Lieuwen 2012, 2021
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2012
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ Books Limited, Padstow, Cornwall
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978-1-108-84131-3 Hardback

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accurate or appropriate.
 Summary Contents

Acknowledgments page xiv

Introduction 1

Overview of the Book 7

1 Basic Equations 9

2 Decomposition and Evolution of Disturbances 27

3 Hydrodynamic Flow Stability I: Linear Instability 81

4 Hydrodynamic Flow Stability II: Common Combustor Flow Fields 113

5 Acoustic Wave Propagation I: Basic Concepts 176

6 Acoustic Wave Propagation II: Heat Release, Complex Geometry, and Mean
Flow Effects 210

7 Flame Sheet and Flow Interactions 261

8 Ignition 296

9 Internal Flame Processes 321

10 Flame Stabilization, Flashback, Flameholding, and Blowoff 379

11 Forced Response I: Flamelet Dynamics 406

12 Forced Response II: Heat Release Dynamics 463

Index 511
 Detailed Contents

Acknowledgments page xiv

Introduction 1
Updates to the Second Edition 4

Overview of the Book 7

1 Basic Equations 9
1.1 Thermodynamic Relations in a Multicomponent Perfect Gas 9
1.2 Continuity Equation 10
1.3 Momentum Equation 11
1.4 Species Conservation Equation 12
1.5 Energy Equation 13
1.6 Aside: Discussion of the Vorticity and Circulation Equations 17
1.7 Nomenclature 20
1.7.1 Latin Alphabet 21
1.7.2 Greek Alphabet 23
1.7.3 Subscripts 24
1.7.4 Superscripts 25
1.7.5 Other Symbols 25
Exercises 25
References 26

2 Decomposition and Evolution of Disturbances 27

2.1 Descriptions of Flow Perturbations 27
2.2 Small-Amplitude Propagation in Uniform, Inviscid Flows 29
2.2.1 Motivating Example: Solutions of the One-Dimensional
Linearized Euler Equations 30
2.2.2 Decomposition Approach 32
2.2.3 Comments on the Decomposition 36
2.2.4 Molecular Transport Effects on the Decomposition 38
2.3 Modal Coupling Processes 39
2.3.1 Coupling through Boundary Conditions 39
2.3.2 Coupling through Flow Inhomogeneities 40
2.3.3 Coupling through Nonlinearities 42
Detailed Contents

2.4 Energy Density and Energy Flux Associated with

Disturbance Fields 44
2.5 Linear and Nonlinear Stability of Disturbances 48
2.5.1 Linearly Stable/Unstable Systems 49
2.5.2 Nonlinearly Unstable Systems 52
2.5.3 Forced and Limit Cycling Systems 54
2.6 Complex Phase Space Dynamics 60
2.7 Decompositions of Data 61
2.7.1 Prescribed Basis Functions 62
2.7.2 Empirical Basis Functions 66
2.8 Aside: Triple Decomposition 71
2.9 Aside: Effects of Simultaneous Acoustic and Vortical
Velocity Disturbances 74
2.10 Aside: Further Consideration of the Disturbance Energy
Equation 75
Exercises 76
References 77

Hydrodynamic Flow Stability I: Linear Instability 81

3.1 Linear Stability Notions 82
3.2 Global and Convective Instability 84
3.3 Transient Growth 87
3.4 Normal Modes in Parallel Flows 88
3.4.1 Basic Formulation 88
3.4.2 General Results for Temporal Instability 90
3.4.3 Revisiting Convective/Absolute Instability for Parallel
Flows 94
3.4.4 Extended Example: Spatial Mixing Layer 95
3.4.5 Connection between Local and Global Analysis 99
3.5 Mean Flow Stability 100
3.6 Aside: Vortex Mutual Induction 103
3.7 Aside: Receptivity 106
3.8 Aside: Rayleigh-Taylor and Centrifugal Instability 106
Exercises 108
References 110

Hydrodynamic Flow Stability II: Common Combustor Flow Fields 113

4.1 Free Shear Layers 113
4.1.1 Flow Stability and Unsteady Structure 116
4.1.2 Effects of Harmonic Excitation 120
4.2 Wakes and Bluff Body Flow Fields 123
4.2.1 Parallel Flow Stability Analysis 125
4.2.2 Bluff Body Wake 128
4.2.3 Shear Layer Dynamics in Wake Flows 130
4.2.4 Effects of Harmonic Excitation 131
 Detailed Contents IX

4.3 Jets 132

4.3.1 Parallel Flow Stability Analysis 133
4.3.2 Constant-Density Jet Dynamics 136
4.3.3 Effects of Harmonic Excitation 137
4.3.4 Jets in Cross Flow 138
4.4 Swirling Jets and Wakes 144
4.4.1 Rotating and Winding Directions of Flow Disturbances 146
4.4.2 Vortex Breakdown 147
4.4.3 Swirling Jet and Wake Dynamics 151
4.4.4 Effects of Harmonic Excitation 153
4.5 Backward-Facing Steps and Cavities 156
4.5.1 Parallel Flow Stability Analysis 157
4.5.2 Unsteady Flow StmcUire 158
4.6 Aside: Boundary Fayers 161
4.7 Aside: Confinement Effects and Arrays of Jets/Wakes 163
4.8 Aside: Noncircular Jets 164
Exercises 165
References 165

5 Acoustic Wave Propagation I: Basic Concepts 176

5.1 Traveling and Standing Waves 177
5.2 Boundary Conditions: Reflection Coefficients and Impedance 181
5.3 NaUiral Modes of Simple Geometries 187
5.3.1 One-Dimensional Modes 188
5.3.2 Multidimensional Rectangular Duct Modes 191
5.3.3 Circular Duct Modes 192
5.3.4 Fumped Elements and Helmholtz Resonators 196
5.3.5 Convective Modes 198
5.4 Forced Oscillations 198
5.4.1 One-Dimensional Forcing and Resonance 199
5.4.2 Forced Oscillations in Ducts and Cutoff Modes 200
5.5 Aside: Annular and Sector Circular Geometries 205
5.6 Aside: NaUiral Modes in Annular Geometries 206
Exercises 208
References 209

6 Acoustic Wave Propagation II: Heat Release, Complex Geometry,

and Mean Flow Effects 210
6.1 Introduction 210
6.2 Mean Flow Effects 213
6.2.1 Mean Flow Effects on Wave Propagation 213
6.2.2 Mean Flow Effects on Boundary Conditions 215
6.2.3 Mean Flow Compressibility Effects and Acoustic/
Entropy Coupling 216
6.2.4 Variable TemperaUire Effects 217
X Detailed Contents

6.2.5 Example Problem: Wave Reflection and Transmission through

Variable Temperature Region 218
6.2.6 Example Problem: Natural Frequencies of a Variable
Temperature Region 220
6.3 Variable Area and Complex Geometry Effects 221
6.3.1 Baseline Results 222
6.3.2 Nozzles and Diffusers 223
6.3.3 Wave Refraction and Injector Coupling 225
6.3.4 Unsteady Vorticity Generation and Acoustic Damping 228
6.4 Acoustic Damping Processes 231
6.5 Unsteady Heat Release Effects 233
6.5.1 Thermoacoustic Stability Model Problem 235
6.5.2 Further Discussion of Thermoacoustic InstabilityTrends 239
6.6 Nonlinear Effects and Limit Cycles 242
6.6.1 Formulation of Modal and Amplitude Equations 244
6.6.2 Sources of Nonlinearities 248
6.7 Aside: Sturm-Liou ville Eigenvalue Problems 250
6.7.1 Orthogonality of Eigenfunctions 251
6.7.2 Real/Imaginary Characteristics of Eigenvalues 252
6.7.3 Asymptotic Representation of Eigenfunctions 252
6.8 Aside: Wave Propagation through Regions with Slowly
Varying Properties 252
6.9 Aside: Approximate Methods for Linearized Jump Conditions across
Compact Zones 253
6.10 Aside: Wave Interactions with Compact Nozzles or Diffusers 255
Exercises 255
References 256

7 Flame Sheet and Flow Interactions 261

7.1 Surface Dynamics 261
7.2 Field Equations for Premixed and NonpremixedFlames 263
7.2.1 Premixed Flames 263
7.2.2 Nonpremixed Flames 264
7.2.3 Comparison of Premixed and Nonpremixed Flame
Evolution Equations 266
7.3 Jump Conditions 267
7.3.1 Premixed Jump Conditions 267
7.3.2 Nonpremixed Jump Conditions 269
7.3.3 Velocity and Pressure Relations 269
7.3.4 Vorticity Relations and Vortex-Flame Interactions 274
7.4 Stretching of Material and Flame Surfaces 282
7.4.1 Stretching of Material Surfaces 282
7.4.2 Premixed Flame Stretch 283
7.4.3 Example Problem: Stretching of Material Line by a Vortex 283
 Detailed Contents XI

7.5 Influence of Premixed Flames on the Approach Flow 285

7.6 Aside: Finite Flame Thickness Effects on Flame Jump Conditions 288
7.7 Aside: Further Analysis of Vorticity Jump Conditions across
Premixed Flames 289
7.8 Aside: Linearized Analysis of Flow Field Modification by the Flame 291
Exercises 292
References 293

8 Ignition 296
8.1 Overview 296
8.2 Autoignition 298
8.2.1 Ignition of Homogeneous, Premixed Reactants 298
8.2.2 Effects of Losses and Flow Inhomogeneity 301
8.3 Forced Ignition 311
Exercises 316
References 317

9 Internal Flame Processes 321

9.1 Premixed Flame Overview 322
9.1.1 Premixed Flame Structure 322
9.1.2 Premixed Flame Dependencies 326
9.2 Premixed Combustion in Inhomogeneous,Autoigniting Mixtures 328
9.3 Premixed Flame Stretch and Extinction 331
9.3.1 Overview 332
9.3.2 Expressions for Flame Stretch 334
9.3.3 Weak Stretch Effects 335
9.3.4 Strong Stretch Effects, Consumption and Displacement Speeds,
and Extinction 338
9.4 Premixed Flames: Unsteady Effects 341
9.5 Nonpremixed Flame Overview 343
9.6 Finite-Rate Effects in Nonpremixed Flames 345
9.7 Edge Flames and Flame Spreading 349
9.7.1 Overview 349
9.7.2 Buckmaster’s Edge Flame Model Problem 351
9.7.3 Edge Flame Velocities 354
9.7.4 Conditions at the Flame Edge 357
9.7.5 Implications on Flame Spreadafter Ignition 359
9.8 Intrinsic Flame Instabilities 360
9.9 Aside: Unsteady Flame Response Effects 363
9.10 Aside: Flame Extinction by Vortices 366
9.11 Aside: Wave Speeds of Reaction-Diffusion Equations 367
Exercises 371
References 371
Detailed Contents

Flame Stabilization, Flashback, Flameholding, and Blowoff 379

10.1 Flashback and Flameholding 379
10.1.1 Flame Propagation in the Core How 380
10.1.2 Boundary Layer Flashback 382
10.2 Flame Stabilization and Blowoff 388
10.2.1 Basic Effects in Premixed Flames: Kinematic Balance Between
Flow and Burning Velocities 390
10.2.2 Stretch Rates for Shear Layer Stabilized Flames 392
10.2.3 Product Recirculation Effects on Hame Stabilization
and Blowoff 396
10.2.4 Nonpremixed Flame Liftoff and Blowoff 400
References 402

Forced Response I: Flamelet Dynamics 406

11.1 Overview of Length/Time Scales 406
11.1.1 Premixed Flame Interactions with Broadband
Disturbance Fields 407
11.1.2 Flame Interactions with Narrowband Velocity
Disturbance Fields 412
11.2 Dynamics of Premixed Flame Sheets 415
11.2.1 Model Problems for Two-Dimensional Configurations 415
11.2.2 Linearized Dynamics of Constant Burning Velocity Flames 419
11.2.3 Nonlinear Flame Front Dynamics 433
11.3. Dynamics of Nonpremixed Flame Sheets 442
11.3.1 Example Problem: Mixing Layer 442
11.3.2 Example Problem: Transient Stagnation Flame 445
11.3.3 Example Problem: Isothermal Nonpremixed and Premixed Flame
Rollup by a Vortex 446
11.3.4 Example Problem: Harmonic Forcing of a Confined,
Overventilated Flame 448
11.4 Aside: Dissipation and Dispersion of Disturbances on Premixed and
Nonpremixed Flames 452
11.5 Aside: Harmonic Forcing of Turbulent, Premixed Flames 454
11.6 Aside: Forced Response Effects on Natural Flame Instabilities 456
Exercises 457
References 459

Forced Response II: Heat Release Dynamics 463

12.1 Overview of Forced Hame Response Mechanisms 463
12.2 Flame Configuration Effects on Response Sensitivities 469
12.2.1 Geometry and Flame Area Distribution Effects 470
12.2.2 Burning Rate Distribution Effects 471
 Detailed Contents xiii

12.3 Harmonic Flame Excitation 472

12.3.1 Linear Dynamics: Velocity-Coupled Response 472
12.3.2 Linear Dynamics: Equivalence Ratio Coupling 479
12.3.3 Nonlinear Dynamics 481
12.4 Broadband Excitation and Turbulent Flame Speeds 488
12.4.1 Time-Averaged Burning Rates 488
12.4.2 Fluctuating Burning and Heat Release Rates 493
12.4.3 Combustion Noise 498
12.5 Aside: Effect of External Forcing on Limit Cycle Oscillations 502
Exercises 503
References 504

Index 511
Acknowledgments

Many individuals must be acknowledged for the completion of this book. First, I am
deeply appreciative to my dear wife, Rinda, and daughters Liske, Anneke, Carolina,
and Janna Lieu wen for their love, encouragement, and support.
This book would not have been possible without the financial support provided
through Joseph Citeno, which got the project kicked off, and the support of Vigor
Yang through my department. I am deeply grateful for their support, which made
initiating this project possible.
Next, this book would never have been possible without the enormous help
provided by my group here at Georgia Tech. They were a great help in pulling
together references, performing calculations, critiquing arguments, fleshing out deriv­
ations, catching mistakes, and being a general sounding board. Particular thanks go to
Mike Aguilar, Alberto Amato, Ianko Chterov, Jack Crawford, Ben Emerson, Chris
Foley, Julia Lundrigan, Nick Magina, Mike Malanoski, Andrew Marshall, Jacqueline
O’Connor, Shreekrishna, Vishal Acharya Srinivas, Dong-Hyuk Shin, Ryan Sullivan,
Prabhakar Venkateswaran, and Ben Wilde. I have been very fortunate to have had
such a great team to work with and I thank all of them for their help.
Next, special thanks to Ben Bellows, Enrique Portillo Bilbao, Baki Cetegen, Jeff
Cohen, Joel Daou, Catalin Fotache, Fei Han, Santosh Hemchandra, Hong Im,
Matthew Juniper, Vince McDonell, Randal McKinney, Venkat Narra, Bobby Noble,
Preetham, Rajesh Rajaram, Mike Renfro, Paul Ronney, Dom Santavicca, Thomas
Sattelmayer, David Scarborough, Thierry Schuller, Santosh Shanbhogue, Shiva
Srinivasan, R.I. Sujith, Sai Kumar Thumuluru, and Qingguo Zhang for their feedback
and suggestions on the outline and content. In addition, Siva Harikumar, Faisal
Ahmed, and Jordan Blimbaum were a great editorial support team.
In addition, my sincere thanks go to my colleagues and mentors Ben Zinn, Robert
Loewy, Lakshmi Sankar, Jeff Jagoda, Jerry Seitzman, Suresh Menon, and Vigor Yang
for their help and support.
I am deeply appreciative of the suggestions for second edition contents and
comments on the manuscript by many of my colleagues, including Ben Emerson,
Vishal Acharya, Jacqueline O’Connor, Santosh Hemchandra, and Hong Im.
I am also very thankful for the help and support of Austin Matthews in helping to
pull together this second edition. His carefulness and attention to detail made this a
much better book.
 Acknowledgments xv

Finally, I am very appreciative of the assistance of my group here at Georgia Tech

in developing figures, performing calculations, and checking the text. In particular,
thanks to Aravind Chandh, Lane Dillon, Chris Douglas, Tony John, Henderson
Johnson II, Sriram Kalathoor, Jeong-Won Kim, Vedanth Nair, Shivam Patel, Parth
Patki, Sara Schmidheiser, and Sukruth Somappa.
Introduction

This book is about unsteady combusting flows, with a particular emphasis on the
system dynamics that occur at the intersection of the combustion, fluid mechanics, and
acoustic disciplines - i.e„ on combustor physics. In other words, this is not a
combustion book - rather, it treats the interactions of flames with unsteady flow
processes that control the behavior of combustor systems. While numerous topics in
reactive flow dynamics are “unsteady” (e.g., internal combustion engines, detonations,
flame flickering in buoyancy-dominated flows, thermoacoustic instabilities), this text
specifically focuses on unsteady combustor issues in high Reynolds number, gas-
phase flows. This book is written for individuals with a background in fluid mechanics
and combustion (it does not presuppose a background in acoustics), and is organized
to synthesize these fields into a coherent understanding of the intrinsically unsteady
processes in combustors.
This book follows several texts or monographs which have treated related topics -
including Toong’s Combustion Dynamics [1], Crocco and Cheng’s Theory o f
Combustion Instability in Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors [2], Liquid Propellant
Rocket Combustion Instability by Harrje and Reardon [3], Putnam’s Combustion
Driven Oscillations in Industry [4], Fred Culick’s Unsteady Motions in Combustion
Chambers fo r Propulsion Systems [5], or Lieuwen and Yang’s edited Combustion
Instabilities in Gas Turbine Engines [6], Similarly, several dedicated texts on turbulent
combustion have been written, including Peters [7] and Lipatnikov [8],
Unsteady combustor processes define many of the most important considerations
associated with modem combustor design. These unsteady processes include transi­
ent, time harmonic, and stochastic processes. For example, ignition, flame blowoff
and flashback are transient combustor issues that often define the range of fuel/air
ratios or velocities over which a combustor can operate. As we discuss in this book,
these transient processes involve the coupling of chemical kinetics, mass and energy
transport, flame propagation in high shear flow regions, hydrodynamic flow stability,
and interaction of flame-induced dilatation on the flow field - much more than a
simple balance of flame speed and flow velocity.
Similarly, combustion instabilities are a time-harmonic unsteady combustor issue
where the unsteady heat release excites natural acoustic modes of the combustion
chamber. These instabilities cause such severe vibrations in the system that they can
impose additional constraints on where combustor systems can be operated. The
acoustic oscillations associated with these instabilities are controlled by the entire
2 Introduction

combustor system; i.e., they involve the natural acoustics of the coupled plenum, fuel
delivery system, combustor, and turbine transition section. Moreover, these acoustic
oscillations often excite natural hydrodynamic instabilities of the flow, which then
wrinkle the flame front and cause modulation of the heat release rate. As such,
combustion instability problems involve the coupling of acoustics, flame dynamics,
and hydrodynamic flow stability.
Turbulent combustion itself is an intrinsically unsteady problem involving stochas­
tic fluctuations that are both stationary (such as turbulent velocity fluctuations) and
nonstationary (such as turbulent flame brush development in attached flames).
Problems such as turbulent combustion noise generation require an understanding of
the broadband fluctuations in heat release induced by the turbulent flow, as well as the
conversion of these fluctuations into propagating sound waves. Moreover, the turbu­
lent combustion problem is a good example for a wider motivation of this book -
many time-averaged characteristics of combustor systems cannot be understood
without understanding their unsteady features. For example, the turbulent flame speed,
related to the time-averaged consumption rate of fuel, can be one to two orders of
magnitude larger than the laminar flame speed, precisely because of the effect of
unsteadiness on the time-averaged burning rate. In turn, crucial issues such as flame
spreading angle and flame length, which then directly feed into basic design consider­
ations such as locations of high combustor wall heat transfer, or combustor length
requirements, are then directly controlled by unsteadiness.
Even in nonreacting flows, intrinsically unsteady flow dynamics control many
time-averaged flow features. For example, it became clear a few decades ago that
turbulent mixing layers did not simply consist of broadband turbulent fluctuations, but
were, rather, dominated by quasi-periodic structures. Understanding the dynamics of
these large-scale structures has played a key role in our understanding of the time-
averaged features of shear layers, such as growth rates, mixing rates, or exothermicity
effects. Additionally, this understanding has been indispensable in understanding
intrinsically unsteady problems, such as how shear layers respond to external forcing.
Similarly, many of the flow fields in combustor geometries are controlled by
hydrodynamic flow instabilities and unsteady large-scale structures that, in turn, are
also profoundly influenced by combustion-induced heat release. It is well known that
the instantaneous and time-averaged flame shapes and recirculating flow fields in
many combustor geometries often bear little resemblance to each other, with the
instantaneous flow field exhibiting substantially more flow structures and asymmetry.
Flows with high levels of swirl are a good example of this, as shown by the
comparison of time-averaged (a) and instantaneous (b-d) streamlines in Figure 1.1.
Understanding such features as recirculation zone lengths and flow topology, and how
these features are influenced by exothermicity or operational conditions, necessarily
requires an understanding of the dynamic flow features. To summarize, continued
progress in predicting steady-state combustor processes will come from a fuller
understanding of their time dynamics.
Modern computations and diagnostics have revolutionized our understanding of the
spatiotemporal dynamics of flames since the publication of Markstein’s Nonsteady
 Introduction 3

Figure 1.1 (a) Time-averaged and (b-d) instantaneous flow field in a swirling combustor flow.
Dashed line denotes isocontour of zero axial velocity and shaded regions denote vorticity
values. Image courtesy of M. Aguilar, M. Malanoski, and J. O ’Connor.

Flame Propagation [9]. Indeed, massive improvements in computational power and

techniques for experimental characterization of the spatial features of reacting flows has
led to a paradigm shift in recent decades in our understanding of turbulent flame
processes. For example, well-stirred reactors once served as a widely accepted physical
model used to describe certain types of flames, using insight based on line-of-sight
flame imaging, such as shown in the top three images taken from a swirling flow in
Figure 1.2. These descriptions suggest that the combustion zone is essentially a homo­
geneous, distributed reaction zone due to the vigorous stirring in the vortex breakdown
region. Well-stirred reactor models formed an important conceptual picture of the flow
for subsequent modeling work, such as to model blowoff limits or pollutant formation
rates. However, modern diagnostics, as illustrated by the planar cuts through the same
flame that are shown in the bottom series of images in Figure 1.2, show a completely
different picture. These images show a thin, but highly corrugated, flame sheet. This
flame sheet is not distributed, but a thin region that is so wrinkled in all three spatial
dimensions that a line-of-sight image suggests a homogeneous reaction volume.
Such comparisons of the instantaneous versus time-averaged flow field and flame,
or the line-of-sight versus planar images, suggest that many exciting advances still lie
in front of this community. These observations - that a better understanding of
temporal combustor dynamics will lead to improved understanding of both its time-
averaged and unsteady features - serve as a key motivator for this book. I hope that it
will provide a useful resource for the next generation of scientists and engineers
working in the field, grappling with some of the most challenging combustion and
combustor problems yet faced by workers in this difficult yet rewarding field.
4 Introduction

Figure 1.2 Line-of-sight (top) and planar (bottom) OH-PLIF images of turbulent, swirling
flame [10]. Images courtesy of B. Bellows.

Updates to the Second Edition

It is hard to believe that 10 years have gone by since we started this project. Many of
the motivators and drivers of this book remain the same, but much has changed as
well. From a societal point of view, the march toward decarbonization is accelerating,
motivating topics like hydrogen combustion or combustor operability limits of alter­
native fuels. The commercial space market has taken off and combustion instabilities
remain a key risk for rocket development. Major interest has developed in rotating
detonation engines, where the wave dynamics in annular passages and coupled
injector dynamics mirror many similar combustion instability topics. There is a
resurgence of interest in data-driven approaches for the analysis of complex data sets,
active control, or prediction of future or unmeasured system behaviors. Significant
developments have also taken place in hydrodynamic stability, particularly
reacting flows.
With this in mind, this book has been refreshed and updated. New sections have
been added or major updates made in the following sections:

- Vorticity/circulation dynamics. Section 1.6.

- Exact solution of one-dimensional, linearized Navier-Stokes equations, motivating
the canonical decomposition into entropy, acoustic, and vortical disturbances.
Section 2.2.1.
- New example problem on randomly forced nonlinear oscillators in Section 2.53.3.
- Phase space dynamics of nonlinear systems. Section 2.6.
 Updates to the Second Edition 5

- Decompositions of data, including the Fourier transform, wavelets, partial orthogonal

decomposition (POD), spectral POD, and dynamic mode decomposition. Section 2.7.
-N ew material and complete reorganization of Chapter 3, organized around different
approaches for analyzing hydrodynamic flow stability, including a new section on
mean flow stability theory and limit cycle amplitudes of globally unstable flows.
- Section 3.8 on instabilities in rotating and density stratified flows.
- Reacting jets in cross flow in Section 4.3.4.2.
- Stability of confined and multielement canonical flows in Section 4.7.
- Acoustic wave dynamics in annular passages in Section 5.6.
- Acoustic-entropy mode coupling in Section 6.2.3.
- Acoustic wave interactions with injectors in Section 6.3.3.
- Generalized discussion of surface dynamics, including constant property, passive
scalar, and propagating surfaces in Chapter 7. Also reorganized material from
Chapter 11 on premixed and nonpremixed flame surface dynamics into this chapter.
- Autoignition waves in inhomogeneous mixtures in Sections 8.2.2.4 and 9.2.
- Wave solutions of reaction-diffusion equations in Section 9.11, showing how
fundamentally different types of wave solutions are possible depending on the shape
of the reaction rate curve.
- Flame propagation in flows with deterministic velocity disturbances in
Section 11.2.3.3, showing two fundamentally different regimes where flame
propagation speed is controlled by localized points or the entire velocity held.
- Flame position, heat release response, and sound radiation from flames disturbed by
three-dimensional disturbances in Sections 11.2.2.4, 12.3.1.3, and 12.4.3.2.
- Harmonic forcing effects of turbulent flames in Section 11.5.
- Flame configuration effects on its sensitivity to disturbances in Section 12.2.
- Heat release response of nonpremixed flames to harmonic forcing in
Section 12.3.1.2.

References

[1] Toong T.Y., Combustion Dynamics: The Dynamics o f Chemically Reacting Fluids. 1983,
McGraw-Hill.
[2] Crocco L. and Cheng S.I., Tlieoiy o f Combustion Instability in Liquid Propellant Rocket
Motors. AGARDograph No. 8. 1956, Butterworths Scientific Publications.
[3] Harrje D.T. and Reardon F.H., Liquid Propellant Rocket Combustion Instability. 1972,
NASA.
[4] Putnam A.A., Combustion-Driven Oscillations in Industry. Fuel and Energy Science
Series. 1971, American Elsevier Publishing Company, Inc.
[5] Culick F.E.C., Unsteady Motions in Combustion Chambers fo r Propulsion Systems. 2006,
RTO/NATO.
[6] Lieuwen T.C. and Yang V., eds. Combustion Instabilities in Gas Turbine Engines:
Operational Experience, Fundamental Mechanisms, and Modeling. Progress in
Astronautics and Aeronautics Vol. 210. 2005, AIAA.
6 Introduction

[7] Peters N„ Turbulent Combustion. 1st ed. 2000, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[8] Lipatnikov A., Fundamentals o f Premixed Turbulent Combustion. 2012, CRC Press.
[9] Markstein G.H., Nonsteady Flame Propagation. 1964, Oxford: Pergamon Press.
[10] Bellows B.D., Bobba M.K., Seitzman J.M., and Lieuwen T„ Nonlinear flame transfer
function characteristics in a swirl-stabilized combustor. Journal o f Engineering fo r Gas
Turbines and Power, 2007, 129(4): pp. 954-961.
Overview of the Book

This section previews the structure and content of this book and provides suggestions
for how readers of different backgrounds can use it most effectively. The bulk of
Chapter 1 is dedicated to reviewing the basic equations to be used in this text. Then,
the remainder of the book is divided into three main sections: Chapters 2-6, 7-9, and
10-12. The first section. Chapters 2-6, discusses flow disturbances in combustors.
Chapter 2 details how different types of disturbances arise and propagate in inhomo­
geneous, reacting combustor environments. By introducing the decomposition of flow
disturbances into acoustic, vortical, and entropy disturbances, this chapter sets the
stage for Chapters 3-6 which delve into the dynamics of disturbances in inhomo­
geneous environments in more detail. Specifically, Chapters 3 and 4 focus on the
evolution of vortical disturbances in combustor environments. Chapter 3 provides a
general overview of hydrodynamic stability theory and details some general features
controlling the conditions under which flows are unstable. Chapter 4 then details
specific canonical flow configurations that are particularly relevant to combustor
environments, such as shear layers, wakes, and swirling jets. This chapter also
discusses effects of flow inhomogeneity and acoustic forcing effects on flow
instabilities.
Chapters 5 and 6 treat acoustic wave propagation in combustor environments.
Chapter 5 provides a general introduction to acoustic wave propagation, boundary
conditions, and natural acoustic modes. Chapter 6 then provides additional treatment
of the effects of heat release, mean flow, and complex geometries on sound waves.
This chapter also includes an extensive discussion of thermoacoustic instabilities.
The second section of the book. Chapters 7-9, incorporates reacting flow phenom­
ena and kinetics. Chapter 7 introduces the surface dynamics of propagating surfaces (a
model for premixed flames), constant-property surfaces (nonpremixed flames), and
material surfaces (nondiffusive passive scalars), illustrating their similarities and
distinctives. It also discusses how flames influence the bulk flow held, but does not
treat internal flame processes explicitly. Rather, it focuses on the influence of a flame
on pressure, entropy, vorticity, and velocity fields. Chapter 8 then treats auto- and
forced ignition. Chapter 9 covers flames, first reviewing premixed and nonpremixed
fundamentals, then moving on to more complex topics such as flame stretch, flame
extinction, and edge flames.
The third section of the book. Chapters 10-12, treats transient (in addition to the
ignition processes discussed in Chapter 8) and time-harmonic combustor
Overview

phenomenon. Chapter 10 focuses on the transient, unsteady combustor issues of

blowoff, flashback, and flame stabilization in general. Chapters 11 and 12 then focus
on forced flame dynamics and discuss the interactions of these nominal flame dynam­
ics with narrowband and broadband (turbulent) acoustic and vortical forcing.
The text is intended to be accessible to the new reader who has taken an introduc­
tory graduate course in fluid mechanics and had an undergraduate exposure to
combustion. Expanded discussions of various topics are also included in the
“Asides.” While the book has been organized to be read through in the order the
material is presented, there are several topical groupings of material that readers using
this text for reference will find useful. Readers particularly interested in hydrodynamic
stability or large-scale structures in combustor flows can start with Chapter 2 to
understand, first, the more general context of disturbance propagation modes. They
can then proceed to Chapters 3 and 4. Similarly, readers interested in acoustic
phenomena can start with Chapter 2 and then proceed to Chapters 5 and 6. Those
interested in thermoacoustics will also want to read Chapters 11 and 12 on forced
flame response. Finally, those interested in flame stabilization, blowoff, and flashback
phenomena can work through the material in Chapters 7, 9, and 10. In addition,
readers specifically interested in topics outside of the scope of this text, such as
detonations and/or two-phase combustor physics, will find several of these topical
groupings, such as hydrodynamic stability, thermoacoustics, or flame stabilization, to
be useful introductions to foundational issues controlling dynamics of other flows.
1 Basic Equations

1.1 Thermodynamic Relations in a Multicomponent Perfect Gas

This chapter presents the key equations for a multicomponent, chemically reacting
perfect gas which will be used in this text [1], These equations describe the thermo­
dynamic relationships between state variables in a perfect gas, such as the interrela­
tionship between pressure, density, and entropy. They also describe the physical laws
of conservation of mass, which relates the density and velocity, the momentum
equation, which relates the velocity and pressure, and the energy equation, which
relates the internal and kinetic energy of the flow to work and heat transfer to the fluid.
This chapter’s primary purpose is to compile in one place the key equations to be
used throughout the text, and assumes that the reader has some prior familiarity with
them. A number of references are provided to readers for further details and deriv­
ations of these equations. It is not necessary to follow the derivations to understand the
subsequent chapters, although an understanding of the physics embodied in each
equation is critical. For these reasons, discussions of various terms in these expres­
sions are included in this chapter.
We will use the following perfect gas equations of state:

P & hT
( 1. 1)
MW '

( 1.2)

where e = 7 , J= and Pi = f f is the chemical potential of

species i. All variables are defined in the nomenclature in Section 1.7. The mixture-
averaged molecular weight is given by
N
(1.3)
¿=1
where the mole fractions X¡ are related to the mass fractions Y¡ by

YfMW
(1.4)
MWj
10 Basic Equations

The enthalpy is written as

h= Y . Yi cpj(T * )d T * + J 2 hL Yi = cp(T*)dT* + Y J hl i Y¡ ■
i= 1 ¿=1 ¿=1 ¿=1
fochem

(1.5)
The first and second terms on the right-hand side of this expression are the sensible
enthalpy, hsem, and chemical enthalpy, of the system. The internal energy and
enthalpy are related as follows:

e = h ---- = Cp(T*)dT * - = J L - ( 1.6)

P py J MW t * h Y> 5 >
i= 1

Additionally, the “stagnation” or “total” enthalpy and internal energy, defined as the
enthalpy or internal energy of the flow when adiabatically brought to rest, are given by

hT = h + | it | /2; eT = e + \ u \ /2. (1.7)

The rest of the chapter gives an overview of the conservation of mass, momentum,
and energy equations, while also providing evolution equations for other important
quantities such as fluid dilatation, entropy, vorticity, and kinetic energy.

1.2 Continuity Equation

The continuity equation is given by

^ + W - ( p u ) = 0. ( 1.8)

Rewriting this equation in terms of the substantial derivative.

D
( ) + u ■V ( ), (1.9)
Dt dt
it can be cast in the alternative form
1 Dp
T V • it — 0. ( 1.10)
p Dt

Physically, this equation states that if one follows a given (i.e„ fixed mass) packet of
fluid, the normalized time rate of change of its density is equal to the negative of the
local divergence of the velocity. The local velocity divergence is, itself, directly
proportional to the rate of change of volume of a fluid element; i.e„ its “dilatation
rate,” given by the symbol A = V • it. Moreover, the dilatation rate is also equal to
the instantaneous flux of fluid out of a differential volume element of space. This can
 1.3 Momentum Equation 11

be seen by integrating the dilatation rate over a volume and utilizing Gauss’s diver­
gence theorem:

MV u ■ n dA. ( 1.11)

The resulting surface integral equals the instantaneous volume flux of fluid through
the control surface.

1.3 Momentum Equation

The momentum equation is given by

du _ _ Vp V - r " -
—— |- u • V it = — + ----= + VTuF,-, ( 1.12)
dt P P ^¿=1

where the viscous stress tensor is given by

r = ^ ( V - u)S + 2pS (1.13)

and ¡Li, pÀ are the first and second coefficients of viscosity, S is the Kronecker delta unit
tensor, and S is the symmetric “strain rate tensor,’’ given by

1 ■ r
5 V it + (V it ) (1.14)
2 .

The momentum equation is an expression of Newton’s second law, stating that the net
acceleration of a fixed fluid element (Du /D t) equals the force per unit mass exerted
on it. The force terms on the right-hand side denote surface forces due to pressure and
viscous stress, and body forces. We will write three useful rearrangements of the
momentum equation next.
First, we can write a vector equation for the flow vorticity Q. = V x u by taking the
curl of Eq. (1.12):

Vp V t
V + V x ( u • V u ) = —V V Vx » / x •
dt P
(1.15)

Expanding further.

1 I—|2
— (V x u ) + V x ( V ( —| u | ) + (Q x m)

V t (1.16)
Vp x Vp
- V x Vp V v •
P . i =1
12 Basic Equations

Noting that V • Q = 0 and expanding V x (Q x u) = (V ■ it + it •V ) Q — (Q •V ) h,

the vorticity equation can be written as follows:

DÛ
(V • u ) Û +(Q •V) u + * VP + V x
~Dt P-
(1.17)
Section 1.6 discusses the terms in this equation.
We next write a scalar equation for the evolution of the fluid dilatation A by taking
the divergence of Eq. (1.12):

DA Vp-(V -r) ^
p ---- = —p VY7-
it : VY7-
it —V p H, ^ P - ^ P + V •(V •r ) ------------- - f p V v . f h F i ) .
~Dt p p u
(1.18)
The double dot product appearing in the first term on the right-hand side is expressed
in tensor notation as
diti ditj
p V it : V it = (1.19)
^ dxj dx¡ '
The last equation to be developed from the momentum equation relates to the
kinetic energy per unit mass, | it | /2. This is obtained by taking the dot product of the
velocity vector it with Eq. (1.12). This leads to the scalar equation

—(it -V )p+ it • ( V - r ) + p ( 1. 20)

We will utilize all of these momentum equation variants in the following sections and
subsequent chapters.

1.4 Species Conservation Equation

The species conservation equation is given by

8- ^ ^ + V - ( p Y i u i) = wi. (1.21)
at
Note the distinction between the mass-averaged fluid velocity, it, and the velocity of a
given species, m,. Their difference is the diffusion velocity, m, — it = u d j - This
species conservation equation states that the time rate of change of a fixed mass of a
given element of species i equals the rate of production or consumption by chemical
reaction, Wj.
It is typically more useful to replace the species velocities m, in this expression with
the bulk gas velocity, it, and diffusion velocity, itr>.i- This leads to
 1.5 Energy Equation 13

These diffusion velocities are described implicitly by the following equation:

The reader is referred to Refs. [1, 2] for discussion of the terms in this expression,
which describe the diffusion of mass by gradients in concentration, pressure, and
temperature, as well as a species-dependent body force term. Equation (1.23) leads to
the familiar Fickian diffusion expression below for a binary mixture when Soret,
pressure, and body force terms are neglected:

»/>.; = /V In (1.24)

This expression can be used to recast the species conservation equation as the
following unsteady convection-reaction-diffusion equation:

DYj
P Dt viy + V • ( p S ’^ Y i ) . (1.25)

The species equations can also be recast into “conserved scalar” equations that are
source free. The key idea is that although atoms may move from one compound to
another during chemical reactions, they themselves are “conserved” and not created or
destroyed. For example, one can define conserved scalars based on each particular
atom, such as the hydrogen atom, H, and combine the different H-containing species
equations (e.g„ H2, H20 ) to arrive at a source- and chemistry-free equation [2, 3], This
approach is particularly useful in a system with a single fuel and single oxidizer stream
with the same mass diffusivities, where the mixture fraction, Z, is commonly defined
as the mass fraction of material originating from the fuel jet. The governing equation
for the mixture fraction is given by (see Exercise 1.8):
8Z
p — + p u - V Z - V - { p £ < V Z ) = 0. (1.26)

We will return to this equation in discussion of constant-property surfaces in

Chapter 7, and in the treatment of nonpremixed flames in Chapter 9. This equation
is generally valid for premixed systems as well, but is less useful as Z is constant
everywhere in a perfectly premixed system.

1.5 Energy Equation

The energy equation is given by

14 Basic Equations

This is a statement of the first law of thermodynamics - the time rate of change of
internal and kinetic energy per unit mass of a given fluid element (the left-hand side)
equals the rate of heat transfer, V • minus the rate of work out (the latter three terms
on the right-hand side). There are three work terms, relating to work on the fluid at the
surfaces by pressure forces, V -(pit), and viscous forces, V - ( u -r), and by body
forces, ^2f=l{u + u d j ) • The heat flux vector ^ is given by
N N
X jS x i
-kTVT + p ^ h i Y , i M d , í ^ E E ( U D ,i— l l D , j ) + ‘¡ R a d -
'=1 3=1
(1.28)

See Ref. [1] for a discussion of these terms, which describe heat transfer by conduc­
tion, mass diffusion, multicomponent mass diffusion due to concentration gradients,
and radiation, respectively.
Alternatively, the energy equation can be written in terms of total enthalpy,
hT = eT + (p/p). by moving the pressure work term from the right-hand side of
Eq. (1.27) to the left:

D hj
-V . + - ^ + V - ( m - t) + p Y¡(u + ud,í ) •F¡. (1.29)
1~d T dt

Equations for the internal energy and enthalpy can be obtained by subtracting the
kinetic energy equation, Eq. (1.20), leading to

De
p— = -V - -p (V • m) + t : ( V i í ) + / ) ^ f ¡ í í D,¡T ¡. (1.30)
¿=1
r\ N
Dh
p — = —V • ~ ~ + L : iy Û ) + P ^ Y i Û D ,i - F i- (1.31)
F Dt ¿=1
It is useful to explicitly bring out the chemical component of the enthalpy. This is done
by first writing an evolution equation for the chemical enthalpy of the system using the
species conservation equation, Eq. (1.22), as follows:

Dhcfiem N J3Y 1 _N 1 / _N

(1.32)
Dt 1=1
r=l rP i=\
r=l r \ i=l

This can be further simplified to yield

Dhcfiem
q -X 7 - p ^ / V0,T,' IID, I (1.33)
Dt ¿=1

where the chemical source term q is the volumetric heat release rate due to combus­
tion, given by
 1.5 Energy Equation 15

This chemical enthalpy equation, Eq. (1.33), is then subtracted from Eq. (1.31) to
yield the following equation for sensible enthalpy:

Dh.,
V-
Dt

The energy equation can also be written in terms of entropy, l From Eq. (1.2),

^Di^ De^ pDp^ \ - p t DYj

(1.36)
Dt Dt p 2 Dt j ^ M W i Dt

Substituting Eqs. (1.30) and (1.25) into the above expression yields
Di N _ n l
pT— = - V • ^ + i : (V a ) - p S ’iVYi •Ft - + V • (pS',VT,)).
¿=1 ¿=1 1
(1.37)
This equation shows how the entropy of a given mass of fluid is altered by mass,
momentum, and energy diffusion, as well as body forces and chemical reaction.
Finally, the energy equation is written in terms of temperature and pressure. This
can be done by starting from the equation for sensible enthalpy and, noting that
dhsens = cpdT, rewriting Eq. (1.35) as

Dh..., Dp
p --------------- ? - V . | + r : ( V w ) + V. (p ^ hQ
f i YiUDJ ) + p YjUDJ ■Fj.
H Dt Dt ¿=1 ¿=1
(1.38)

The left-hand side of Eq. (1.38) can be expressed as the substantial derivative of either
temperature or pressure. For example, writing changes in temperature as

dT = (1.39)

the substantial derivative of temperature may be expressed as

DT T Dp TDp M W DYj
Dt p Dt p Dt rE
¿=1 MW: Dt '
(1.40)

so that
Dh., Dp DT Dp
Dt Dt PCp Dt Dt
T (\D p M W ^W i . \ / U \ ^ V - i p /V 1*/ *
PCpT[ y p D t+ ' l< p j ^ M W i MWj
/ 1 DT y — 1 / _ iviw MW 4 4 w. MW 4 ^ V ip /V 1*/ !
= pcpT --------- 1------- V • i t --------y
F p l yT Dt y l p ^ MWi - E - MWi

(1.41)
16 Basic Equations

Hence, the energy equation may be written in terms of the temperature as

ID T PCVT n nz MW¡
(y - 1)V- u = < N
T~Dt
b— —( —V- n +r_: (V m) + V- \ +p'ÿ^YiuDi-Fi

(1.42)

or for pressure as

q _+ » + I y - y - G oSW Y i]
1 Dp pCpT n n MW;
+ V- u — <
ypDt
+ p c j í — V- ^ + p : (V h) + V- ¡Uo j j + p ' ^ ^ Y i uDj-F ,

(1.43)

where n describes the time rate of change of the number of moles of the gas and is
defined as
Wi p
E MWj
------, n =
MW
. (1.44)

Note that
1 D ___ n
- = = — MW (1.45)
M W Dt n'
so that n = 0 if the average molecular weight is constant.
Neglecting molecular transport and body forces, Eq. (1.43) is
1 Dp _ _ à ñ
---------h YJ - it = --------1--- . (1.46)
yp Dt PcpT n

The two terms on the right-hand side of this expression are source terms that describe
volume production due to chemical reactions - the first because of unsteady heat
release and the second due to changes in the number of moles of the gas. To illustrate
the relative magnitudes of these two source terms, q and n, consider the ratio of
product to reactant gas volume, assuming constant pressure combustion:

Mole Production + Heat Release

(1.47)
Heat Release Alone

where the superscripts u and b denote the reactant (unburned) and product (burned)
values. When fuels are burned in air, the n term is small relative to the q term, since
the reactive species are strongly diluted in inert nitrogen. However, there are applica­
tions, most notably oxycombustion, where the molecular weight change between
 1.6 Vorticity and Circulation Equations 17

reactants and products is far more prominent. An equilibrium calculation of stoichio­

metric methane-air and methane-oxygen combustion shows that this ratio equals 1.01
and 1.27 for the air and oxygen systems at 1 bar, respectively. Consequently, for air-
breathing systems the molar production term can be neglected, as it will be in the
remainder of this text. In this case, Eq. (1.46) may be written as

77“ = - 1’M V • u) + 0 - 1)q. (1.48)

1.6 Aside: Discussion of the Vorticity and Circulation Equations

This section discusses the various terms in the vorticity equation, reproduced below:

DO. A Vp x V« _ V t
~LH
{Q. ■V ) it £2 (V • i t ) ---------^------ f V EV
(1.49)
The left-hand side of this equation physically describes the time rate of change of
vorticity of a fixed fluid element. The right-hand side describes vorticity source or sink
terms. The first term, (Q ■V) it, is the vortex stretching and bending term. This term is
intrinsically three-dimensional and, therefore, is identically zero in a two-dimensional
flow. There are two processes described in this term, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. The
first process is the increase or decrease of vorticity by vortex stretching or contraction,
respectively. For example, consider a vortex tube oriented in the axial direction, Q v. If
this axial flow is accelerating, 8itx/e x > 0, then the tube is stretched, causing an
increase in axial vorticity, i.e., DQ.X/D t = Q.xdux/dx > 0.
The second phenomenon is the bending of a vortex tube originally inclined in
another dimension by the local flow. For example, a vortex tube that is initially

0 .0 .— 0 0 0 0 -
Flow acceleration

Shearing flow -
— - o
— o
— o
— o
Figure 1.1 Illustration o f stretching (top) and bending (bottom) effects on a vortex tube.
Basic Equations

Figure 1.2 Illustration o f processes by which a misaligned pressure and density gradient lead to
torque on a fluid element, and thus vorticity production.

oriented vertically, i.e., O ,, is rotated toward the x-axis in an axially shearing flow
cu j c y > 0. This rotation of the vortex tube causes it to be partially oriented in the
axial direction, inducing a Q v component, i.e., DQ.X/D t = i l xcu y/cy.
ReUtming to the full vorticity equation, the second term, (V • it) Q, describes flow
dilatation impacts on vorticity. It is only nonzero in compressible flows. Positive
dilatation, i.e., expansion in cross-sectional area of a vortex Uibe, leads to a reduction
in vorticity. This effect is analogous to a spinning skater who extends their arms
outward, leading to a slowing in angular velocity, or vice versa. This term has
important damping influences on vorticity as it propagates through the flame.
The third term, V;T V/I, describes vorticity production via the baroclinic mechanism,
which occurs when the density and pressure gradients are misaligned. This term is
identically zero in fluids where p = pip), e.g., in isentropic flows of a perfect gas. The
torque induced on the flow by a misaligned pressure and density gradient can be
understood from Figure 1.2. Consider the shaded control volume in a field with a
spatially varying pressure and density. The pressure gradient induces a net force on the
control volume, which acts through the center of pressure, shown in the figure.
Because of the density gradient, the center of mass is displaced from the center of
pressure. If the pressure and density gradients are not aligned (i.e., Vp x Vp / 0),
then the force acting at the center of pressure induces a torque on the fluid element
about this center of mass, creating vorticity.
Pressure only enters the vorticity equation through this baroclinic term. This
reflects the fact that only when the pressure and density gradients are misaligned
can the normal pressure forces exert a torque on the flow.
It is also important to note that vorticity can only be generated at no-slip boundar­
ies, by baroclinic torque, or through body forces. All of the other terms in Eq. (1.49)
describe the amplification, stretching, bending, or diffusion of vorticity that already
exists in the flow. Thus, large-scale vortical structures which play such a key role in
Chapters 3 and 4 do not arise “from nothing” in flows without vorticity sources, but
from the complex reorganization of vorticity that enters the flow from boundary layers
 1.6 Vorticity and Circulation Equations 19

(e.g., in jets, wakes, etc.). An enormous range of possible flow structures can arise
from this vorticity, depending on the characteristics of the specific flow in which
it arises.
More insights into sources of new vorticity, relative to reorganization/amplihcation
of existing vorticity, can be obtained by looking at the circulation. The circulation, T,
is defined as the surface integral of the vorticity or, equivalently, as the line integral of
the tangential velocity along the bounding surface, i.e..

T Q -dA= o •d t (1.50)
Si

An equation for the circulation is

DT 1 V •r \ - N
— (Vp x Vp) -dA + V ----= •dA +
~Dt hP- S i V x (Y iF i)-d A
(1.51)
Comparing this equation and the vorticity equation shows that, while stretching or
dilatation act as sources/sinks of vorticity, they do not appear as sources of circulation.
Baroclinic torque, diffusion, and nonconservative body forces are circulation sources/
sinks.
In addition, the manner in which vorticity induces fluid motion can be inferred from
Eq. (1.50). To illustrate. Figure 1.3 illustrates a two-dimensional region where vorti­
city is confined to a region bounded by .S). Outside of Si, the flow is irrotational.
Equation (1.50) can then be manipulated to yield the relation

fld A ( ) it ■d t . (1.52)
Ji J2
In cases where the outer surface is much farther from the vorticity-containing region,
the value of ug along the circular bounding surface 2 will become progressively more
uniform, so that the line integral can be evaluated to yield

«9

Figure 1.3 Illustration o f velocity induced by a patch o f vorticity.

20 Basic Equations

Figure 1.4 M ie scattering image o f a nonreacting, J — 15 jet in cross flow. Dark regions
indicated by arrows are regions o f intense vorticity where seed particles are centrifuged out.
Image courtesy o f Vedanth Nair.

1
ue Q.rdA. (1.53)
2 nr

This equation shows that the induced velocity, ug, is proportional to the integral of the
vorticity. This induced motion has important practical consequences on the stability of
flows with multiple vorticity-containing regions, such as in wake flows where two
vortex sheets are convected from the bluff body as the boundary layer separates. These
vortex sheets mutually induce motion on each other, a fundamental driver of the von
Karman vortex street behind bluff bodies, as further discussed in Section 3.2.
This relation can also be useful for inferring average vorticity values from velocity
measurements around a bounding surface. For example, in particle image velocimetry
(PIV) measurements, there are often no seed particles in the vortex cores due to the
intense azimuthal velocities, such as shown in Figure 1.4. With no seed particles
present, the local velocity, velocity gradient, or vorticity cannot be measured in the
core region where the arrows point. However, by integrating the tangential velocity
along a bounding surface where sufficient seed is present, the average vorticity can be
determined from Eq. (1.52).

1.7 Nomenclature

This section details the nomenclature used in the text. Maintaining a consistent
nomenclature across the whole text is challenging given the different uses of common
 1.7 Nomenclature 21

symbols across the combustion, acoustics, and hydrodynamic stability communities.

This uniformity of definition admittedly also makes the nomenclature complicated,
and the reader is encouraged to spend a few minutes understanding a few basic items.
All gas velocities are given by u. Subscripts such as x,y, and z. or r and 6 , are used
to denote the specific scalar component of the vector. Superscripts u and b are used to
denote the value just up- or downstream of the premixed flame. Numbered subscripts
are used to indicate perturbation quantities, using expansions detailed in Eq. (2.2). For
example, u“ j denotes the linear perturbation expansion of the axial velocity compon­
ent just upstream of the flame.
For flame-based quantities, subscripts c and d are used to denote consumption- and
displacement-based velocities, and the superscript 0 to denote unstretched values.
Thus, Sj denotes the laminar displacement speed of the flame with respect to the
burned gases. Other nomenclature questions can be addressed by referencing the list
that follows.

1.7.1 Latin Alphabet

a Radius
A Cross-sectional area
C? Q)? Cph Speed of sound; phase speed
Cpy Cv Specific heat
ë Reaction progress variable
D Diameter
Dr Dispersion relationship
Da Damkohler number
S U j . S Ji . S JT,i Diffusion coefficients
e, et Internal energy per mass; internal energy of species z per mass
£ x-> ^ y->£z Unit vector
E Energy
Ft Body force per unit mass acting on species z
f •f 0-./BVK- f KH Frequency
F Arbitrary function; transfer function
8 Spatial gradient of flame position or velocity (gu)
¥ Green’s function
G Premixed flame level set function
/z, /z/, hj j, hci,em Enthalpy per mass
flR Heat release per unit mass of reactant consumed
H Geometric scale
He Helmholtz number, ratio of geometric length scale to
acoustic wavelength
I Acoustic intensity
Jm Bessel function of the first kind
kc Normalized disturbance convection velocity, uc/ ua,o
kj Thermal conductivity
22 Basic Equations

Ka Karlovitz number
L Length scale
Lp Flame length
¿11 Integral flow length scale
Lf] Kolmogorov flow length scale
Le Lewis number
ıh Mass flow rate
m". Mass flux; burning mass flux of flame
M Mach number
m Mode number
Ma Markstein number
MW¡, MW Molecular weight
ti Unsteady heat release gain factor
n Unit normal vector
n Molar production rate
n Number of moles, normal direction, axial acoustic mode number
P Pressure
Pr Prandtl number
î - ÎRad Heat flux
4 Chemical heat release rate per unit volume or flamelet
surface area
Q Heat release per unit mass of fuel reacted
Q Spatially integrated heat release rate
r Radial location
'fc o r r Correlation function or correlation coefficient
R Acoustic wave reflection coefficient
Coherence
Re, Reo, Rex, Re,-, Reynolds number
Real(X) Real part of X
Gas constant, universal gas constant
-áf -él Entropy per unit mass; entropy of species i per unit mass
sc, sd, s", sb Flame speed, speed of isosurface with respect to flow (sd)
S Strain rate tensor, see Eq. (1.14)
Sa Sankaran parameter, 1V |
SR Spin ratio, defined in Eq. (5.120)
St Strouhal number, fL /u
Std S t/ c o s 2 (<9), used in Chapter 12
Sti Strouhal number based on shear layer thickness, fr)/ux
Stp Strouhal number based on internal flame processes,fS p /s " ’°
Styr Strouhal number based on burner width, f W u / u x, used for
nonpremixed flame discussions in Chapter 11
Sy, Sm Swirl number
t Unit tangential vector
T Temperature
 1.7 Nomenclature 23

3 Period of oscillations (1 / / )
T Acoustic wave transmission coefficient
Ux , U/y , U/£ ,
Ur , Ug. Un" . Un Scalar gas velocity component
—» -> -> ->
U, U ç , U i, Uj)^
~?b
U , u Fluid velocity vector
uc, UC,F Phase speed of velocity; flame wrinkle disturbance
V Volume
yF Velocity of flame surface
viV Mass-based production rate of species i by chemical reactions
w Duct height
W(y) Flame area distribution weighting factor used in Chapter 12
Xi Mole fraction of species i
Yi Mass fraction of species i
Y,n Bessel function of the second kind
z Acoustic impedance
Z Mixture fraction
Ze Zeldovich number

1.7.2 Greek Alphabet

a Thermal diffusivity, k T / p c p
ß Parameter
X Flow velocity ratio (Chapters 3 and 4) or scalar dissipation rate
(Chapter 9)
s Shear layer thickness or Dirac delta function
Ô Kronecker delta unit tensor
Sgg Boundary layer thickness
Sp Flame thickness
8k Critical ignition kernel size
8m Markstein length
ôj Turbulent flame brush thickness
Ax, Ay, Az, At Spatial/temporal separation used for correlation calculations
£ Small parameter used for perturbation expansions
if Turbulent dissipation rate
</> Equivalence ratio
o Source terms
y Specific heats ratio
>1 Modal amplitude
y o.x Stoichiometric mass ratio of oxidizer to fuel
K Flame stretch rate
1a . k c. kf Acoustic wave length; convective wave length; flame sheet
wrinkling wavelength
24 Basic Equations

A Dilatation rate, V • u
P First coefficient of viscosity
Pi Chemical potential of species i
Pi Second coefficient of viscosity
Vv Dynamic viscosity, ¡i/p
e Angle or phase
Oj, Or* Onom Incident, refraction, and nominal angle
Opq Phase difference between pressure and heat release
P Density
Oj Temperature ratio
Op Density ratio
T Time scale
L Separation time
ign Autoignition time
T_ Shear stress
OJ Angular frequency
ÓJ Molar-based production rate of species i by chemical reactions
ñ Vorticity
s Interface position, usually referring to flame
v Stream function; spatial mode shape
C Decay, damping coefficient

1.7.3 Subscripts
0,1,2, ... Perturbations
A Reference position or value
B Reference position or value
c Flame speed: consumption-based definition, such as, ,v"; flow
velocity: disturbance convection velocity, uc
cun’ Curvature-induced flame stretch
D Displacement-based velocity definition, such as
displacement speed
>1 Associated with Kolmogorov scales
A Acoustic mode
i Imaginary
lean Lean mixture
MR Most reacting
n Normal component
NL Nonlinear part
P Potential mode
9 Azimuthal vector component (polar coordinates)
r Real part, or radial vector component (for polar coordinates)
i Entropy mode
 Exercises 25

5 Hydrodynamic strain component

Sens Sensible
A Tangential component
T Stagnation
At the flame front
n Vortical mode
x, y, z Velocity coordinates in rectangular coordinate system

1.7.4 Superscripts
o Unstretched value of flame quantity
b Value of quantity at flame sheet on burned side
II Value of quantity at flame sheet on unburned side

1.7.5 Other Symbols

O ' Fluctuating quantity
( ) Time average of quantity
[] Jump across the flame/interface
n Fourier transform of variable

Exercises
(Solutions are available at Cambridge.org/9781108841313)
1.1. A flow is isentropic if the entropy of a given mass of fluid does not change, i.e.,
D j/D t = 0. Work out the conditions that are required for this to be true.
1.2. Can a flow be isentropic, i.e., D j/D t = 0, and still have entropy fluctuations?
1.3. Work out the conditions for the stagnation enthalpy of a given mass of fluid to
remain constant, i.e., D h j/D t = 0.
1.4. The preceding problems worked out the conditions for the stagnation
enthalpy and entropy to remain constant along a pathline. Crocco’s equation
[4, 5] is a useful expression providing insight into the relationship between
flow and thermodynamic properties across streamlines (which is the same as
a pathline only in a steady flow). Moreover, it provides an enlightening
reformulation of the momentum equation into a form illustrating the
relationship between vorticity, stagnation enthalpy, and entropy. Starting
with Eq. (1.12), neglect body forces and molecular transport, and substitute
in the state relation

l1! dYi
dh TJ4 + J± +
p
E
1=1 W i1
M
(1.60)
26 Basic Equations

to prove the following relation:

-^- + V/zr - TX7j - u x Q. - V ^ ^ V T , - = 0. (1.61)

dt 4 -f MW ;

1.5. Implications o f Crocco’s equation. Crocco’s equation provides important

insights into the relationships between flow and thermodynamic properties
between adjacent streamlines. Assuming a two-dimensional steady flow with no
chemical reaction and molecular transport, and that hr is constant along a
streamline, show that Crocco’s equation may be written in the following scalar
form along a streamline (where n is the coordinate locally
perpendicular to the streamline):
dhj . dé
Q. + T (1.67)
dn dn
1.6. Implications o f Crocco’s equation. Following on the development from the
preceding problem, assume that hT is constant everywhere. Discuss the physical
implications of Crocco’s equation.
1.7. Quasi-one-dimensional forms. Derive approximate mass, momentum, and
energy equations for a quasi-one-dimensional flow in a channel with slowly
varying cross-sectional area A(x). Neglect molecular transport, body forces, and
chemical reactions. You can do this by developing differential expressions for the
conservation laws, but note that although the normal velocity is zero along the
side walls, the pressure is not.
1.8. Mixture fraction equation, Z. The mixture fraction, Z, is defined as the mass
fraction of material originating from the fuel jet, Z — YFue] + Y Prod-
Derive Eq. (1.26) assuming that only fuel, oxidizer, and product species exist and
that all species have equal diffusivities.

References

[1] Williams F.A., C o m b u s tio n T h e o ry : T h e F u n d a m e n ta l T h e o ry o f C h e m ic a lly R e a c tin g F lo w

S y ste m s. 1994, Perseus Books.
[2] Poinsot T. and Veynante D., T h e o re tic a l a n d N u m e r ic a l C o m b u s tio n . 2nd ed. 2005, R.T.
Edwards, Inc.
[3] Peters N„ T u r b u le n t C o m b u s tio n . 1st ed. 2000, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[4] Wu C.S. and Hayes W.D., Crocco’s vorticity law in a non-uniform material. Q u a rte rly
J o u r n a l o f A p p lie d M a th e m a tic s , 1958, 16: pp. 81-82.
[5] Currie I.G., F u n d a m e n ta l M e c h a n ic s o f F lu id s. 3rd ed. Mechanical Engineering. 2002,
Marcel Dekker.
2 Decomposition and Evolution
of Disturbances

A key focus of this text is to relate the manner in which fluctuations in flow or
thermodynamic variables propagate and interact in combustion systems. In this
chapter, we demonstrate that combustor disturbances can be decomposed into three
canonical types of fluctuations - acoustic, entropy, and vorticity disturbances. This
decomposition is highly illustrative in understanding the spatial/temporal dynamics of
combustor disturbances [1], For example, the velocity held can be decomposed into
acoustic fluctuations, which propagate at the speed of sound with respect to the how,
and vorticity fluctuations, which are advected by the how. This decomposition is
important because, as shown in Chapters 11 and 12, two velocity disturbances of the
same magnitude can lead to very different influences on the hame, depending on their
phase speeds and space-time correlation. Section 2.9 further emphasizes how this
decomposition provides insight into behavior measured in a harmonically oscillating
how held.
This chapter is organized in the following manner. Section 2.1 introduces the basic
approach for analyzing disturbances, and illustrates the formal process of perturbation
expansions used throughout the text. Section 2.2 then considers small-amplitude
disturbance propagation in homogeneous hows. This limit is helpful for understanding
key aspects of the problem, as the disturbance modes do not interact and are not
excited. Section 2.3 closely follows this material by showing how these disturbance
modes are excited and how they interact with each other. Section 2.4 then considers
the energy density and energy hux associated with these disturbances.
Section 2.5 moves from specihc analysis of gas dynamic disturbance to a more
general overview of linear and nonlinear stability concepts. This and subsequent
sections pull together a number of results associated with linear and nonlinear
systems, the effects of forcing on self-excited systems, and effects of interactions
between multiple self-excited oscillators. These results have been selected from more
general nonlinear dynamics treatments for their relevance to important unsteady
combustor phenomena, which will be referred to throughout the text.

2.1 Descriptions of Flow Perturbations

In this section we introduce the concepts used to quantitatively analyze fluctuations. In

order to illustrate these definitions, consider the following example problem.
28 Decomposition and Evolution of Disturbances

motivated by the isentropic pressure-density relationship, describing the time vari­

ation of the pressure, p(t):

p{t) = f?i(l + esin (2.1)

We will denote the “base” or “nominal” flow as the value of the quantity in the
absence of perturbations. This quantity is given the subscript 0, so in this case
Po = >j \. It is often useful to expand the quantity about this base state in a Taylor
series:

P = Po + Pi + P i H-----• (2-2)
where, by assumption, p 1 <iCp(j, Pi <C p \ , and so forth.1 Thus, for this problem we can
determine the form of these various orders of approximations by expanding Eq. (2.1)
to yield

= £y sin (cot), (2.3)

Po
pJO = r ) f r - l ) i m ' ( « l ) = os
(2.4)
Po 2 4

P i(t) e3y(y - 1)(}’ - 2) sin3(®f) 3 y(y - l ) ( y - 2) ^

------= ---------------------------------- = s -------------------- 13 sin cot sin3fflf). (2.5)
Po 6 24

Thus, the leading-order term, , is linear in disturbance amplitude, e, and oscillates

with the same frequency as the disturbance. Approximating pit) p () by this hrst-
order term is referred to as the “linear approximation.” The second-order term is
quadratic in disturbance amplitude, e2, and has two different terms, one that does not
vary in time and the other that oscillates at 2co. The former term describes the change
in time-averaged pressure by the disturbance, and the latter describes the introduction
of higher harmonics of the disturbance frequency by nonlinearities. The third-order
term is cubic in disturbance amplitude, e3, and has one term that oscillates at co and the
other at 3®. The former term describes the alteration of the amplitude of oscillations at
the disturbance frequency by nonlinear processes, and the latter describes the intro­
duction of an additional higher harmonic frequency by nonlinearities.
Several patterns are evident: terms of even order have time-invariant terms and
higher harmonics with frequencies that are even multiples of the disturbance
frequency. Odd-order terms alter the amplitude of oscillations at the disturbance
frequency, and also introduce higher harmonics with frequencies that are odd mul­
tiples of the disturbance frequency. As shown in Exercise 2.1, if the disturbance

1 A note on conventions: perturbation expansions of this form more typically use

p = P o + CP\ + £ 2P i + ■■■■where and p 2 are 0(1) quantities. While this expansion is very natural for
the problems described in this section, we have used the form in Eq. (2.2 ) here as it is more convenient for
other analyses and we prefer to use a single, consistent expansion approach throughout the text.
 2.2 Small-Amplitude Propagation: Uniform Inviscid Flows 29

consists of multiple frequencies, up and m2 , nonlinearities also generate sum and

difference frequencies, such as co\ — coo, c>\ + c>2 . 2co\ — coo, and so on.
We will denote the time average of a quantity with an overbar, e.g., p. Fluctuations
of quantities about the time average are denoted with (

p'(t) = p ( t ) - p . ( 2 .6)

In many problems, flow fluctuations can be further decomposed into random and
deterministic or quasi-deterministic fluctuations. For example, coherent flow structures
often consist of quasi-deterministic flow features, superposed upon a background of
fine-scale turbulence. Similarly, pressure fluctuations in thermoacoustically unstable
combustors are superpositions of broadband turbulent flow and combustion noise, and
near perfect tones at one or more frequencies. A “triple decomposition” can be used to
differentiate these different types of fluctuations, as described in Section 2.8.
Note that the time-averaged value is not equal to its base or nominal value; i.e.,
p / p(). Rather, p and p 0 are only equivalent to brst order in perturbation amplitude.
For instance, in this example problem,

— = 1 H---- —------- + — ------¿21------¿21------- + 0 (e 6), (2.7)

Po 4 64

PM sy
)’()’- 1 ) 0 - 2 )
sin (cot) fiQ Q - 1) cos (2cot)
Po 4 ( 2 .8)
fi3}’0 — i ) 0 —2) .
sin (3cot).
24
In general, the base value, ( )0 , of a quantity is not experimentally accessible, but its
time average is (similarly, the ( )j, ( )2, ... perturbation terms are not experimentally
accessible in general). For example, in a turbulent flow, the base flow consists of the
laminar flow that would exist at those same conditions. However, since the flow is
unstable, it is impossible to observe what this base flow would look like. Nonetheless,
expanding about a base flow is useful for approximate analytical techniques to
determine whether such a flow is linearly stable. Moreover, analysts often use the
formulae developed from such expansions and apply them to turbulent flows by
replacing the base flow values by the time-averaged ones. We will discuss this
specibcally in Sections 3.5 and 11.5.
With this distinction in mind, theoretical expressions developed from perturbation
expansions will be presented in this text as p 0, , p 2, and so on. In contrast,
measurements or computations are reported in terms of p and //.

2.2 Small-Amplitude Propagation in Uniform, Inviscid Flows [2]

In this section we analyze the solution characteristics of the linearized Navier-Stokes

and energy equations, by assuming infinitesimal perturbations superposed upon a
spatially homogeneous background flow. Each variable is written as
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
You could pay your bills if you were not afraid to be gay!
Earnest Approach
[From the door, solemnly.] A more earnest approach would save The
People.
Light Touch
A lighter touch would turn the trick!
[With that they leave.
Firebrand
[Going over and pounding on The Editor’s desk.] To hell with the
bourgeoisie! Apes!
Philosopher
Efficiency has put out the spark.
Ed
Well, as long as the spark appears to be good and out, may I, in the
name of efficiency, ask you who do not belong here to retire, that
we may go ahead with our work?
Philosopher
There would be greater efficiency in our remaining. There would be
form. You have lacked form.
Firebrand
You have lacked courage! Donkeys!
Ed
It would be illuminating, Leo, to hear you run through the animal
kingdom—toads, crocodiles, a number of things you haven’t
mentioned yet, but the animal kingdom is large—and we have work
to do.
Philosopher
You lack form in your work. By form I do not mean what you think I
mean. I mean that particular significance of the insignificant which is
the fundamental—
Ed
We couldn’t understand it. Why tell us?
Philosopher
No. You couldn’t understand it.
[He leaves them to their fate.
Firebrand
Rest in peace. [Gesture of benediction. Then hissingly.] Centipedes!
[He goes—leaving a laugh behind him.
Ed
What’s the matter with us is our friends.
Sara
[Quietly.] Well, to be or not to be. I guess it’s up to you, Ed.
Ed
Just what would we be going on for? To make a few more people
like the dear ones who have just left us? Seems to me we could best
serve society by not doing that. Precisely what do we do?—aside
from getting under the bed in Bronxville. Now and then something
particularly rotten is put over and we have a story that gets a rise
out of a few people, but—we don’t change anything.
Sara
We had another hope. We were going to express ourselves so simply
and so truly that we would be expressing the people.
Ed
[Wearily.] The People. I looked at them all the way across this
continent. Oh, I got so tired looking at them—on farms, in towns, in
cities. They’re like toys that you wind up and they’ll run awhile. They
don’t want to be expressed. It would topple them over. The longer I
looked the more ridiculous it seemed to me that we should be giving
our lives to—[Picks up the magazine and reads.] The People—“A
Journal of the Social Revolution.” Certainly we’d better cut the sub-
title. The social revolution is dead.
Oscar
You don’t think you are bringing back any news, do you, Ed?
Artist
[Taking up magazine.] Instead of a sub-title we could have a design.
Much better.
[Glares at Oscar, then begins to draw.
Sara
This is a long way from what you felt a year ago, Ed. You had vision
then.
Ed
You can’t keep vision in this office. It’s easy enough to have a
beautiful feeling about the human race when none of it is around.
The trouble about doing anything for your fellow-man is that you
have to do it with a few of them. Oh, of course that isn’t fair. We
care. I’ll say that for us. Even Oscar cares, or he wouldn’t work the
way he has. But what does our caring come to? It doesn’t connect
up with anything, and God knows it doesn’t seem to be making
anything very beautiful of us. There’s something rather pathetic
about us.
Oscar
Or is it merely ridiculous?
Sara
Let me read you something, Ed. [She takes The People and reads
very simply.] “We are living now. We shall not be living long. No one
can tell us we shall live again. This is our little while. This is our
chance. And we take it like a child who comes from a dark room to
which he must return—comes for one sunny afternoon to a lovely
hillside, and finding a hole, crawls in there till after the sun is set. I
want that child to know the sun is shining upon flowers in the grass.
I want him to know it before he has to go back to the room that is
dark. I wish I had pipes to call him to the hilltop of beautiful
distances. I myself could see farther if he were seeing at all. Perhaps
I can tell you: you who have dreamed and dreaming know, and
knowing care. Move! Move from the things that hold you. If you
move, others will move. Come! Now. Before the sun goes down.”
[Very quietly.] You wrote that, Ed.
Ed
Yes, I wrote it; and do you want to know why I wrote it? I wrote it
because I was sore at Oscar and wanted to write something to make
him feel ashamed of himself.
[While Sara is reading, The Woman has appeared at the door, has
moved a few steps into the room as if drawn by the words
she is hearing. Behind her are seen The Boy from Georgia, The
Man from the Cape.
The Woman
[Moving forward.] I don’t believe that’s true! I don’t believe that’s
true! Maybe you think that’s why you wrote it, but it’s not the
reason. You wrote it because it’s the living truth, and it moved in you
and you had to say it.
Ed
[Rising.] Who are you?
The Woman
I am one of the people. I have lived a long way off. I heard that call
and—I had to come.
The Boy
[Blithely.] I’ve come too. I’m from Georgia. I read it, and I didn’t
want to stay at school any longer. I said, “I want something different
and bigger—something more like this.” I heard about your not being
able to sell your paper on the newsstands just because lots of
people don’t want anything different and bigger, and I said to
myself, “I’ll sell the paper! I’ll go and sell it on the streets!” And I got
so excited about it that I didn’t even wait for the dance. There was a
dance that night, and I had my girl too.
The Woman
He didn’t even wait for the dance.
Oscar
The idealists are calling upon the intellectuals, and “calling” them.
Ed
[To The Man.] And what did you leave, my friend?
The Man
[Heavily.] My oyster bed. I’m from the Cape. I had a chance to go in
on an oyster bed. I read what you wrote—a woman who had
stopped in an automobile left it, and I said to myself, “I’m nothing
but an oyster myself. Guess I’ll come to life.”
Ed
But—what did you come here for?
The Man
Well—for the rest of it.
Ed
The rest of what?
The Man
The rest of what you’ve got.
The Boy
Yes—that’s it; we’ve come for the rest of what you’ve got.
Oscar
This is awkward for Ed.
The Woman
Give it to us.
Ed
What?
The Woman
The rest of it.
Ed
[An instant’s pause.] I haven’t got anything more to give.
The Boy
But you made us think you had. You led us to believe you had.
The Woman
And you have. If you hadn’t more to give, you couldn’t have given
that.
Oscar
Very awkward.
The Woman
You said—“I call to you. You who have dreamed, and dreaming
know, and knowing care.” Well, three of us are here. From the South
and the East and the West we’ve come because you made us want
something we didn’t have, made us want it so much we had to move
the way we thought was toward it—before the sun goes down.
The Boy
We thought people here had life—something different and bigger.
Oscar
Perhaps we’d better go. Poor Ed.
Ed
I wish you’d shut up, Oscar.
The Woman
I know you will give it to us.
Ed
Give what to you?
The Woman
What you have for the people. [Oscar coughs.] What you made us
know we need.
Oscar
You shouldn’t have called personally. You should have sent in your
needs by mail.
Ed
Oscar, try and act as if you had a soul.
The Woman
I think he really has. [A look at Oscar—then, warmly.] At least he has
a heart. It’s only that he feels he must be witty. But you—you’re not
going to let us just go away again, are you? He gave up his oyster
bed, and this boy didn’t even wait for the dance, and me—I gave up
my tombstone.
Ed
Your—?
The Woman
Yes—tombstone. It had always been a saying in our family—“He
won’t even have a stone to mark his grave.” They said it so much
that I thought it meant something. I sew—plain sewing, but I’ve
often said to myself—“Well, at least I’ll have a stone to mark my
grave.” And then, there was a man who had been making speeches
to the miners—I live in a town in Idaho—and he had your magazine,
and he left it in the store, and the storekeeper said to me, when I
went there for thread—“Here, you like to read. Don’t you want this?
I wish you’d take it away, because if some folks in this town see it,
they’ll think I’m not all I should be.” He meant the cover.
Artist
[Brightening.] That was my cover.
The Woman
[After a smile at The Artist.] So I took it home, and when my work
was done that night, I read your wonderful words. They’re like a
spring—if you’ve lived in a dry country, you’ll know what I mean.
And they made me know that my tombstone was as dead as—well,
[With a little laugh] as dead as a tombstone. So I had to have
something to take its place.
Sara
[Rising and going to The Woman.] Talk to him. Tell him about it.
Come, Oscar!
The Boy
As long as there seems to be so much uncertainty about this,
perhaps I’d better telegraph father. You see, the folks don’t know
where I am. I just came.
The Woman
He didn’t even stay for the dance.
The Boy
I’ll be glad to sell the papers. [Seeing a pile of them on the table.]
Here, shall I take these?—and I’ll stop people on the street and tell
why I’m selling them.
Oscar
No, you can’t do that. You’d be arrested.
 The Woman
Let him sell them. What’s the difference about the law, if you have
the right idea?
Oscar
The right idea has given us trouble enough already.
The Man
There’s something sure about an oyster bed.
Oscar
You come with me and have a drink. Something sure about that too.
The Woman
He could have had a drink at home.
Sara
[To Artist.] Coming, Joe? [To The Boy.] It was corking of you to want
to help us. We must talk about—
[All go out except The Woman and The Editor. A Pause.
The Woman
I am sorry for you.
Ed
Why?
The Woman
[Feeling her way and sadly.] Because you have the brain to say
those things, and not the spirit to believe them. I couldn’t say them,
and yet I’ve got something you haven’t got. [With more sureness.]
Because I know the thing you said was true.
Ed
Will you sit down?
The Woman
No—I’ll go. [Stands there uncertainly.] I don’t know why I should be
disappointed. I suppose it’s not fair to ask you to be as big as the
truth you saw. Why should I expect you would be?
Ed
I’m sorry. I suppose now you’ll regret your tombstone.
The Woman
No—it was wonderful to ride across this country and see all the
people. The train moving along seemed to make something move in
me. I had thoughts not like any thoughts I’d ever had before—your
words like a spring breaking through the dry country of my mind. I
thought of how you call your paper “A Journal of The Social
Revolution,” and I said to myself—This is the Social Revolution!
Knowing that your tombstone doesn’t matter! Seeing—that’s the
Social Revolution.
Ed
Seeing—?
The Woman
[As if it is passing before her.] A plain, dark trees off at the edge,
against the trees a little house and a big barn. A flat piece of land
fenced in. Stubble, furrows. Horses waiting to get in at the barn;
cows standing around a pump. A tile yard, a water tank, one straight
street of a little town. The country so still it seems dead. The trees
like—hopes that have been given up. The grave yards—on hills—
they come so fast. I noticed them first because of my tombstone,
but I got to thinking about the people—the people who spent their
whole lives right near the places where they are now. There’s
something in the thought of them—like the cows standing around
the pump. So still, so patient, it—kind of hurts. And their pleasures:
—a flat field fenced in. Your great words carried me to other great
words. I thought of Lincoln, and what he said of a few of the dead. I
said it over and over. I said things and didn’t know the meaning of
them ’till after I had said them. I said—“The truth—the truth—the
truth that opens from our lives as water opens from the rocks.” Then
I knew what that truth was. [Pause, with an intensity peculiarly
simple.] “Let us here highly resolve that these dead shall not have
died in vain.” I mean—all of them. [A gesture, wide, loving.] Let life
become what it may become!—so beautiful that everything that is
back of us is worth everything it cost.
[Enter Tom.
Tom
I’ve got—[Feeling something unusual.] Sorry to butt in, but I can still
get that job on The Evening World. If this paper is going to stop,
I’ve got to know it.
Ed
Stop! This paper can’t stop!
Tom
Can’t stop! Last I heard, it couldn’t do anything else.
Ed
That was—long ago.
Tom
Oh—you’ve got something to go on with?
Ed
Yes, something to go on with.
Tom
I see. [Looks at woman, as if he doesn’t see, glances at her suit-
case.] I’m glad. But—I’ve got to be sure. This—is the truth?
Ed
The truth. The truth that opens from our lives as water opens from
the rocks.
[Tom backs up.
 The Woman
[Turning a shining face to The Printer.] Nobody really needs a
tombstone!
(Curtain)
 CLOSE THE BOOK
A COMEDY IN ONE ACT
 First Performed by the Provincetown Players,
New York, Nov. 2, 1917

ORIGINAL CAST

Jhansi Edith Unger

Peyton Root, an Instructor in the University James Light
Mrs. Root, Peyton’s Mother Susan Glaspell
Mrs. Peyton, His Grandmother Clara Savage
Uncle George Peyton, President of the Board of Justus Sheffield
Regents
Bessie Root Alice
MacDougal
State Senator Byrd David Carb
Mrs. State Senator Byrd Esther Pinch
 CLOSE THE BOOK
Scene: The library in the Root home, the library of middle-western
people who are an important family in their community, a university
town, and who think of themselves as people of culture. It is a room
which shows pride of family: on the rear wall are two large family
portraits—one a Revolutionary soldier, the other a man of a later
period. On the low book-cases, to both sides of door rear, and on the
mantel, right, are miniatures and other old pictures. There is old
furniture—mahogany recently done over: an easy chair near the
fireplace, a divan left. A Winged Victory presides over one of the
book-cases, a Burne Jones is hung. It is a warmly lighted, cheerful
room—books and flowers about. At the rear is a door opening on the
hall, at the left a door into another room. There is a corner window
at the right. Jhansi and Peyton are seated on the divan. Mrs. Root is
just going into the hall. She seems perturbed. Jhansi is dressed as a
non-conformist, but attractively. Peyton is a rather helpless young
man, with a sense of humor that is itself rather helpless.
Mrs. Root
I’ll see, Peyton, if your grandmother isn’t ready to come down.
[She leaves them.
Jhansi
[Springing up.] It’s absurd that I should be here!
Peyton
I know, Jhansi, but just this once—as long as it means so much to
mother, and doesn’t really hurt us.
Jhansi
But it does hurt me, Peyton. These walls stifle me. You come of
people who have been walled in all their lives. It doesn’t cage you.
But me—I am a gypsy! Sometimes I feel them right behind me—all
those wanderers, people who were never caught; feel them behind
me pushing me away from all this!
Peyton
But not pushing you away from me, dear. You love me, Jhansi, in
spite of my family?
Jhansi
If I didn’t love you do you think I could endure to come to this
dreadful place? [A look about the comfortable room]—and meet
these dreadful people? Forgive me for alluding to your home and
family, Peyton, but I must not lose my honesty, you know.
Peyton
No, dear; I don’t think you are losing it. And perhaps I’d better not
lose mine either. There’s one thing I haven’t mentioned yet.
[Hesitates.] Mr. Peyton is coming to dinner tonight.
Jhansi
Mr. Peyton. What Peyton?
Peyton
Yes—that one.
Jhansi
And you ask me—standing for the things I do in this university—to
sit down to dinner with the president of the board of regents!
Peyton
Mother’d asked him before I knew it.
Jhansi
[With scorn.] Your uncle!
Peyton
He’s not my uncle—he’s mother’s. And you see it’s partly on account
of grandmother just getting back from California. He’s grandmother’s
brother-in-law, you know. I suppose she doesn’t realize what it
means to have to sit down to dinner with him—she’s done it so
much. And then mother thought it would be nice for you to meet
him.
Jhansi
Nice!
Peyton
He’s pleasant at dinner.
Jhansi
Pleasant!
Peyton
Mother’s a little worried about my position in the university.
Jhansi
It would be wonderful for you to lose your position in the university.
Peyton
Yes—wonderful.
Jhansi
And then you and I could walk forth free!
Peyton
Free—but broke.
Jhansi
Peyton, you disappoint me. Just the fact that that man is coming to
dinner changes you.
Peyton
Oh, no. But you are fortunately situated, Jhansi, having no people.
It’s easier to be free when there’s nobody who minds.
 Jhansi
I am going!
Peyton
Oh come now, dearest, you can’t go when you’re expected for
dinner. Nobody’s that free.
Jhansi
Dinner! A dinner to celebrate our engagement! It’s humiliating,
Peyton. I should take you by the hand and you and I should walk
together down the open road.
Peyton
We will, Jhansi; we will—in time.
Jhansi
We should go now.
Peyton
Think so? Mother’s going to have turkey.
Jhansi
Better a dinner of berries and nuts—!
Peyton
We’ll have berries—cranberries, and nuts, too.
Jhansi
Where is my coat?
Peyton
[Seizing her and kissing her.] Some day, serene and unhampered,
we’ll take to the open road—a road with berries and nuts.
[Grandmother Peyton and Mrs. Root are at the door.
Mrs. Root
Mother, this is Peyton’s friend Miss Mason. One of our important
students.
Grandmother
[In her brittle way.] Yes? I never was a very important student
myself. I didn’t like to study. Because my family were professors, I
suppose.
Mrs. Root
Peyton’s grandmother is a descendant of Gustave Phelps—one of the
famous teachers of pioneer days.
Jhansi
[Her head going up.] I am a descendant of people who never taught
anybody anything!
Peyton
Jhansi and I were just going to finish an article on Free Speech
which must get to the Torch this evening.
Grandmother
[Moving toward the big chair near the fire.] Free Speech? How
amusing.
Peyton
You may be less amused some day, grandmother.
[Jhansi and Peyton go into the other room.
Grandmother
That may be a free speech. I wouldn’t call it a pleasant one.
Mrs. Root
[Sinking to the divan.] Oh, he was speaking of the open road again
—berries and nuts—!
Grandmother
[Beginning to knit.] Berries and nuts? Well, it sounds quite
innocuous to me. Some of our young people are less simple in their
tastes.
Mrs. Root
[In great distress.] Mother, how would you like to see your grandson
become a gypsy?
Grandmother
Peyton a gypsy? You mean in a carnival?
Mrs. Root
No, not in a carnival! In life.
Grandmother
But he isn’t dark enough.
Mrs. Root
And is that the only thing against it! I had thought you would be a
help to me, mother.
Grandmother
Well, my dear Clara, I have no doubt I will be a help to you—in time.
This idea of Peyton becoming a gypsy is too startling for me to be a
help instantly. In the first place, could he be? You can’t be anything
you take it into your head to be—even if it is undesirable. And then,
why should he be? Doesn’t he still teach English right here in the
university?
Mrs. Root
I don’t know how much longer he’ll teach it. He said the other day
that American literature was a toddy with the stick left out. Saying
that of the very thing he’s paid to teach! It got in the papers and
was denounced in an editorial on “Untrue Americans.” Peyton—a
descendant of John Peyton of Valley Forge! [Indicates the
Revolutionary portrait]—denounced in an article on Untrue
Americans! And in one of those awful columns—those silly columns
—they said maybe the stick hadn’t been left out of his toddy. But it
isn’t that. Peyton doesn’t drink—to speak of. It’s this girl. She’s the
stick. And I tell you people don’t like it, mother. It’s not what we pay
our professors for. Peyton used to be perfectly satisfied with
civilization. But now he talks about society. Makes light remarks.
Grandmother
I should say that was going out of his way to be disagreeable. What
business has a professor of English to say anything about society?
It’s not in his department.
Mrs. Root
I told Peyton he should be more systematic.
Grandmother
How did this gypsy get here?
Mrs. Root
She was brought up by a family named Mason. But it seems she was
a gypsy child, who got lost or something, and those Masons took her
in. I’m sure it was very good of them, and it’s too bad they weren’t
able to make her more of a Christian. She is coming to have a
following in the university! There are people who seem to think that
because you’re outside society you have some superior information
about it.
Grandmother
Well, don’t you think you’re needlessly disturbed? In my day, a
young man would be likely enough to fall in love with a good-looking
gypsy, not very likely to marry her.
Mrs. Root
Times have changed, mother. They marry them now. [Both sigh.] Of
course, it’s very commendable of them.
Grandmother
[Grimly.] Oh, quite—commendable.
 Mrs. Root
I was brought up in university circles. I’m interested in ideas. But
sometimes I think there are too many ideas.
Grandmother
An embarrassment of riches. So you have set out to civilize the
young woman?
Mrs. Root
I’d rather have her sit at my table than have my son leave some
morning in a covered wagon!
Grandmother
I wonder how it is about gypsies. About the children. I wonder if it’s
as it is with the negroes.
Mrs. Root
Mother!
Grandmother
It would be startling, wouldn’t it?—if one of them should turn out to
be a real gypsy and take to this open road.
Mrs. Root
[Covering her face.] Oh!
Grandmother
Quite likely they’d do it by motor.
Mrs. Root
[Rising.] Mother!—how can you say such dreadful things—and just
when I have this trying dinner. Oh, I wish Bessie would come! [Goes
to the window.] She is a comfort to me.
Grandmother
Where is Bessie?
Mrs. Root
She’s away in the motor. [Again shudders.] Bessie feels dreadfully
about her brother. She is trying to do something. She said it would
be a surprise—a happy surprise. [Someone heard in the hall.]
Perhaps this is Bessie. [Enter Mr. Peyton.] Oh, it’s Uncle George.
Uncle George
Early I know. Came to have a little visit with Elizabeth. [Goes to
Grandmother and shakes hands.] How are you, young woman?
Grandmother
My nerves seem to be stronger than the nerves I see around me.
And how are you, George?
Uncle George
Oh, I’m well.
Grandmother
But—?
Uncle George
Responsibilities.
Grandmother
The bank?
Uncle George
I’d rather run ten banks than a tenth of a university. You can control
money.
Mrs. Root
I’m sorry, Uncle George, that Peyton should be adding to your
worries.
Uncle George
What’s the matter with Peyton?
Grandmother
Wild oats.
 Uncle George
Well, I wish he’d sow them in less intellectual fields.
Mrs. Root
I am prepared to speak freely with you, Uncle George. The matter
with Peyton is this girl. Well, they’re going to be married. Yes
[Answering his gesture of protest] and I think it’s a good thing. She
won’t be in a position to say so much about freedom after she is
married.
Uncle George
But they say she’s a gypsy.
Mrs. Root
She won’t be a gypsy after she’s Peyton’s wife. She’ll be a married
woman.
Uncle George
Yes, but in the meantime we will have swallowed a gypsy.
Grandmother
And I was just wondering how it would be about the children.
Mrs. Root
Mother, please don’t be indelicate again.
[Pause.
Grandmother
Well, if there’s nothing else we may speak of, let’s talk about free
speech. They’re writing a paper on it in there.
Uncle George
I don’t know what this university is coming to! An institution of
learning! It isn’t that I don’t believe in free speech. Every true
American believes in free speech, but—
[Slight Pause.
 Grandmother
[With Emphasis.] Certainly.
Uncle George
Ask them to come out here with their paper on free speech. I’ll be
glad to give them the benefit of my experience.
Mrs. Root
Yes, it will be delightful to all be together.
[She goes to get Peyton and Jhansi.
Grandmother
This girl doesn’t look to me like one who is thirsting for the benefit
of another person’s experience.
Uncle George
She’s a bad influence. She’s leading our young people to criticise the
society their fathers have builded up.
Grandmother
There’s a great deal of ingratitude in the world.
[Mrs. Root returns, followed by the two young people.
Mrs. Root
I told Uncle George you were eager to bring him and Jhansi
together. Jhansi, this is Mr. Peyton, who looks after the affairs of the
university for you students. Of course you’ve heard about Miss
Mason, Uncle George, one of our—cleverest students.
Uncle George
Yes, we were speaking of Miss Mason’s cleverness just the other day
—in board meeting.
Jhansi
And just the other day—at the student assembly—we were speaking
of how you look after the affairs of the university for us.
 Grandmother
I hope you both spoke affectionately.
Uncle George
Well, Peyton, very busy I take it. You’re adding to your duties, aren’t
you?
Peyton
Not that I know of.
Uncle George
Your grandmother said something about a high falutin paper on free
speech.
Peyton
I suppose that’s an inherited tendency. You know one of my
ancestors signed a paper on free speech. It had a high falutin name:
“The Declaration of Independence”!
Mrs. Root
I wish Bessie would come!
Uncle George
Do you think much about your ancestors, Peyton?
Peyton
Not a great deal.
Uncle George
Peyton has some rather interesting ancestors, Miss Mason. There’s
Captain John Peyton. That’s his picture. He helped win one of the
battles which made this country possible—the country in which you
are living. And a descendant of John Peyton—Richard Peyton [Points
out the picture] gave the money which founded this university—the
university in which you are now acquiring your education.
Jhansi
[Lightly.] Perhaps it would be quite as well if this university—and this
country—never had existed.
Mrs. Root
I don’t see why Bessie doesn’t come!
Jhansi
Of course I look at it as an outsider. I am not a part of your society.
Uncle George
Peyton is.
Mrs. Root
There’s Bessie!
[Bessie rushes in.
Bessie
Grandmother! [Swiftly kissing her.] How wonderful to have you with
us again! Dear Uncle George!
Uncle George
Glad you got here, Bessie. Your mother has been looking for you.
Bessie
[A movement of greeting to Jhansi.] Isn’t it beautiful to all be
together? A real family party! And now—we have a moment or two
before dinner, mother?
Mrs. Root
The man who brought the turkey in from the country had a runaway,
so it was a little late in arriving.
Bessie
How fortunate! Oh, it does seem that all things work together for
the best. Mother, I have had a completely successful day!
Grandmother
Where’ve you been, Bessie?
Bessie
I’ve been fifty miles to the north—in Baxter County. Does that mean
anything to you, Jhansi?
Jhansi
Not a thing.
Bessie
[Still breathlessly.] Dear uncle, I hope you will understand what I am
about to do. It might seem unrestrained—not in the best of taste,
but it’s just because you stand for so much in Peyton’s life that I
want you to hear our good news as soon as we hear it ourselves.
You knew that these two children were in love and going to be
married. [A bow from Uncle George.] You know—Jhansi dear, I may
speak very freely, may I not?
Jhansi
I believe in free speech.
Bessie
Yes—how dear of you. Jhansi has endured in proud silence a great
grief. And now, dear child, because of the touching dignity with
which you have stood outside and alone, it is a moment of special
joyfulness to me when I can say—Welcome Within!
Peyton
What are you talking about, Bessie?
Bessie
You must not stand outside society! You belong within the gates.
You are one of us!
Jhansi
I’m not.
 Bessie
Dear child you are as respectable as we are.
Jhansi
[Rising.] I am not.
Bessie
Of course, you can’t grasp it in an instant. But I have looked it all up,
dear. I have the proofs.
Peyton
Well it wasn’t your affair, Bessie.
Bessie
I made it my affair because I love my brother. Jhansi dear, [As one
who tells tremendous good news] your father was Henry Harrison, a
milkman in the town of Sunny Center—an honorable and respected
man. Your parents were married in the Baptist Church!
Jhansi
I deny it! I deny this charge!
Bessie
[Stepping to the hall.] Dear Senator and Mrs. Byrd, will you come
now?
[Enter State Senator Byrd and Mrs. State Senator Byrd, Mrs. Byrd
carrying a large book.
Bessie
Jhansi dear, you are about to enter upon the happiest moment of
your life, for State Senator Byrd, one of our law-making body, is a
cousin of your dear dead mother.
Senator Byrd
Aggie’s little girl!
 [He goes to Jhansi with outstretched hands. But Aggie’s little girl
stands like a rock.
Bessie
And here, Jhansi, is your cousin Mrs. Byrd, who has come all this
way to assure you you have a family.
Mrs. Byrd
Indeed you have! There’s Ella Andrews, one of our teachers—a
lovely girl. She’s your first cousin. We are second cousins. You may
have some little family pride in knowing that I was last spring
elected President of the Federated Clubs of Baxter County. Just last
week I entertained the officers of all the clubs at our home—our
new home, erected last year after your cousin Ephraim completed
his first term in the upper house of the State Legislature. Your cousin
Ephraim has been re-elected. He is on the Ways and Means
Committee.
Uncle George
[Approaching Senator Byrd.] I have heard of Senator Ephraim Byrd of
the Ways and Means Committee. That was good work you fellows—
[They talk of this.
Mrs. Root
And to think, Jhansi, that your cousin Mrs. Byrd is a prominent
clubwoman!
Grandmother
[After a look at Jhansi.] Her cup runneth over.
Mrs. Root
Isn’t Bessie wonderful, mother? How did you find it all out, Bessie?
Bessie
From clue to clue I worked my way to Sunny Center. I would say to
myself—Do this for Peyton; do this for Jhansi. And so, I heard of an
old minister who had been there years and years. I went to him and
—he had married Jhansi’s father and mother! Dearest child, your
mother taught in his Sunday-School!
Senator Byrd
Oh, yes, Aggie loved the Baptist Sunday-School!
Jhansi
It’s very strange that my mother—I am referring to Mrs. Mason—
never told me of this!
Bessie
But she never told you you were a gypsy, either, did she? No; she
just wanted you to think you were their own child. And then I
suppose you heard some foolish tale at school.
Mrs. Byrd
You see Jhansi’s mother and father—her real ones—died of typhoid
fever before she was two years old. They got it from the cows. Well,
the Harrisons were friends of the Mason’s—they all worked together
in the church—and so they took Jhansi, and soon after that they
moved away and we lost track of them. You know what a busy world
it is—particularly for people who have duties in their community.
Jhansi
I haven’t accepted this story! You can’t prove it!
[Mrs. Byrd impressively hands her husband the book.
Senator Byrd
“Iowa descendants of New England families.”
Mrs. Root
Oh, yes; that is one of the books in which our family is written up!
[To Peyton.] My dearest boy, from my heart I congratulate you!
Senator Byrd