QUESTION BANK

FOR

INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS

VI SEMESTER

Number of questions

UNIT numbers Number of questions

1 68
2 57
3 39
4 41
5 23

total 228

By Dr.S.Purushothaman
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Unit-1 Introduction
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Q1) Define a robot?

A robot is a machine, It is programmable by a computer, It can automatically perform a series of
complex actions or tasks It is designed to operate without human intervention. It can take various
forms, not necessarily resembling humans.

Q2) Mention four main components of a robot?

1.Manipulator 2.Sensors 3.Controller 4.power conversion unit

Q3) Define manipulator?

A manipulator typically refers to a structure or device that is designed to handle objects and
perform tasks based on a set program. It often resembles a robotic arm, specifically in industrial
contexts, where it executes predefined movements.

Q4) Draw a general manipulator?

Q5) Define a) cartesian b) cylindrical c) spherical d) delta/parallel e) SCARA f) articulated

manipulators?
Cartesian: The robot can move in straight lines, allowing it to make box-like shapes if necessary.
Cylindrical: The robot’s arm can turn around or move up and down a center axis.
Spherical: The robot moves around a primary axis, as well as a secondary one located at a 90°
angle to the primary.
Delta/Parallel: This configuration enables the robot to have the fastest movements, using
sweeping motions to move outward quickly.
Selective Compliance Articulated Robot Arm: This configuration has pivot points, allowing the
robotic arm to move in Cartesian and cylindrical directions.
Articulated: This configuration requires robots to have a wrist and elbow joint, along with at least
one shoulder joint.
Q6) Draw configuration of a) cartesian b) cylindrical c) spherical d) revolute e) SCARA
manipulators?
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Q7) Define a sensor?

A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical environment.
The input can be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure or any number of other environmental
phenomena.

Q8) Define the following:

a) Pressure sensor?
pressure measurements inside joints to determine the applied torque and forces.
b) light sensor?
The light sensor is used to detect light and it usually generates a voltage difference.
c) sound sensor?
A sound sensor detects a sound and converts it into an electrical signal. Application:-robots
can navigate through sound,
d) temperature sensor?
Detects temperature changes within the environment. Principle: Uses the voltage difference
to get the temperature change, thereby generating the equivalent temperature value of the
environment.
e) contact sensor
Detect a change in •velocity, •position, •acceleration, •torque, or •force at the joints of the
manipulator and theend-effector in robots.
f) proximity sensor : A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of
electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or
return signal. •The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target.
g) infrared transceiver : IR sensor is an electronic device, that emits the light in order to
sense some object of the surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as
well as detects the motion. Usually, in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some
form of thermal radiation.
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h) ultrasonic sensor : The Reflective Ultrasonic Sensor (Distance-adjustable or Zone-

setting Convergent Reflective Sensor 1) sends ultrasonic waves from an emitter toward a
sensing object, then receives the reflected waves with a detector. The Sensor uses the
resulting information to determine the presence of an object, or to measure the distance to
the object. This type of Sensor determines the distance from the Sensor to an object based
on the time required from when the ultrasonic waves are sent until they are received using
the speed of sound.
i) photo resistor: A photocell or photoresistor isa sensor that changes its resistance when
light shines on it. The resistance generated varies depending on the light striking at his
surface. A high intensity of light incident on the surface will cause a lower resistance,
whereas a lower intensity of light will cause higher resistance.
j) position sensor: A position sensor detects an object’s position and movement. It comes
in many forms — including linear, rotary, proximity, tilt and incremental — and is
commonly used in robotics, automotive systems and industrial machinery for accurate
control and operation when tracking the position, orientation or displacement of
components.
k) optical position sensor: Optical sensors convert light signals into electric signals. They
are non-contact based sensors. It is similar to a photo resistor and measures the physical
quantity and translates into a form that is readable by any appropriate instrument.

Q9) Mention three control objectives for a robot?

1.motion control: as when a robot arm moves along a specified trajectory;
2.force control: where the objective is to apply specific forces to an object or the
environment; 3.hybrid motion-force control: as when writing on a board: you control the
motion in the plane of the board but the force into the board; and impedance control, as
when a robot is used to render a virtual environment.

Q10) What is impedence control?

Impedance control is a method of controlling a robot's force and position in relation to its
environment. It's often used in applications where a robot interacts with a human or other
object. Impedance control is a method of controlling a robot's force and position in relation
to its environment. It's often used in applications where a robot interacts with a human or
other object.

Q11) Mention the application of impedence control robot?

Human-robot interaction: Impedance control can help robots interact with humans
safely. For example, it can help robots sense when a human is applying force and adjust
their movement accordingly.
Assembly tasks: Impedance control can help robots assemble parts with complex shapes.

Q12) Explain the control block diagram as given in Figure 1?

A power supply takes AC power from the wall and delivers DC power to motor amplifiers.
The controller takes as input a desired motion from the user and sensor feedback from the
robot.
At a rate of perhaps a thousand times per second, the controller evaluates a control law and
requests joint torques from each motor amplifier.
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At each joint, the amplifier sends a current to the motor to achieve the desired torque, since
the torque of an electric motor is proportional to the current.
Typically a current sensor senses the actual current, and the amplifier updates its signal to
better achieve the current needed to generate the desired torque.

Figure 1 Control block diagram for a robot

These inner control loops can run tens of thousands of times per second.
Some robot joints have torque sensors embedded in the actuators themselves, and this
feedback is used in the local torque control loop.
Finally, the motors are coupled to each other through the dynamics of the arm, and the
actual motion of the robot is measured by the encoders.
The measured motion is sent to the controller.
This is a block diagram of the robot control system.
The controller produces low-power signals telling the amplifiers what to do; the amplifiers
send high-power current through the motors, which produce the forces and torques that
drive the robot.
The robot’s motion and forces are measured by sensors that send the measurements back
to the controller. We call this closed-loop control because of the sensor feedback.

Q13) How do power converters work in robots?

Voltage regulation Power converters ensure that all components receive the correct voltage
level.
Current management Power converters allow for precise current control, which can be
adjusted to meet the demands of each task.
Waveform shaping Power converters convert DC power to AC with the desired frequency
and amplitude.

Q14) What types of power converters are used in robots?

Soft-switching converters These converters reduce switching losses and minimize stress
on semiconductor devices. They are used in high-frequency motor drives and precision
robotics.
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Matrix converters These converters perform direct AC–AC conversion without

intermediate DC links. They are used in variable-speed motor drives and actuators.
Dual Active Bridge (DAB) converters These converters provide bidirectional AC–DC
conversion, which is useful for robots that need to regenerate energy or connect to a grid.
Matrix converters These converters perform direct AC–AC conversion without
intermediate DC links. They are used in variable-speed motor drives and actuators.

Q15) Explain P=VI?

Power equals voltage times current (P=VIP=VI). This means that if you increase either the
current or the voltage, you'll increase the power. If you keep the voltage the same and
double the current, you’ve doubled the power, if you keep the current the same and halve
the voltage, you halve the power.

Q16) Explain Voltages for robot?

Firstly we’ll have 5V. Many microcontrollers such as the Raspberry Pi and Arduino are
based on a 5V input, and all the USB devices we’ll be using operate at 5V too. Sometimes
you’ll see 3.3V components crop up, we won’t be using them for now but you might want
to in the future, since the Pi uses 3.3V for certain things.
The question is, how do we get 5V? Perhaps a battery? This is where we run into some
problems:
5V batteries don’t really exist, for chemistry reasons. Even if they did exist, they would
probably fluctuate in voltage depending on their charge and other factors, and some of
these devices need their 5V to be very precise.
We also need to power our motors, and they'll usually need more than 5V.

Q17) Explain Regulators?

This is a component that can take a different voltage (almost always higher, but sometimes
lower) and convert it to a precise 5V. It keeps it regular. There are different types of
regulators out there, with the two main types being linear and switching.
Linear regulators are simple, small, and cheap. In fact, both the Arduino and the motor
driver include one on-board. They can also produce a nice, clean output. However they are
also very inefficient, especially when the input voltage is high and a lot of current is
required. For that reason, in a project like this a switching regulator (also known as
switched-mode power supply, or buck converter) is probably more appropriate. So we
know we need a regulator, what will feed into that?

Q18) Explain Supply Voltage?

we’ll need to supply power to our motors (for me these are DC motors, via a motor driver
chip). So we want the supply voltage to be appropriate for our motors. DC motors are pretty
resilient, they can usually deal with a bit of over-voltage, and if we go a bit under they’ll
just run slower. My motors are rated for 12V, which is pretty common, but depending on
the application you may want to go for 6V, 24V, or something else. If you have a different
motor type, things might be a little different, but in any case you should know the voltage
you're aiming for. We have our 12V supply voltage coming in (we’ll see where that comes
from later) and a regulated 5V for our components.
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Q19) Explain Current in robot ?

Now that we’ve selected our voltages, we can talk about current. As mentioned earlier,
current will dictate a lot of the decisions we make. We might want to aim for lower current
devices, to keep things smaller and lighter and minimise battery consumption, or we might
want to go for broke and make it big and beefy. Whatever we do, we want to be aware and
careful.

Q20) What is a robot joint?

Robot joints enable movement in robots by connecting two rigid links. The type of joint
determines the range and nature of movement possible. These joints allow robots to
complete tasks with various levels of flexibility and dexterity.

Q21) What is a Rotary joints?

Movement around an axis. Rotary joints, as the name suggests, enable rotational movement
around an axis. These joints allow robots to twist and turn, which is essential for mobility
and manipulation.

Q22) What are the types of rotary joints?

Single-axis rotation (revolute joints). The most common type is the revolute joint, which
provides rotation around a single axis. Robotic arms typically have more than one revolute
joint, allowing them to bend at the elbow and move from side to side.
Multi-directional mobility (spherical joints). For more complex movement, spherical joints
provide rotation in multiple directions. These joints have three perpendicular axes of
rotation, similar to a ball and socket in your shoulder. Spherical joints are useful for robotic
hands, which allows them to maneuver objects with skill.
Combined rotation and sliding (cylindrical joints). Cylindrical joints enable both rotation
around an axis and sliding along that axis. They’re useful when rotation alone is not
enough, such as in robotic fingers or legs. The combination of revolute and prismatic joints
in cylinders allows for grasping, walking, and other coordinated movements that require
controlled sliding and rotation.

Q23) What are Linear joints?

Straight-line motions. Linear joints enable robots to move in a straight line. These joints
typically consist of a movable element that slides or glides along a set of rails or guides.

Q24) What are the most common types of prismatic and slider joints?
Prismatic joints allow for sliding motion in one direction. An example is a drawer — it can
only move in and out along one axis. Industrial robots often use prismatic joints to extend
and retract robotic arms. This allows the arm to reach farther without needing a larger base.
Slider joints enable two plates to slide over each other in a plane. They’re commonly found
in X-Y tables that move in two dimensions. These joints give robots a wide range of motion
within a flat surface. 3D printers frequently use slider joints to control the print head. By
moving it in the X and Y axes, the print head can access the entire print bed.

Q25) What are Twisting joints?

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Enabling rotation. Twisting joints, known as revolute joints, allow for rotation around a
single axis. They’re one of the simplest yet most useful types of robot joints.

Q26) How twisting joints work?

A twisting joint has two links connected by a pin, serving as the rotation axis.
One link stays fixed, while the other rotates around the pin. Many twisting joints can rotate
a full 360 degrees, but often have limits built in for specific uses.
The joint is powered by an actuator, like an electric motor, which provides the force needed
for rotation.

Q27) Mention the Applications of twisting joints?

Twisting joints are all around us in robotics and automation.
They’re often found in robotic arms and hands, and are a perfect fit for tasks that involve:
Assembly: Screwing components together, precisely placing parts, or any task that needs a
rotating motion.
Packaging: Opening jars, twisting caps, or rotating items for optimal placement in boxes.
Machining: Rotating workpieces for cutting/milling, operating grinding tools, or polishing
surfaces.

Q28) What are Revolute joints?

Single-axis rotation. Revolute joints, also known as hinges, have a single axis of rotation.
Think of a door hinge allowing a door to swing open and closed. Revolute joints are simple
but essential, enabling elbows, knees, and fingers to bend.

Q29) Explain the Design of revolute joints?

A revolute joint consists of two links connected by a pin, which acts as the joint’s axis of
rotation.
So, one link remains stationary, while the other rotates around the pin. Also, revolute joints
can rotate through a full 360 degrees, although the rotation is often limited for specific
applications.
The joint is also driven by an actuator.

Q30) Mention the Applications of revolute joints?

Robotic arms and hands:
Grabbing and manipulating objects: Multiple revolute joints in a robot's
fingers, wrist, and arm allow it to grasp items of various shapes and sizes,
and move them with precision.
Precision assembly: The controlled rotation provided by revolute joints
enables robots to carefully place and align delicate components during
intricate assembly processes.
Material handling: Revolute joints allow robotic arms to pick, place, rotate,
and reposition objects throughout a manufacturing or logistics
environment.

Q31)Give Examples of revolute joints?

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Some well-known examples of robots using revolute joints include:

The robotic arms installed on the International Space Station to help astronauts.
Robotic arms used in automobile manufacturing for painting, welding, and parts handling.
Humanoid robots like Atlas, ASIMO, and Sophia, where revolute joints provide realistic
arm, hand, and leg movements.

Q32) What are Spherical joints?

Multi-directional mobility. Spherical joints are one of the most versatile types of robot joints. They
open up movement in multiple directions at once — rotation, swiveling, and pivoting.
These highly mobile joints provide robots with super-high levels of skill.

Q33) How spherical joints work?

Spherical joints use ball and socket mechanisms that allow the joint to spin, swivel, and
pivot freely in any direction. The ball, attached to one link, rotates within a socket, which
is attached to the adjacent link. This construction gives spherical joints their signature
multi-axial movement abilities.

Q34) What are the Applications of spherical joints?

Industrial robot arms: Many industrial robot arms integrate spherical joints in their
shoulders, elbows, and wrists for:
Maneuvering payloads in complex or tight spaces.
Reaching around obstacles with increased dexterity.
Performing intricate tasks with a wider range of motion.
Robotic grippers and hands Spherical joints are frequently found in robotic grippers and
hands, providing:
Enhanced dexterity for grasping objects of various shapes and sizes.
The ability to manipulate objects with more freedom of movement.
Humanoid robots: Some humanoid robots utilize spherical joints to achieve highly
articulated movements mimicking human joints:
Ball-and-socket joints like those in the hips and shoulders provide a more natural
and fluid range of motion.

Q35) Define Cylindrical joints?

Combined movements. A cylindrical joint allows motion in two degrees of freedom, linear motion
along an axis and rotation around that same axis.
Think of it as a revolute joint that can slide up and down. This combination of rotation and
translation allows for more complex movements and a greater range of motion.

Q36) What are the Applications of cylindrical joint?

There are some of the applications where these robot joints excel:
Prosthetic limbs and exoskeletons to restore natural movement.
Surgical robots that need precise control and navigation.
Exploration robots traversing uneven terrain. The ability to slide and rotate helps them
adapt to the environment.
Entertainment robots and animatronics that need to move and gesture in a very lifelike
fashion.
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Q37) Give Examples of cylindrical joints?

The human elbow joint is a great example of a cylindrical joint in nature.
Your elbow can bend and straighten (rotate) as well as slide inward and outward (translate)
along your arm. Advanced robotic arms like Standard Bots’ RO1 have cylindrical joints at
the “elbow” to mimic human range of motion.
Cylindrical joints are also commonly used in robotics for the “shoulder” joint, where the
robot arm attaches to the body. This allows the entire arm to rotate in a circle as well as
slide up and down for maximum flexibility and extension.

Q38) Explain workspace?

The workspace of a robot, also called operating space, refers to the space of the
configurations (positions and orientations) that the end-effector or ending tool of the robot
can reach and operate within.
The size and shape of the workspace depend on several aspects such as the joint types,
links length and the tool used in the end effector.
The workspace of a robot can then vary depending on its type, configuration, and intended
application, such that it is limited by the finite reach of a physical robot and possibility of
collision between different parts of the robot as it moves (joint limits).
For planar robots, the workspace is a surface on the plane (subset of ℝ² X S¹) , while for
spatial robots It's a volume in 3D (subset of ℝ³ X S³).
Manufacturers provide the workspace of robots in their datasheets, in the shape of diagrams
that represent the reach of the wrist regardless of the orientation or length of the tool.

Q39) What is a robot's workspace made up of?

Positions: The end-effector's possible positions
Orientations: The end-effector's possible orientations
Boundaries: The limits of the workspace, which can be caused by joint limits,
singularities, or obstacles

Q40) What does a robot's workspace depend on?

Range of motion: The robot's range of motion
Joint limits: The physical limits of the robot's joints Architecture: The robot's design
End-effector: The end-effector's design

Q41) What is degrees of freedom of a robot?

In the context of a robot, the degree of freedom (DoF) is the number of independent
variables or parameters that define the motion or configuration of the robot. DoF represents
the number of ways a robot can move or position itself in its working space. The more the
degree of freedom, the more flexible and adaptable the robot. A robot with high DoF can
make more complex movements and perform a variety of tasks. Higher DoF, however,
comes at the expense of more cost, complexity, and control challenges.
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Q42) How to calculate the degree of freedom of a robot?

Determining the degree of freedom of a robot may not be that easy. For certain types of
robots, it is quite straightforward.
For example, a Cartesian robot is always 3-DoF. A Scalar robot is 4-DoF. Though for other
types of robots and robot designs, it is not that simple.
If each joint of the robot is independent and has no constraints and dependencies, the total
DoF of the robot is the sum of the DoF of all joints.
For example, if a robot has two revolute joints and two prismatic joints, all independent
without any dependencies, the total DoF of the robot is 4 (2 + 2), with each joint adding
one degree of freedom.
Generally, joints are not all independent and have some constraints applied to them. The
dependencies of joints further complex the equation.
How many constraints and freedom are in a)revolute b)prismatic c)universal d)spherical
joints?

Q43) How do you decide which type of industrial robot is the right fit?
As with many design and engineering issues, “form follows function”.
That is, which type of robot is needed depends on its intended function.
Will the robot be fastened to the floor or other surface, or does it need to be mobile?
How many units per hour must the robot be able to process?
What's the maximum weight the robot must lift?
If the robot is fastened in one place, what is the size of the work envelope?
Is the work envelope rectangular or circular?
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Q44) What is Stationary Robots (Robotic Arms)?

There are seven main types of stationary robots available on the market. By
stationary, we mean robots that are bolted to the floor, the ceiling, or some other
surface - they are not mobile.
Generally, stationary robots are robotic arms designed for tasks like picking and
placing, sorting, assembling, welding, and finishing.

Q45) Explain Articulated Robot Arms?

Advantages: Most flexible movement of all the robot arm types. Can be quite powerful, capable
of lifting heavy objects.
Disadvantages: Might need to be fenced off. Slower than some of the other robot arms. More
expensive than other robot arms. Needs more sophisticated control systems.
In comparison with other types of robot arms, the movement of an articulated robot arm most
closely resembles a human arm. A typical articulated arm has six axes, or joints. It may have fewer
or more, depending on the application and manufacturer. The more joints a robot has, the more
smooth and less “robot-like” its motion becomes. This flexibility of motion is described by
Degrees of Freedom.
Designers of artificial hands consider the human hand to have 27 degrees of freedom. A human
arm has 7 degrees of freedom, for a combined total between the human arm and hand of 34 degrees
of freedom.
To replicate all of the subtle ways the human arm and hand can move would be too expensive and
complex for an industrial robot. It is generally agreed that 6 degrees of freedom in an industrial
robot arm are enough for them to perform almost any task that is needed.
Depending on the application, a robot arm may be equipped with a gripper, the robotic equivalent
of a hand. Usually, robot grippers are much simpler than the human hand. Sometimes they might
be as simple as a suction cup or an electromagnet. Or, perhaps a three-fingered, soft gripper might
be used to pick up delicate objects, like fresh produce or an egg. There are many different types of
grippers, and no single robotic gripper has yet been found that can handle all applications.
Alternatively, the End of Arm Tooling (EoAT) as it is called, can be some kind of tool, perhaps a
rotating tool that holds a drill bit, or some other kind of a bit, for deburring, grinding or milling.
There are many possibilities, including specialized EoAT for welding, painting, sanding, laser
cutting, and many more.
Articulated robots are highly flexible as all their joints can rotate, as opposed to linear or
translational joints, which can only move in a straight line.
Articulated robots are used in applications such as pick and place, arc welding, spot welding,
packaging, machine tending, and material handling. The ability to produce arcs (or similar
patterns) in hard-to-reach places makes articulated robots a good candidate for the automotive
industry and other manufacturing which requires this ability.
Historically, large and powerful articulated-arm robots capable of picking up objects weighing a
ton or more were not equipped with sensors that allowed them to be aware of their environment.
If a person were to get in the way of such a robot, they could be seriously injured or even killed.
As a result, such robotic arms need to be separated into a space of their own. Only qualified
personnel who fully understand the functioning of the robot are allowed to enter the walled-off or
fenced-off space within which such robots operate.
However, if an articulated robot arm is equipped with appropriate sensors and control software, it
can safely operate around people. For example, using computer vision with a camera or perhaps a
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LiDAR sensor, if such a robot senses that something is in the way of its path of motion, or even
that a person or object is approaching and not yet in the way, the robot can slow down or stop.
Other sensors can detect a collision – if the arm bumps into something, it will stop and/or reverse
course. Usually, articulated arms that are safe to operate alongside people are designed to be
limited in their speed and strength.

Q46) What are the advantages and disadvantages of Cartesian or Rectangular robots?
Cartesian or Rectangular robots Advantages: Simple control system. Depending on the model, can
lift very heavy objects. Accurate. Rigid in all three axes. Less expensive than articulated arms.
Disadvantages: Cannot do rotational movements.

Q47) Explain Cartesian Gantry robot?

Cartesian robots can be used for pick-and-place, material handling, packaging automation, storage
and retrieval, cutting and drilling, and many more applications. They are rigid in all three
dimensions, which makes them very accurate and repeatable. They are simpler than articulated
robotic arms, with simpler software control, and can be less expensive, depending on the
application.
Gantry Robots - A Type of Cartesian Robot
Advantages: Depending on the model, can lift very heavy objects. Can be made very large,
spanning the entire length of the facility, if desired. Can be very cost-effective for the right
applications.
Disadvantages: Cannot do rotational movement.

Q48) Mention advantage and disadvantage of SCARA robot?

SCARA robots Advantages: Excellent for many assembly applications. Fast and accurate. Cost-
effective for assembly operations. Disadvantages: Not as flexible as articulated arms. Not as
accurate as Cartesian arms. Not as fast as Delta robot arms.

Q49) What is SCARA?

SCARA robots (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) are similar to Cartesian robots in
that they move in 3 joints or axes. However, in contrast to Cartesian robots, two of the joints of
SCARA robots are rotational. They are therefore capable of more complex movements than the
Cartesian robots. They are generally faster and have more flexibility in movement but are less
precise than Cartesian robots.

Q50) What are polar robot?

Advantages: Simpler control system than articulated arm. Can have long reach. Very good for
many welding applications. May be faster than articulated arm.
Disadvantages: Not as flexible as articulated robot arms. Older technology. Often needs a rather
large footprint. Not as fast as Delta arms.

Q51) Explain delta robot, its advantage and disadvantage?

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Advantages: Fastest design of robot arms for pick and place operations. Lightweight. Accurate.
Disadvantages: Limited to relatively small and lightweight objects. Not suitable for working on
objects in a vertical plane. Limited reach.
Delta robots (also called parallel robots) have three robotic arms in the shape of parallelograms.
Usually, the delta robot is located above the workpieces, attached to an overhead trestle. Because
all the motors are on the base, the joints and arms of the robot are very light compared to other
robots. The Delta robot has an upside-down dome-shaped work envelope.

Q52) Explain cylindrical robot?

Advantages: Rigid. Accurate. Perfect in applications that require circular geometry.
Disadvantages: Older technology. Limited flexibility of movement.
Cylindrical robots have at least one rotating joint at the base and two linear joints. This design
leads to a cylindrical-shaped workspace. Cylindrical robots are typically used in tight workspaces
and they are a perfect fit for objects that need to have a circular symmetry (e.g wires, pipes).
Grinding, assembly, and spot welding applications make use of cylindrical robots.

Q53) Explain COBOT?

Advantages: Safe to work alongside people. Modern interfaces allow “teaching” the robot arm
what to do without writing code.
Disadvantages: Not always the fastest kind of robot arm. Limited in strength and speed.
Collaborative robots (cobots) enable human-robot interaction in a safe work environment, without
the need for fences or other safety measures taken in traditional industrial robot applications.
However, safety measures lead to a decrease in operation speed.

Q54) Explain autonomous mobile robot?

Wheeled Carts AMRs in the form of carts or vehicles with wheels are typically used for
transporting goods within a factory or warehouse facility. They are equipped with sensors, onboard
computing power, and electric motors that enable them to move around a facility and create an
internal map of it. This is often done with a person following the AMR around, guiding it by remote
control. Once an internal map has been created, the AMR can then be instructed as to the
destinations to which it needs to travel. A key feature of AMRs is that they can independently
(“autonomously”) travel from one place to another, avoiding obstacles along the way. If a person,
forklift, or other object is blocking their way, they can swerve to avoid the obstacle or even plan
out an entirely new route to their destination.

Q55) Explain Autonomously Guided Vehicles (AGV)?

AGVs are usually in the form of a vehicle with wheels, and they are an older technology than
AMRs. They have less onboard intelligence and consequently are not as autonomous as AMRs.
AGVs do not have the ability to make a map of a facility. Instead, they rely on paths laid down for
them. The paths are defined by wires placed into the floor, or special tape, or other kinds of guides.
If an AGV encounters obstacles in its pathway, it can only stop and call for help.

Q56) Explain different Autonomously Guided Vehicles (AGV)?

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A Robotic arm can be mounted on top of a wheeled-cart AMR. This increases the flexibility of the
robot and the variety of tasks it can perform. One application is to use such a robot for tending a
whole row of machine tools. The robot can unload a finished part and load a new blank workpiece
into one machine, and then move down the row and repeat the operations for a series of
machines.
Legged Robots Millions of people have seen the YouTube video of dancing robots made by Boston
Dynamics and have therefore seen two-legged and four-legged robots. One industrial use for
robots with legs envisions deploying them for package delivery. Another use case is for search
and rescue operations. Using legs instead of wheels has certain advantages. The legs enable the
robot to travel over some kinds of terrain that carts with wheels would find difficult or impossible.
Legs make climbing stairs possible, and getting into and out of a vehicle more easily than a cart
with wheels could do.
Spherical AMRs Autonomous Mobile Robots in the form of a sphere are commercially available
and have special advantages over other form factors. The spherical AMR’s system components
are sealed inside a durable shell. This makes them capable of operating in harsh environments.
They can also float and travel over water. Spherical AMRs can be amphibious, traveling both on
top of water and land. The propulsion system of a spherical AMR is most commonly based on
shifting the center of gravity. The industrial applications for spherical AMRs are primarily in
surveillance and remote inspection. Equipped with cameras and communication, they can
transmit video back to the remote operator. For hostile environments that might have toxic gas
or other dangerous conditions, a spherical AMR might be ideal.

Q57) Explain Flying Robots (Aerial Drones)?

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) or drones are being increasingly used for various industrial
purposes. One application is to use drones in warehouses to take inventory. The drone can fly
through the aisles of the warehouse and use computer vision to count the number of items in boxes
on the shelves

Q58) Explain Underwater Robots?

Some underwater robots are designed to be autonomous (Autonomous Underwater Vehicles -
AUVs), and some are made to be remotely controlled, either wirelessly or with a wired tether.
Some underwater robots use propellers as their propulsion system, similar to submarines. On the
other hand, many such robots imitate the action of living creatures for their propulsion. Some
mimic the action of dolphins, others imitate snakes, and still others move like fish. Imitating nature
in this way is called “biomimicry” because the action of the robot mimics biological creatures.
Underwater robots can be used for inspection of offshore oil platforms, pipelines, and for scientific
research. Other applications involve the use of underwater robots to inspect the bottom of bridges,
inspecting hydroelectric dam intakes, and inspecting coral reefs. Underwater robots are being used
by police departments to take video recordings of the bottom of bodies of water looking for
evidence. The military is also interested in underwater robots. Could a sonar system tell the
difference between a robotic “dolphin” and a real one? The advantages to underwater robots are
many. Such robots mean it is not necessary to incur the risk and expense of human divers. Robots
can stay submerged longer than people. Equipping underwater robots with sensors enables them
to measure and record an almost infinite number and types of properties.
 17

Q59) Explain servo and non-servo robots?

Servo robots •
Control: Servo motors are driven by signals, not power-line voltage and current.
Movement: Servo robots can move in any direction and stop at any location.
Applications: Servo robots are used for robotic inspection, 3D joint tracking, and process control.
Non-servo robots
• Control: Non-servo robots are open loop systems with no control at any point in the intermediate
motion.
• Movement: Non-servo robots only work on a single axis at a time.
• Applications: Non-servo robots are used for basic movement tasks, such as picking up and
relocating objects.
Non-servo robots are also known as pick and place or fixed stop robots.

Q60) Explain DC motor and servo mechanism?

DC motor- It has two leads. polarity has to be reversed to change the direction of motor Servo
mechanism has three leads – one for power, other for ground, third control lead.
Servo is a closed feed back system. The control lead senses the position of the shaft
Components: dc or ac motor, reduction gear, circuit
Reduction gear – reduces the high speed dc motor
Potentiometer-variable resistor
Servo control is different from pwm

Q61) Explain PDM?

PDM can stand for pulse-duration modulation or predictive maintenance, both of which are related
to servo control.
Pulse-duration modulation (PDM)
• PDM is a method of controlling servo motors by translating the width of a pulse into the shaft
position.
• The electronics in the servo translate the pulse width into the shaft position.
• The motor rotates until the potentiometer reaches the value corresponding to the commanded
position.

Q62) Explain RC servomotor working and its applications?

An RC servo, or radio control servo, is a small motor that's used to control the position of
something remotely. RC servos are often used in radio-controlled vehicles like cars, boats, and
planes, as well as in drones and other hobbyist projects

How it works

• A remote controller sends signals to the servo.

• The servo receives the signals and adjusts its position.

• The servo's position is determined by the width of a pulse-width modulation (PWM)

signal.
 18

• Shorter pulses move the servo faster, while longer pulses move it slower.

Components

• Motor: A small DC motor

• Control circuit: A circuit that receives signals from the remote controller and adjusts the
servo's position

• Feedback mechanism: A potentiometer that detects the position of the motor shaft

• Drive wheel: A wheel that moves around 90–180 degrees

Applications

• RC cars, boats, and planes

• Drones

• Small-scale robotics

• Quadcopters

• Helicopters

Axes - A robot axis represents a degree of freedom. A degree of freedom determines an independent
motion of the robot. The more axes a robot has the more flexibility. Most industrial robots have
between three to seven axes. It is important to consider the number of axes when selecting an
industrial robot as it will determine its range of motion.
Payload - Payload capacity represents the maximum amount of weight a robot arm can tolerate.
Robotic payload is typically expressed in kilograms. Payload varies greatly among industrial
robots, from 0.5 kg to over 1000 kg. Considering the workpieces as well as the weight of any end-
effectors integrated with the robot will help guide us in selecting a robot with an appropriate
payload capacity.

Q63) Define repeatability?

Q64) Define reach in a robot?

Q65) Define mass of a robot?

 19

Q66) Define structure of a robot?

Q67) Define motion speed of a robot?

Q68) Define motion range of a robot?

 20

UNIT-II Robot Kinematics and Dynamics

 21

Q1)Explain coordinate frame and vector

 22

Q2) Explain the points in an object?

 23

Q3)Discuss about rotation of a point and increase in the position of a point?

Q4)Explain ?
 24

Q5) Explain point p in the following figure

 25

𝟎
Q6)Frame {B} is rotated relative to frame {A} by 30o . A point p in B is given as Bp =[ ].
𝟐
Describe Bp relative to frame {A}≡ Ap?

Q7) Write the coordinate vectors for point p in homogeneous form for the two axis system?
 26

Q8)

Ans:
 27

Q9) Show that in 3 dimension rotation is not commutative? The order in which rotations are
applied makes a difference to the result?
Ans:

Q10) Write the orthonormal rotation matrices for rotation of ɵ about the x-, y-, z- axes?
 28

Q11)

Ans:

Q12)
 29

Ans:

Q13)Explain three Euler rotations?

 30

Q14)Mention 12 different rotations using Euler angles?

Q15) Mention Euler angle representation for fixed angle rotation?

Q17) Given the transformation matrices below:

a) find transformation from the base to the gripper

b) Find Euler angles if robot is made up of a Z x Z Euler angle set of joints.
31
 32

Q18) Draw the Rotation of Vectors in the Plane?

 33

Q19)Show the Rotation of Vectors in the Plane Using Matrices?

Q20) Explain the formation of quarternion?

A Quaternion equations is i2 = j2 = k2 = ijk = −1
A rotation in R3 about an axis through the origin can be represented by a 3 × 3 orthogonal matrix
with determinant 1.
However, the matrix representation seems redundant because only four of its nine elements are
independent.
Quaternions is very efficient for analyzing rotations in R3..
A quaternion is a 4-tuple, which is a more concise representation than a rotation matrix.

Q21)Compare Quaternions and Homogeneous Coordinates?

Homogeneous Coordinates Quaternions
It is introduced to make translation No scaling and translation
multiplicative, along with scaling and rotation.
They are convenient in representing points,
lines, and planes, and fundamental for studying
projections.
homogeneous coordinates are 4-tuples It is 4-tuples
 34

Q22)Mention the applications of quarternions?

Engineering
Robotics: Quaternions are used to control the orientation of robots
Flight dynamics: Quaternions are used to control the orientation of aircraft
Orbital mechanics: Quaternions are used to control the orientation of satellites
Computer graphics
3D rotations: Quaternions are used to represent rotations in 3D space
Computer vision: Quaternions are used to process images
Quantum mechanics
Quantum computing: Quaternions can be used to reformulate quantum computing
Quantum field theory: Quaternions can be used to outline a new formulation of quantum field
theory
Other applications
Navigation: Quaternions are used in navigation systems
Molecular dynamics: Quaternions are used to model molecular dynamics
Crystallographic texture analysis: Quaternions are used to analyze crystallographic textures
Magnetic resonance imaging: Quaternions are used in magnetic resonance imaging
Electric toothbrushes: Quaternions are used to track the position of a toothbrush in the mouth

Q23) What is Configuration Space?

A specification of the positions of all points of

the robot.
The configuration of a point on a plane can be
described by two coordinates, (x; y).
The number of degrees of freedom (dof) of a
robot is the smallest number of real-valued
coordinates needed to represent its
configuration.

The configuration of a point in a plane is described by coordinates (x; y).

 35

The configuration of a robot is a complete specification of the position of every point of the robot.
The minimum number n of real-valued coordinates needed to represent the configuration is the
number of degrees of freedom (dof) of the robot. The n-dimensional space containing all possible
configurations of the robot is called the configuration space (C-space). The configuration of a robot
is represented by a point in its C-space.

Q24) Discuss about Single degree of Robot Joints?

Revolute, prismatic, and helical joints all have one degree of freedom.

The revolute joint (R), also called a hinge

joint, allows rotational motion about the joint
axis.

The prismatic joint (P), also called a sliding or

linear joint, allows translational (or
rectilinear) motion along the direction of the
joint axis.

The helical joint (H), also called a screw joint,

allows simultaneous rotation and translation
about a screw axis.

Q25) Discuss about multiple degree of Robot Joints?

Joints with multiple degrees of freedom.
The cylindrical joint (C) has two degrees of
freedom and allows independent translations
and rotations about a single fixed joint axis.
 36

The universal joint (U) is another two-degree

of-freedom joint that consists of a pair of
revolute joints arranged so that their joint axes
are orthogonal.

The spherical joint (S), also called a ball-and-

socket joint, has three degrees of freedom and
functions much like our shoulder joint.

Q26) What is spatial rigid body?

A rigid body moving in three-dimensional space, has six degrees of freedom.
Q27)What is planar rigid body?
A rigid body moving in a two-dimensional plane, has three degrees of freedom.

Q28)Explain number of degrees of freedom?

The number of degrees of freedom of a rigid body (three for planar bodies and six for spatial
bodies) minus the number of constraints provided by a joint must equal the number of freedoms
provided by that joint.
degrees of freedom = (sum of freedoms of the bodies) -(number of independent constraints):

Q29) Write the freedoms and constraints provided by the various joint types ?
 37

Q30) What is configuration of a robot?

It refers to the configuration of the end effector of a robot, not to the configuration of the entire
robot.
Q31)What is a Task Space?
The task space is a space in which the robot's task can be naturally expressed.
If the robot's task is to plot with a pen on a piece of paper, the task space would be R2.
If the task is to manipulate a rigid body, a natural representation of the task space is the C-space
of a rigid body, representing the position and orientation of a frame attached to the robot's end-
effector.
This is the default representation of task space. The decision of how to define the task space is
driven by the task, independently of the robot.

Q32)What is a Work space?

The workspace is a specification of the configurations that the end-effector of the robot can reach.
The definition of the workspace is primarily driven by the robot's structure, independently of the
task.
 38

Q33)Explain the Configuration Space Representation?

 39

Q34) Draw two-r robot?

Q35)Draw workspace for a planar 2R open chain robot?

Q36)Draw workspace for a planar 3R open chain?

 40

Q37)Draw the two mechanisms with different C-spaces may have the same workspace?

For example, considering the end-effector to be the Cartesian tip of the robot (e.g., the
location of a plotting pen) and ignoring orientations, the planar 2R open chain with links
of equal length three (Figure (a)) and
the planar 3R open chain with links of equal length two (Figure (b)) have the same
workspace despite having different C-spaces.

Q38) Draw the two mechanisms with the same C-space with different workspaces?

For example, taking the end-effector to be the Cartesian tip of the robot and ignoring
orientations, the 2R open chain of Figure (a) has a planar disk as its workspace,
while the 2R open chain of Figure (c) has the surface of a sphere as its workspace.
 41

Q39)Explain Body frame?

• Attached directly to the object.
• Origin is typically located at a meaningful point on the object (like its center of mass).
• Used to describe the object's internal motion and configuration.

Q40) Explain Spatial frame?

: • Fixed in space, not moving with the object.
• Used to determine the absolute position and orientation of the object in the environment

Q41) Explain twist?

A twist is a continuous change in a robot's pose over time. It's a combination of the angular and
linear velocity of a moving body.
• A twist is a 6-vector that combines a 3-vector for angular velocity and a 3-vector for linear
velocity.
• The linear velocity is the velocity of a point at the origin of the frame.
• A twist can be represented as a screw axis and the rate of change around that axis.
• A twist can be represented in any frame, such as the body frame or the space frame.
• The points in a body undergoing a constant twist trace helices in the fixed frame.

Q42) Explain unit vector , a point q, pitch h in a screw axis?

Ans:
 42

Q43) How twist is obtained?

Q44) Explain the six vectors in a twist as per the following figure?
Ans:
43
 44

Q45) Find the cross product ‘c’ of a=3i +5j-7k and b=2i-6j+4k?
Solution:

Show that the a.b=0 and a.c=0 and b.c=0?

 45

Q46)How study of wrench in a robot is useful when the robot is holding an apple?
A robot hand is holding apple in gravity, and the robot is equipped with a force-torque sensor at
its wrist.

It measures forces and torques in the frame {f}.

If we know the mass of the apple,

the direction of gravity, and

the location of the apple in the hand, then the forces and torques measured by the sensor can
be obtained?
 46

There are two frames, {s} and {b}.

A line of force fb acts at the point rb, both represented in the {b} frame.

fb is a 3-vector specifying the magnitude of the force in 3 directions.

fb force induces a 3-vector torque, or moment, about the frame {b} = rb X fb.

moment at frame b = rb X fb.

 47

wrench =(𝑚𝑏
𝑓𝑏
)

Tsb is the transform. It is the wrench in frame s.

Relation between wrench Fb and wrench Fs:

Power= twist . wrench

(matrix x vector)T = vectorT x matrixT

define a frame {a} at the center of mass of the apple.

In this frame, the force due to gravity is mg in the minus y direction,

and the moment is zero, since the force vector passes through the origin of the {a} frame.

To transform to the force sensor frame, we use Taf, the configuration of the force sensor frame
relative to the apple frame, and

the wrench Ff has a moment of negative mgL about the z-axis of the {f} frame

Q47) Explain the following diagram with respect to relativeness of frame a,b,c?
48
 49

Q48) Explain the mapping of translated frames?

50
 51

Q49) Explain the mapping of rotated frames?

52
53
 54

Q50) Explain the mapping of general frames?

 55

Q51)
 56

Ans:
57
58
59
 60

Q52)
61
62
 63

Q53)What is quadrotor dynamics?

Quadrotor dynamics" refers to the study of the forces and motions of a quadrotor (a flying vehicle
with four rotors) as it moves through the air, including how its position and orientation change
based on the speed and direction of each individual rotor, essentially describing how the
quadrotor reacts to control inputs and external forces in flight; it's often modeled using equations
based on Newton's laws to analyze its movement in 6 degrees of freedom (3 translational and 3
rotational) with only 4 controllable inputs (motor speeds).

Q54) Mention different coordinate frames of a quadrotor?

1.the inertial frame, 2.the vehicle frame, 3.the vehicle-1 frame, 4.the vehicle-2 frame, and 5.the
body frame.

Q55) Explain inertial frame?

Origin is typically fixed on the ground at a reference point.

Axes are aligned with the Earth's coordinate system (x - North, y - East, z - down).

Used to describe the quadrotor's absolute position in the world.

Q56) What is the vehicle frame Fv?

 64

Q57) What is the vehicle-1 frame Fv1?

65
INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS

By Dr.S.Purushothaman

UNIT-3 QUESTION BANK

1.

2.) What are

?
3. What are the operations involved in the vision system?

4. How the vision system is classified?

5. Explain front lighting techniques?

6. Explain back lighting techniques?

7. Explain miscellaneous lighting techniques?

8. Explain quantization?

9. Explain encoding?
10. Explain image data reduction?

11. what is windowing?

12. Explain segmentation?
13. What is region growing?

14. Define edge detection?

15. Explain feature extraction?
16. Explain object recognition?

17.Draw the digital format of the image

18. Mention the common image formats?

19. Mention different color representation of the image?

20. Mention four file formats of an image?

21.types of digital images?
22. Explain image processing steps in identifying an image?

23. what re the operations that can be performed on an image?

24. Explain image enhancement?

25. What are low pass and high pass filtering techniques?
26. what are three data redundencies?

27. what are the two types of compression?

28. what are four lossless compression methods?

29. What are edge and region based segmentation?

30. What is point detection?

31. explain line detection?

32.Draw three edge models?

33.Explain first and second derivatives at the edge?

34. Explain image gradient?

35.write prewitt and sobel masks?

36.What is histogram normalization?

37. explain median filter?

38.different components of object recognition system?

39.explain constructive solid geometry?
 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS

By Dr.S.Purushothaman

UNIT-4 QUESTION BANK

1.What is a control system?

2. Give examples of a control system?

3.classify control system based on type of signal?

4.classify control system based on inputs?

5.classify control system based on feedback path?

6. types of control system?

7. Difference Between Open Loop and Closed Loop Control System?

8. Define positive feedback?

9.Define Negative feedback?

10.What is a block in a control system?

11.What is an arrow in a control system?

12.What is a summing point in a control system?

13.What is a “take off point” in a control system?
14.What are Blocks in cascade in a control system?

15.What are Blocks in parallel in a control system?

16. show Moving a take off point to the left of the block in a control system?

17. show Moving a take off point to the right of the block in a control system?
18. show Moving a summing point to the left of the block in a control system?
19. show Moving a take off point to the right of the block in a control system?

20.Define a transfer function?

21.What are poles and zeros?

22.What are the effects of poles on stability?

23.Explain the effect of system with single pole on the left half s-plane?
24.Explain the effect of system with single pole on the right half s-plane?
25.Explain the effect of system with pair of complex poles on j-omega axis?
26.Explain the effect of system with double pair of complex poles on j-omega axis?
27.Explain the effect of system with a pole at the origin?
28.Explain the effect of system with double pole at the origin?
29.Effect of stability on the system with two complex poles and one zero on the left half s-
plane?
30.Effect of stability on the system with two complex poles and one zero on the right half s-
plane?
31.What is PID controller?

32.Draw block diagram of PID controller?

33.What is p- controller?
34.What is I-controler?

35.What is D-controller?
36.Explain A* algorithm?
37.What is the shortest path to travel from A-Z?

Solution:
38
39.Explain the folowing reinforcement terminologies?

40.Write policy funciton and value function and optimal value function?
41.What are the three standard approaches to solve Bellmann equation?
 1

INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS

By Dr.S.Purushothaman

UNIT-5 QUESTION BANK

1. Difference between a microcontroller and a microprocessor?

2. What are the types of microcontrollers?

 2

3. What are the types of memory in controller?

4. What are the different instruction sets?

5. Mention the applications of microcontroller?

 3

6.Draw and explain 8051 microcontroller architecture?

 4

7.Draw 8051 mirocontroller pin configuration?

 5

8.What is an instruction set?

 6

9.Types of microcontroller instructions?

10.Explain data processing instructions?

 7

11.Explain arithmetic instructions?

 8

12.Explain logical instructions?

 9

13. Expand NOOBS software?

14. What is an Interfacing Device?

In case of microcontrollers, some external devices are connected with microcontrollers to

perform specific tasks or functions, and these external devices are called as interfacing devices.
For example, in a pin-based security system, a numeric keypad act as an interfacing device with
an internal microcontroller of the system and allows for entering and verifying security pin.

15. What are the interfacing devices used with microcontrollers?

• Keypads and Keyboards

• Analog-to-Digital Converters

• LCD Displays

• Actuators like motors, relays, etc.

• Communication modules like Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, GSM, etc.

16. What are the common communication modules and their applications in microcontroller?

• Bluetooth and Wi-Fi − These modules are mainly used in Internet of Things (IoT)
devices.

• GSM and GPS − These communication modules are employed in vehicle tracking
systems.

• RFID and NFC − These are used in access control systems.

17.What is the I2C Protocol?

I2C stands for the inter-integrated controller. This is a serial communication protocol that can
connect low-speed devices. It is a master-slave communication in which we can connect and
control multiple slaves from a single master. In this, each slave device has a specific address.
 10

18. What is UART?

UART is an asynchronous transmission protocol. It is a device using them that should agree
ahead of time on a data cost. The clocks of the machines should also have clocks with almost
the same data rate. The data rate in UART is decreased because of the requirement of
additional start and stop bits.

19.Serial peripheral interface?

SPI stands for the Serial Peripheral Interface. SPI is a general-objective synchronous serial
interface. During an SPI transfer, send and receive data is simultaneously shifted out and in
serially. It was created by Motorola in the mid-1980 for inter-chip communication. The SPI is
used to authorise a microcontroller to communicate with peripheral devices such as E 2PROMs.

20. Describe SPI Interface?

The SPI protocol uses four wires for communication. These are shown in the figure
below

• MOSI − MOSI represents Master Output Slave Input. It can send data from the master to
the slave.

• MISO − MISO represents Master Input Slave Output. It can send data from the slave to
the master.

• SCK or SCLK (Serial Clock) − It is frequently used to signal the clock.

• SS/CS (Slave Select / Chip Select) − The master uses it to send data by selecting a slave.

Uses
 11

21. What is TinyML?

Tiny machine learning is broadly defined as a fast-growing field of machine learning technologies
and applications including hardware, algorithms, and software capable of performing on-device
sensor data analytics at extremely low power, typically in the mW range and below, and hence
enabling a variety of always-on use-cases and targeting battery operated devices.”

22.What is a Tensorflow Lite for microcontrollers?

Tensorflow Lite for microcontrollers (TF Lite Micro) is one of the most popular frameworks for
machine learning on edge devices; it was specifically designed for the task of implementing
machine learning on embedded systems with only a few kilobytes of memory.

23.What is TensorFlow?

TensorFlow is an open-source software library for AI and machine learning with deep neural
networks.