Geology

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN MINING AND SURVEY

CONTENTS

Module One-Mineralogy…………………………………………………………….
Scope of mineralogy
Physical properties of minerals
Classification of minerals: native elements
Classification of minerals: oxides and hydroxides
Classification of minerals: sulphides and sulphates
Classification of minerals: silicates
Classification of minerals: carbonates, nitrates and borates
Classification of minerals: chromates, halides, tungstates and molybdates, phosphates and arsenates
Mineral identification
Module 2-Petrology
Igneous Petrology
Introduction to petrology
Classification of igneous rocks
Identification of igneous rocks
Metamorphic Petrology
Agents of metamorphism……………………………………………………………………
Types of metamorphism……………………………………………………………………
Metamorphic textures……………………………………………………………………….
Classification of metamorphic rocks……………………………………………………….
Identification of metamorphic rocks…………………………………………………………
Sedimentary Petrology
Formation of sedimentary rocks……………………………………………………………
Classification of sedimentary rocks……………………………………
Identification of sedimentary rocks

Module three –mine geology

Sampling methods

Geological mapping

Mineral reserves and mineral resources

Grade control

Core logging

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MODULE ONE

MINERALOGY

What is a Mineral?

A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous solid with a definite (but not generally fixed)
chemical composition and a highly ordered atomic arrangement, usually formed by an
inorganic process.

 Naturally Occurring - Means it forms by itself in nature. Manmade minerals are

referred to as synthetic minerals.

 Homogeneous - means that it is a compound that contains the same chemical

composition throughout, and cannot by physically separated into more than 1 chemical
compound.

 Solid - means that it not a gas, liquid, or plasma.

 Definite chemical composition - means that the chemical composition can be expressed
by a chemical formula. Examples:

o Quartz has the chemical formula SiO2. Whenever we find quartz it consists of Si
and O in a ratio of 1 Si to 2 O atoms.

o Olivine is an example of a mineral that does not have a fixed chemical

composition. In nature we find that Mg and Fe atoms have the same size and
charge and therefore can easily substitute for one another in a mineral. Thus,
olivine can have the chemical formula Mg2SiO4 or Fe2SiO4 or anything in
between. This is usually expressed with a formula indicating the possible
substitution - (Mg, Fe)2 SiO4.

 Highly ordered atomic arrangement - means that the atoms in a mineral are arranged in
an ordered geometric pattern. This ordered arrangement of atoms is called a crystal
structure, and thus all minerals are crystals. For each mineral has a crystal structure that
will always be found for that mineral, i.e. every crystal of quartz will have the same
ordered internal arrangement of atoms. If the crystal structure is different, then we give
the mineral a different name. A solid compound that meets the other criteria, but has not
definite crystal structure is a said to be amorphous.

 Usually formed by an inorganic process - The traditional definition of a mineral

excluded those compounds formed by organic processes, but this eliminates a large

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number of minerals that are formed by living organisms, in particular many of the
carbonate and phosphate minerals that make up the shells and bones of living
organisms. Thus, a better definition appends "usually" to the formed by inorganic
processes. The best definition, however, should probably make no restrictions on how the
mineral forms.

All minerals belong to a chemical group, which represents their affiliation with certain elements
or compounds. The classified chemical groups are known as: Elements, Sulfides, Oxides,
Halides, Carbonates, Nitrates, Borates, Sulfates, Chromates, Phosphates, Arsenates, Vanadates,
Tungstates, molybdates, and Silicates. Some of these chemical groups have sub-categories,
which may be categorized in some mineral references as separate groups.

All minerals belong to various crystal structure groups, classified according to the way the atoms
of the mineral are arranged. Minerals also have distinctive properties, such as color, hardness,
crystal habit, specific gravity, luster, fracture, and tenacity. Many of these properties can vary
among a single mineral, within limits. Many minerals exhibit certain properties that others do
not, such as fluorescence and radioactivity.

Minerals are an economic commodity; they are mined because of the need for a valuable element
they contain or an intrinsic property they may have. Other minerals are mined for their beauty
and rareness, thus giving many specimens an accepted worldwide value. There are about 3,000
different types of minerals, and new ones are constantly discovered. Most of them are not known
to professional mineral collectors, because they are rare, have no economic purpose, and for the
most part do not make good specimens.

Mineraloid –Is an amorphous, inorganic substance lacking a crystal structure. They are
mineral in nature but lack a crystal structure, and thus cannot scientifically be classified as
minerals. Many references, though, still classify them as minerals. Two important mineraloids
are Opal and Obsidian

1. Industrial minerals
Industrial minerals are defined as minerals mined and processed (either from natural sources or
synthetically processed), for the value of their non-metallurgical properties which provides for
their use in an extremely wide range of industrial and domestic applications. As a general rule,
they can also be defined as being non-metallic, non-fuel minerals. Obvious examples of naturally
occurring industrial minerals include: clays, sand, talc, limestone, gypsum, pumice, potash. Other
examples of natural industrial minerals include minerals that also have a metallurgical as well as
non-
etc.

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There are also synthetic industrial minerals, which are manufactured from natural minerals.
Synthetic minerals are often processed owing to the inferior characteristics and/or scarcity of
their natural counterparts. Other synthetic industrial minerals include:
– from quartz + petroleum coke,
Fused minerals – by fusing the natural varieties, e.g. fused alumina, fused magnesite,
– lime + carbon dioxide
– from magnesia (from magnesite) and alumina (from bauxite)
– from the Solvay process, salt + limestone + coal + ammonia

2. Ore minerals
These are minerals of economic importance that are mined for use in various industries. They
include metallic elements, sulphides, oxides, silicates etc.

3. Gangue minerals
These are minerals of no economic value that occur in close association with economic minerals
and so are mined with the desired minerals

IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS

Minerals are important resources. There are approximately 2,400 minerals, of which 100 are of
worldwide economic importance. Minerals are essential to modern life. They are important to the
economy of many individual states. Some minerals are of strategic importance, and essential to
national economic and military security. They have many uses in our lives e.g. in construction,
manufacture, medicine etc.

Minerals are of important aesthetic use i.e. they are used as decorative gems sometimes viewed at
museums or worn by some people as jewelry.

Scientifically, the study of minerals assists us to understand the physical earth and its components,
how they are formed, altered etc. as well as the geological processes that occurred then.

Minerals are nonrenewable, and are more difficult to find, inventory, and develop. Mineral
development is governed by a complex set of laws, and administered by a number of federal
agencies.

NAMING OF MINERALS

Each mineral species is identified by its own appellation, and names have been assigned since
antiquity. While there are only some 3000 valid mineral species, nearly 20 000 names occur in
the literature. This is partly because researchers working independently have given different

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names to the same mineral, and partly because distinct names have been applied to minerals that
later proved to be varieties or mixtures of already known species.

Two contrasting tendencies can be seen in mineralogical nomenclature. First, there are the names
that convey useful information about the mineral itself and are based on the chemical
composition, crystal form, color, luster or other properties. For example, caysichite, found near
Poltimore, Qué, is named after its chemical composition (Ca, Y, Si, C, and H). Secondly, there
are minerals with names that communicate very little or no information about the composition or
properties of the mineral. Such is the case when names of persons are used: some refer to the
discoverer or first analyst of the mineral; others recall a famous person or a scientific institution.
For example, weloganite is named after Sir William Edward LOGAN, the first director of the
Geological Survey of Canada. Moreover, there are names of minerals that convey information
about the region where they have been found. Some are quite specific about the location - e.g.,
sudburyite named for Sudbury, Ont; others refer to a much larger area - e.g., yukonite. The suffix
"ite" is derived from the Greek word lithos (from its adjectival form -ites), meaning rock or
stone. While the vast majority of mineral names end in "ite," some have the suffixes "ine" or
"ide."

A number of localities, regions and other geographical features are identified by names from the
mineral kingdom. A famous example is Cap-Diamante.

Some are named according to their physical properties e.g. albite from the Latin word albus
meaning white in allusion to its color.

Magnetite is named after its magnetic properties.

Sillimanite after Prof. Benjamin Silliman of Yale University

Element Wt.% Atomic% Volume%

O 46.60 62.55 93.77
Si 27.72 21.22 .86
Al 8.13 6.47 .47
Fe 5.00 1.92 .43
Ca 3.63 1.94 1.03
Na 2.83 2.34 1.32
K 2.59 1.42 1.83
Mg 2.09 1.84 .29
Total 98.59 100.00 100

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Note that 8 elements make up over 98% of the Earth's crust and that Oxygen is the
most abundant element. This becomes even more evident if the elements are
determined on an atomic basis, where we can see that about 63 out of every 100 atoms
in the crust are Oxygen. On a volume basis, Oxygen makes up about 94% of the crust
because Oxygen is a large anion, and the other elements occur as small cations
coordinated by the Oxygen anions.

Because of the average composition of the crust, the most common minerals found in
the crust are silicates and oxides. Of the silicates, the aluminosilicates, like the
feldspars and clay minerals are the most common.

Other minerals, containing the other elements in the periodic table are found in the
crust. But, in order for these minerals to occur, special geologic conditions are
necessary to concentrate these less abundant elements so that they occur in high
enough concentrations to form a separate mineral.

Elements that occur in concentrations less than about 0.1% (usually measured in parts
per million or parts per billion) are called dispersed elements or trace elements.

Physical Properties of Minerals

Minerals have distinguishing physical properties that in most cases can be used to determine the
identity of the mineral. We will first discuss each of the physical properties that can be used, then
develop a methodical approach to the identification of minerals using these physical
properties. Among the properties we will discuss are: crystal habit, cleavage, hardness, density,
luster, streak, color, tenacity, magnetism, and taste.
1.Crystal Habit

In nature perfect crystals are rare. The faces that develop on a crystal depend on the space
available for the crystals to grow. If crystals grow into one another or in a restricted
environment, it is possible that no well-formed crystal faces will be developed. However,
crystals sometimes develop certain forms more commonly than others, although the symmetry
may not be readily apparent from these common forms. The term used to describe general
shape of a crystal is habit.

Some common crystal habits are as follows

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Individual Crystals

 Cubic - cube shapes

 Octahedral - shaped like octahedrons, as described above.

 Tabular - rectangular shapes.

 Equant - a term used to describe minerals that have all of their boundaries of
approximately equal length e.g. garnet, spinel.

 Acicular - long, slender crystals, needlelike (actinolite, sillimanite) .

 Prismatic - abundance of prism faces (apatite, beryl).

 Bladed - like a wedge or knife blade or elongated crystals that are flattened in one
direction. (kyanite) .

Groups of Distinct Crystals

 Dendritic - tree-like growths.

 Reticulated - lattice-like groups of slender crystals.

 Radiated - radiating groups of crystals.

 Fibrous - elongated clusters of fibers.

 Botryoidal - smooth bulbous or globular shapes, appearance similar to a bunch of

grapes

 Globular - radiating individual crystals that form spherical groups.

 Drusy - small crystals that cover a surface.

 Stellated - radiating individuals that form a star-like shape.

 Reniform -having a kidney shaped appearance
 Mammillary-breast like

Some minerals characteristically show one or more of these habits, so habit can sometimes be a
powerful diagnostic tool.

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2. Cleavage

Crystals often contain planes of atoms along which the bonding between the atoms is weaker
than along other planes. In such a case, if the mineral is struck with a hard object, it will tend to
break along these planes. This property of breaking along specific planes is termed cleavage.

The cleavage can be described in terms of its quality, i.e., if it cleaves along perfect planes it is
said to be perfect, and if it cleaves along poorly defined planes it is said to be poor.

Cleavage can also be described by general forms names, for example if the mineral breaks into
rectangular shaped pieces it is said to have cubic cleavage, if it breaks into prismatic shapes, it is
said to have prismatic cleavage, or if it breaks along basal pinacoids it is said to have pinacoidal
cleavage.

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Parting

Parting is also a plane of weakness in the crystal structure, but it is along planes that are
weakened by some applied force. It therefore may not be apparent in all specimens of the same
mineral, but may appear if the mineral has been subjected to the right stress conditions. E.g.
parting in chromite is octahedral, corundum is rhombohedral, cryolite is cubic and magnetite is
octahedral

Fracture

If the mineral contains no planes of weakness, it will break along random directions called
fracture. Several different kinds of fracture patterns are observed.

 Conchoidal fracture - breaks along smooth curved surfaces (quartz).

 Fibrous and splintery - similar to the way wood breaks.
 Hackly - jagged fractures with sharp edges.
 Uneven or Irregular - rough irregular surfaces.
 Earthy- produced by massive, loosely consolidated minerals e.g. limonite the result has
a texture similar to broken clay.

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3. Hardness

Hardness is determined by scratching the mineral with a mineral or substance of known

hardness. Hardness is a relative scale, thus to determine a mineral's hardness, you must
determine that a substance with a hardness greater than the mineral does indeed scratch the
unknown mineral, and that the unknown mineral scratches a known mineral of lesser
hardness.

Hardness also determines what the mineral can be used for e.g. soft minerals can be used as
high temperature lubricants, pencil lead, talcum powder. Minerals may exhibit a range in
hardness due to impurities or ion substitution.

Hardness is determined on the basis of Mohr’s relative scale of hardness exhibited by some
common minerals. These minerals are listed below, along with the hardness of some common
objects.

Hardness Mineral Common Objects

1 Talc
2 Gypsum Fingernail (2.5)
3 Calcite Copper Penny (3.5)
4 Fluorite
Steel knife blade (5.5), Window
5 Apatite
glass (5.5)
6 Orthoclase Steel file-6.5
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond
Several precautions are necessary for performing the hardness test.

 If you attempt to scratch a soft mineral on the surface of a harder mineral some of
the softer substance may leave a mark of fine powder on the harder mineral. This
should not be mistaken for a scratch on the harder mineral. A powder will easily

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rub off, but a scratch will occur as a permanent indentation on the scratched
mineral.

 Some minerals have surfaces that are altered to a different substance that may be
softer than the original mineral. A scratch in this softer alteration product will not
reflect the true hardness of the mineral. Always use a fresh surface to perform the
hardness test.

 Sometimes the habit of the mineral will make a difference. For example
aggregates of minerals may break apart leaving the impression that the mineral is
soft. Or, minerals that show fibrous or splintery habit may break easily into fibers
or splinters. It is therefore wise to always perform the hardness test in reverse. If
one mineral appears to scratch another mineral, make sure that the other mineral
does not scratch the apparently harder mineral before you declare which of the
minerals is harder.

 In some minerals hardness is very dependent on direction, since hardness is a

vectorial property. When there is significant difference in hardness in different
directions, it can be a very diagnostic property of the mineral. It is thus wise to
perform the hardness test by attempting to scratch the mineral in different
directions. Two minerals of note have differences in hardness depending on
direction:

o Kyanite has a hardness of 5 parallel to the length of the crystal, and a

hardness of 7 when scratched along a direction perpendicular to the
length.

o Calcite has a hardness of 3 for all surfaces except the {0001} plane. On
{0001} it has a hardness of 2.

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4.Tenacity

Tenacity is the resistance of a mineral to breaking, crushing, or bending. Tenacity can be

described by the following terms.

 Brittle - Breaks or powders easily.

 Malleable - can be hammered into thin sheets.

 Sectile - can be cut into thin shavings with a knife.

 Ductile - bends easily and does not return to its original shape.

 Flexible - bends somewhat and does not return to its original shape.

 Elastic - bends but does return to its original shape.

5.Density (Specific Gravity)

Density refers to the mass per unit volume. Specific Gravity is the relative density, (weight of
substance divided by the weight of an equal volume of water). In cgs units density is grams per
cm3, and since water has a density of 1 g/cm3, specific gravity would have the same numerical
value has density, but no units (units would cancel). Specific gravity is often a very diagnostic
property for those minerals that have high specific gravities. In general, if a mineral has higher

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atomic number cations it has a higher specific gravity. For example, in the carbonate minerals
the following is observed:

Atomic # Specific
Mineral Composition
of Cation Gravity
Aragonite CaCO3 40.08 2.94
Strontianite SrCO3 87.82 3.78
Witherite BaCO3 137.34 4.31
Cerussite PbCO3 207.19 6.58
Specific gravity can usually be qualitatively measured by the heft of a mineral, in other words
those with high specific gravities usually feel heavier. Most common silicate minerals have a
specific gravity between about 2.5 and 3.0. These would feel light compared to minerals with
high specific gravities.

For comparison, examine the following table:

Specific
Mineral Composition
Gravity
Graphite C 2.23
Quartz SiO2 2.65
Feldspars (K,Na)AlSi3O8 2.6 - 2.75
Fluorite CaF2 3.18
Topaz Al2SiO4(F,OH)2 3.53
Corundum Al2O3 4.02
Barite BaSO4 4.45
Pyrite FeS2 5.02
Galena PbS 7.5
Cinnabar HgS 8.1
Copper Cu 8.9
Silver Ag 10.5
Sensitive laboratory equipment is used to determine specific gravity, otherwise an estimate is
obtained by a rigged balance system. This works for a homogenous sample.

A mineral is weighed dry-D

The mineral is then weighed wet-W (immersed in water)

Specific gravity = D/(D-W)L where L is the density of the liquid For water L=1 so

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Specific gravity = D/D-W

6.Color

Color is sometimes an extremely diagnostic property of a mineral, for example olivine and
epidote are almost always green in color. But, for some minerals it is not at all diagnostic
because minerals can take on a variety of colors. For example quartz can be clear, white,
black, pink, blue, or purple. Transition metals are elements that produce colors and cause
certain minerals to always have certain colours, even in trace quantities they strongly
influence the mineral color. E.g. cobalt is responsible for the violet-red color in erythrite,
chromium for the orange-red color in crocoite, cobalt for the azure blue in azurite and iron for
the red in limonite. Impurities can also color minerals.

7.Streak

Streak is the color produced by a fine powder of the mineral when scratched on a streak
plate. Often it is different than the color of the mineral in non- powdered form. It is called
streak because to test for it, a mineral is rubbed across a tile of white unglazed porcelain and
the color it leaves is the streak.

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8. Luster
Luster refers to the general appearance of a mineral surface to reflected light. Two general
types of luster are designated as follows:

1. Metallic - looks shiny like a metal. Usually opaque and gives black or dark colored
streak.

2. Non-metallic - Nonmetallic lusters are referred to as

a. vitreous - looks glassy - examples: clear quartz, tourmaline

b. Resinous - looks resinous - examples: sphalerite, sulfur.

c. Pearly - iridescent pearl-like - example: apophyllite.

d. Greasy - appears to be covered with a thin layer of oil - example: nepheline.

e. Silky – having surfaces appearing to be composed of fine fibers. - Examples -

some gypsum, serpentine, malachite.

f. Adamantine - brilliant luster like diamond.

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9.Play of Colors

Interference of light reflected from the surface or from within a mineral may cause the color of
the mineral to change as the angle of incident light changes. This sometimes gives the mineral
an iridescent quality. Minerals that show this include: bornite (Cu5FeS4), hematite (Fe2O3),
sphalerite (ZnS), and some specimens of labradorite (plagioclase).

10. Fluorescence

Minerals that light up when exposed to ultraviolet light, x-rays, or cathode rays are called
fluorescent. If the emission of light continues after the light is cut off, they are said to be
phosphorescent.

Some specimens of the same mineral show fluorescence while other don't. For example some
crystals of fluorite (CaF2) show fluorescence and others do not. Other minerals show
fluorescence frequently, but not always. These include - scheelite (CaWO4), willemite
(Zn2SiO4), calcite (CaCO3), scapolite (3NaAlSi3O8. (NaCl - CaCO3), and diamond (C).

11.Magnetism

Magnetic minerals result from properties that are specific to a number of elements. Minerals that do
not have these elements, and thus have no magnetism are called diamagnetic. Examples of
diamagnetic minerals are quartz, plagioclase, calcite, and apatite. Elements like Ti, Cr, V, Mn, Fe,
Co, Ni, and Cu can sometimes result in magnetism. Minerals that contain these elements may be
weakly magnetic and can be separated from each other by their various degrees of magnetic
susceptibility. These are called paramagnetic minerals. Paramagnetic minerals only show magnetic
properties when subjected to an external magnetic field. When the magnetic field is removed, the
minerals have no magnetism. Heating such minerals makes them strongly attracted to a magnet

Ferromagnetic minerals have permanent magnetism if the temperature is below the Curie
Temperature. These materials will become magnetized when placed in a magnetic field, and will
remain magnetic after the external field is removed. Examples of such minerals are magnetite,
hematite-ilmenite solid solutions (Fe2O3 - FeTiO3), and pyrrhotite (Fe1-xS).

Magnetic minerals are those capable of generating a magnetic field e.g. lodestone

4. Other Properties

Pleichroism

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Pleochroic minerals are minerals that show different colors depending on what direction the
viewer is observing the crystal. The effect is sometimes quite dramatic. Many minerals are
technically pleochroic, but more often than not the color change is so small that it requires
optical instruments to detect it. However there are some minerals that show an incredible
color change. The greatest change is limited to three colors and is called trichroic. A two
color change is called dichroic. Pleochroic, which means "many colors", is often the term
used to cover both. Many times the color change is limited to shade changes such as from
pale pink to dark pink. In order to view pleochroism you need an individual transparent
crystal.

Pleochroism is caused by the absorption of different wavelengths of light travelling through

different directions in the crystal. If in one direction, all wavelengths but yellow and blue are
absorbed then the crystal will be green (yellow and blue make green). If in another direction all
wavelengths are absorbed but yellow, then the crystal will appear yellow. If the crystal is turned from
the first direction to the other, then it will change its color from green to yellow. Isometric minerals
cannot be pleochroic since they have the same structure and thus the same light absorbing
capabilities in all directions. Tetragonal, trigonal and hexagonal minerals can only be dichroic since
they have one unique structural direction along the major symmetry axis and one direction in every
other direction. Only orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic minerals can be trichroic since they have
three unique axes of symmetry and therefore three unique directions that can absorb light in three
different ways. Although pleochroism is a rare phenomenon to easily observe, it can be diagnostic.

Some of the best examples of pleochroism are found in

specimens of:
 Andalusite (yellow-green to red-brown)
 Carletonite (colorless to blue)
 Elbaite (pale color to a darker color)
 Iolite (colorless to blue to purple)
 Kunzite (pale pink to dark pink)
 Tanzanite (colorless to blue to purple)
 Zoisite (colorless to pink to yellow)

Asterism and the cat's eye effect

Asterism is a well-known light effect in some gemstones. Asterism, which gets its name from
aster the Greek word for star, is responsible for the lovely star sapphires, star rubies, star rose
quartz and other gemstones. The effect is caused by minute acicular (needle-like) crystals of
probably rutile or sometimes other minerals that are included in the host mineral. These
minute crystals are microscopic, but there are thousands of them and their combined effect is
to diffract light into these bands that appear as rays of light. In trigonal minerals such as
corundum, the tiny crystals are aligned along crystallographic axes and this causes the six

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pointed stars. Although the rutile crystals diminish the clarity of the stone, their star effect
more than makes up for this. Some stars even seem to be hovering over the stone, an optical
illusion. Some star effects can be seen in some minerals only when light is viewed through
the crystal (such as in phlogopite).

Cat's eyes are similar to asterisms and are caused by the same inclusions of minute crystals.
But in this case the band on light is limited to one band that shimmers from the top to the
bottom of the stone and appears like a glowing cat's eye. Andalusite is the premier cat's eye
stone, but the effect is found in other minerals as well. The technical term for the cat's eye
effect is chatoyancy which is translated from the French words "chat" and "oeil" which mean
cat and eye respectively. Good quality cat's eye stones have a similar glow and hover effect as
the star gemstones mentioned above.

Phosphorescence

Many minerals that fluoresce will at times also phosphoresce. Phosphorescence is the ability
of a mineral to glow after the initial activating ultraviolet light is removed. The electrons in

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the mineral have essentially stored the energy of the initial activating light and then re-emit
the phosphorescent light on a delayed basis. The reason for the delay is because a certain
amount of the electrons are prevented from returning to their lower energy states quickly, at
least not as quickly as they were initially energized by the UV light.

Thermoluminescence

Thermoluminescence is a property of some minerals to glow when they are heated. The
minerals contain chemical bonds that emit light when thermal energy (heat) is applied to
them. It is well know that steel becomes luminescent when it has been heated and is being
worked. Some minerals glow when they are subjected to temperatures of between 50 and 475
degrees C. Activator elements must be present in these minerals just like in UV fluorescence.
In some minerals, they will glow only once during heating and then never glow again. This is
because the excited electrons were trapped in a higher state during crystallization and only
when heated were they allowed to lower their energy state by emitting the photons of light.
Minerals that have been known to show this unusual property are: apatite, calcite, some
feldspars, fluorite and lepidolite.

Triboluminescence

Triboluminescence is a property of some minerals to glow when they are crushed, struck,
scratched or even rubbed in some cases. The minerals contain chemical bonds that emit light
when even mechanical energy is imparted to them. This is not a reliable property as it is not
generally consistent from specimen to specimen although sphalerite has shown this property
very well. This property must be tested in the dark.

Minerals that have been known to show this unusual property include: amblygonite calcite ,
feldspars , fluorite, lepidolite, micas, pectolite, quartz, sphalerite.

Formation of minerals

Minerals form in all geologic environments and thus under a wide range of chemical and
physical conditions, such as varying temperature and pressure. The three main categories of
mineral formation are

(1) igneous, or magmatic, in which minerals crystallize from a melt;

(2) sedimentary, in which minerals are the result of the processes of weathering, erosion, and
sedimentation;

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(3) metamorphic, in which new minerals form at the expense of earlier ones owing to the
effects of changing—usually increasing—temperature or pressure or both on some existing
rock type

Precipitation from a solution occurs when the chemicals that will form a mineral are in
solution (of water, usually). When the water begins to evaporate the concentration of the
chemicals increases, until there isn't enough water to hold them all in solution. At that point
the chemicals bond to one another in a regular manner, and mineral crystals are formed. To
demonstrate this all you need do is dissolve common salt in hot water, until no more
dissolves. Then take some of the hot, salty water away and let it cool slowly. As it cools
crystals of salt will re-crystallize.

Solidification of a melt is essentially the same process, except here there are many different
chemicals involved, and each one forms at a different temperature. As one mineral forms, the
concentration of various chemicals in the melt is altered, and that mineral no longer can form,
but others begin, and the process continues until the melt solidifies. The minerals in such an
Igneous Rock are formed at a particular temperature, and so the minerals in the rock can be
used to determine the original melt composition and temperature.

During the course of solidification of a melt, rock metamorphism, and even diagenesis (low
temperature alteration of minerals and rocks) ions present in fluids surrounding the minerals
may be "accepted" by ions already in the minerals, and change the chemical makeup, thus
making a new mineral. This is solid state diffusion, because the minerals do not dissolve or
melt. Solid state diffusion can also take place only due to high temperatures or pressure (or
both), without the need of fluids.

Two ways in which minerals can form were not mentioned: recrystallization and dehydration.

Some minerals are unstable. The mineral aragonite has the same chemical composition as the
mineral calcite, but has a different crystalline structure (so they are separate minerals). After it
is formed it begins to recrystallize to calcite, basically at surface temperatures and pressures,
so there is very little aragonite in older rocks, mostly calcite.

An example of dehydration is gypsum and anhydrite. Gypsum is hydrous calcium sulfate.

When it loses its water molecules due to heat during burial, it becomes the mineral anhydrite
(which is anhydrous calcium sulfate). They are different minerals.

Bowen’s Reaction Series

Bowen produced an idealized progression which is the general model for the evolution of
magmas during the cooling process.

Bowen determined that specific minerals form at specific temperatures as a magma cools. At
the higher temperatures associated with mafic and intermediate magmas, the general
progression can be separated into two branches. The continuous branch describes the
evolution of the plagioclase feldspars as they evolve from being calcium-rich to more sodium-

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rich. The discontinuous branch describes the formation of the mafic minerals olivine,
pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite mica.

The weird thing that Bowen found concerned the discontinuous branch. At a certain
temperature a magma might produce olivine, but if that same magma was allowed to cool
further, the olivine would "react" with the residual magma, and change to the next mineral on
the series (in this case pyroxene). Continued cooling and the pyroxene would convert to
amphibole, and then to biotite. Mighty strange stuff, but if you consider that most silicate
minerals are made from slightly different proportions of the same 8 elements, all we're really
doing here is adjusting the internal crystalline lattice to achieve stability at different
temperature.

At lower temperatures, the branches merge and we obtain the minerals common to the felsic
rocks - orthoclase feldspar, muscovite mica, and quartz.

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

Minerals are classified according to chemical composition and internal structure as these
actually define a mineral and its physical properties. Minerals with the same anionic group
closely resemble each other and tend to occur together or in the same geologic environment.

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1.Native elements

These minerals can be found in nature in the elemental form or associated and combined with
other elements. In fact, there are only about 20 elements that can be found in a native state.
These elements can be divided into three sub-groups, metals, semimetals, and nonmetals.

METALS SEMIMETALS NONMETALS

Gold-Au Arsenic-As Sulphur-S
Silver-Ag Bismuth-Bi Diamond-C
Copper-Cu Graphite-C
Platinum-Pt
Iron-Fe

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2. Oxides

Minerals that are natural compounds in which oxygen is combined with one or more metals
are called oxides. There are two groups of oxides i.e. the simple oxides and the multiple
oxides. The simple oxides consist of one metal plus oxygen in ratios X2O, XO, X2O3 where X
is a metal. The multiple oxides have two unequivalent metal atom sites e.g. XY2O 7. They are
characterized by strong ionic bonds

3. Hydroxides

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These are minerals in which metals are combined with OH- or H2O molecules. They are
characterized by ionic bonds weaker than those in oxides.

4.Sulphides

These are compounds of sulphur and metals/nonmetals. They are opaque with distinctive
colors and colored streaks. They occur in the XmZn form where X is the metallic element and
Z the nonmetallic element. They are characterized by ionic, covalent and metallic bonds.

5. Silicates

Most igneous rock forming minerals are silicates and 40% of common minerals are silicates.
Silicates thus make up 90% of the earth’s crust. They are grouped according to the
arrangement of SiO4 tetrahedra. The groups are: nesosilicates, sorosilicates, cyclosilicates,
inosilicates, phyllosilicates and tectosilicates.

6. Carbonates

These are minerals with a combination of a metal and the carbonate ion (CO32-)

7. Nitrates

These are compounds of metals and the NO3- group.

8.Borates

These are compounds of Boron and metals and other components like oxygen

9. Chromates

These are compounds of chromium and metals plus other components

10. Halides

These are minerals in which the electronegative halogen ions are dominant. The ions are Cl-,
Br-, F-, and I-.

11. Tungstates

The minerals contain tungsten in the form WO4- ions.

12. Phosphates

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- Minerals characterized by PO43- tetrahedra.

There are other minor mineral groups not mentioned above like molybdates, arsenates etc.

MODULE TWO
PETROLOGY.

Petrology is the branch of geology dealing with the origin, occurrence, structure and history of
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.

Petrogenesis, also known as petrogeny, is a branch of petrology dealing with the origin of
igneous rocks.

The importance of Petrological Studies

Petrology is concerned with the solid materials of the Earth, and with the formation,
dissolution, and reconstitution of rocks. All processes causing changes in rocks may occur at
depth involving solids, melts and dense fluids dominated by H20 and CO2 and near the surface
involving hydrous solutions and air. Hypothesis for origin and evolution of rocks are based on
observations in the field and under the microscopic and on chemical analyses, considered
within a frame work of geophysical data.
Petrology of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks evolved individual separate
subjects. Extensive research and development is already on this group of rocks and also in the
process of active research on going in this field. Study of rocks igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic developed independently to understand the process of these rocks on the planet
earth and also from outer space planets. Understanding the outer space planets formations and
their geological, biological hypothesis are related to study of the rocks. Astrogeology with
collaboration of Space departments from various countries like USA, Russia, UK , France,
Japan ,China ,India are collaborated leading earth science –petrology divisions study
collaborating to understand the outer space planets. For instance in USA, Space organization,
NASA is actively collaborated with leading petrologists of earth science faculty for in detail
study of the outer space planets rocks. Presently latest technology instrumentations also
involved to examine and identify the rock and soil samples of the planets. Few earth processes
do not involve rocks ,which are the subjects of mineralogy and petrology .Petrology is the
materials science of the earth processes involve physical changes ,changes in pressure or
temperature or both, and these are commonly associated with chemical changes in a rock –
adjustments in mineral composition ,hydration or carbonation ,dehydration and decarbonation
,and partial melting .When a fluid phase is involved ,either melt or dense ,aqueous solution or
vapor ,then physical processes and separation of phases cause chemical differentiation of the
rocks. Rocks are incomprehensible without an understanding of minerals .Without minerals to

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capture elements for long –term residence, there would be no petrology, and only a fluid,
ephemeral geochemistry. With space exploration bringing samples and analyses of rocks from
other planets,” mineralogy and petrology “becomes materials of science of the universe.
Petrological study signifies the understanding of the mineralogical, textural, genetical and
evolutionary process of the rocks. Petrology has become one of the modern prospecting tools
for exploration of the minerals and also understanding the significance of the petrological
properties .Rocks study imparts the importance for basic information for exploration
geologists, geophysicists, space technologists for understanding the area exposed rocks and
their geological conditions for formations. Mineral exploration success depends upon the in
depth study of the petrological characters of the prospecting region before applying for other
exploration technology.

Problems associated with the classification of rocks

The three classes of rocks — the igneous, the sedimentary and the metamorphic — are
subdivided into many groups. There are, however, no hard and fast boundaries between allied
rocks. By increase or decrease in the proportions of their constituent minerals they pass by
every gradation into one another. The distinctive structures also of one kind of rock may
often be traced gradually merging into those of another. Hence the definitions adopted in
establishing rock nomenclature merely correspond to selected points (more or less arbitrary)
in a continuously graduated series. The rocks are all found under the same geological
environments hence separating them is not easy.

The rock cycle

The Rock Cycle is a group of changes. Igneous rock can change into sedimentary rock or into
metamorphic rock. Sedimentary rock can change into metamorphic rock or into igneous rock.
Metamorphic rock can change into igneous or sedimentary rock. The rock cycle basically
shows the relationships amongst the three types of rocks

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Igneous rock forms when magma cools and makes crystals. Magma is a hot liquid made of
melted minerals. The minerals can form crystals when they cool. Igneous rock can form
underground, where the magma cools slowly or above ground, where the magma cools
quickly.

When it pours out on Earth's surface, magma is called lava, the same liquid rock matter that
you see coming out of volcanoes.

On Earth's surface, wind and water can break rock into pieces. They can also carry rock pieces
to another place. Usually, the rock pieces, called sediments, drop from the wind or water to
make a layer. The layer can be buried under other layers of sediments. After a long time the
sediments can be cemented together to make sedimentary rock. In this way, igneous rock can
become sedimentary rock.

All rock can be heated. But where does the heat come from? Inside Earth there is heat from
pressure. There is heat from friction. There is also heat from radioactive decay (the process
that gives us nuclear power plants that make electricity).

So, what does the heat do to the rock? It bakes the rock. Baked rock does not melt, but it does
change. It forms crystals. If it has crystals already, it forms larger crystals. Because this rock
changes, it is called metamorphic. That change is called metamorphosis. Metamorphosis can
occur in rocks when they are heated to 300- 700 degrees Celsius.

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When Earth's tectonic plates move around, they produce heat. When they collide, they build
mountains and metamorphose the rock.

The rock cycle continues. Mountains made of metamorphic rocks can be broken up and
washed away by streams. New sediments from these mountains can make new sedimentary
rock. The rock cycle never stops.

VOLCANISM

A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planet's surface or crust, which allows hot magma,
ash and gases to escape from below the surface. The word volcano is derived from Vulcano,
the name of an island off Sicily which in turn was named after Vulcan, the Roman god of fire.

Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. A mid-
oceanic ridge, for example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has examples of volcanoes caused by
divergent tectonic plates pulling apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has examples of volcanoes
caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together. By contrast, volcanoes are usually not
created where two tectonic plates slide past one another. Volcanoes can also form where there
is stretching and thinning of the Earth's crust (called "non-hotspot intraplate volcanism"), such
as in the East African Rift, the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and the Rio Grande Rift
in North America.

Volcanoes can be caused by mantle plumes. These so-called hotspots, for example at Hawaii,
can occur far from plate boundaries. Hotspot volcanoes are also found elsewhere in the solar
system, especially on rocky planets and moons.

Present day igneous activity is studied because it can be placed in its tectonic setting and the
formed rocks can be directly observed. Current volcanoes are found on ocean basins, island
arcs, and continental margins and on continents.

Ocean basins- the volcanoes occur along crests of spreading ridges and in isolated volcanic
islands away from the ridges. Rocks found in these areas are basalts, gabbros, metabasalts,
metagabbro, peridotites, serpentinites and breccias.

Island arcs and Continental margins- two thirds of active volcanoes are located in these zones
which are located over inclined seismic zones in the mantle. The rocks found on island arcs
which are bounded on either side by oceanic crust have olivine basalts, picrites, ankaramites,
andesites, dacites rhyolites.

Orogenic continental margins typically bounded by continental crust on one side and oceanic
crust on the other have basalts, andesites, dacites and rhyolites.

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Intracontinental orogenic belts are bounded by continental crust on both sides and have
andesites, dacites and rhyodacites.

Continental regions- examples are the East African Rift Valley which is characterized by
mafic nephelinites, leucites, melilinitites, olivine basalts trachytes and phonolites.

Factors affecting eruption

1. Buoyancy of magma- the ability of a magma to rise to the surface is determined by its
density and the pressure at the source.

2. Viscosity of magma- fluid lavas tent to flow quietly while the more viscous erupt violently.

3. Magmatic gases- all magmas contain gases. At high pressure the volatiles are of measurable
quantities but as the magma rises, the pressure decreases as the gases are exsolved.

4. The temperature of eruption- the higher it is the longer the magma remains in molten form
hence goes further than a much cooler magma.

5. Geothermal pressure.

Magma Properties

Magma generally consists of oxygen, potassium, sodium, iron, calcium, titanium, magnesium,
and silicon. It is a solution in which SiO2 is the major solvent while the other elements make
up the dissolved constituents.

If SiO2 content is high the magma is acidic and is likely to be viscous and so erupts violently.

If SiO2 content is low the magma is basic and is likely to be fluid and so flows quietly.

Magma pH ACIDIC INTERMEDIATE BASIC

SiO2 % > 70 60-65 < 50

The mode of eruption is dependent on the gas content and if these are under pressure, the
chances of a violent eruption are increased. Violent eruptions give rise to pyroclastic products
while quiet eruptions give rise to lava flows.

Basaltic magma is less viscous than rhyolitic magma and contains less gas in solution so is
usually erupted as lava. Rhyolitic magma produces pyroclasts.

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Lava composition-depends on

1.Source of magma-i.e. from mantle or partial melting of continental or oceanic crust

2. Nature of rocks it passes on its upward journey

Signs of eruption

 Increased ground temperatures

 Tremors
 Earthquakes
 Release of gases
 Change of tilt of the mountain

IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rocks are crystalline or glassy rocks formed by the cooling and solidification of
molten magma. Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification of magma, which is a hot
(600 deg.C - 1300 deg.C, or 1100 deg. - 2400 deg. F) molten or partially molten rock material.
The Earth is composed predominantly of a large mass of igneous rock with a very thin
covering of sedimentary rock. Whereas sedimentary rocks are produced by processes
operating mainly at the Earth's surface such as weathering and erosion, igneous--and
metamorphic--rocks are formed by internal processes that cannot be directly observed.

Magma is thought to be generated within the asthenosphere (the layer of partially molten rock
underlying the Earth's crust) at a depth below about 60-100 kilometers (40-60 miles). Because
magma is less dense than the surrounding solid rocks, it rises toward the surface. It may settle
within the crust or erupt at the surface from a volcano as a lava flow. Rocks formed from the
cooling and solidification of magma deep within the crust are distinct from those erupted at
the surface mainly owing to the differences in conditions in the two environments. Within the
Earth crust the temperatures and pressures are much higher than at its surface; consequently,
the hot magma cools slowly and crystallizes completely. The slow cooling promotes the
growth of minerals large enough to be identified visually without the aid of a microscope
(called phaneritic, "). On the other hand, magma erupted at the surface is chilled so quickly
that the individual minerals have little or no chance to grow. As a result, the rock is either
composed of minerals that can be seen only with the aid of a microscope (called aphanitic, ")

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or contains no minerals at all (in the latter case, the rock is composed of glass, which is really
a viscous, non-crystalline liquid). This results in two groups of igneous rocks:

(1) Plutonic or intrusive igneous rocks that solidified deep within the earth and

(2) Volcanic, or extrusive, igneous rocks formed at the Earth's surface.

The deep-seated plutonic rocks can be exposed at the surface for study only after a long period
of weathering or by some tectonic forces that push the crust upward or by a combination of
the two. The exposed intrusive rocks are found in a variety of sizes, from small dikes to
massive dome-shaped batholiths, which cover hundreds of square miles and make up the
cores of many mountain ranges.

Extrusive rocks occur in two forms:

(1) as lava flows that flood the land surface much like a river and

(2) as fragmented pieces of magma of various sizes (pyroclastic materials), which often are
blown through the atmosphere and blanket the Earth's surface upon settling.

The coarser pyroclastic materials accumulate around the erupting volcano, but the finest pyroclasts
can be found as thin layers located hundreds of miles from the opening. Most lava flows do not travel
far from the volcano, but some low-viscosity flows that erupted from long fissures have accumulated
in thick sequences. Both intrusive and extrusive magmas have played a vital role in the spreading of
the ocean basin, in the formation of the oceanic crust, and in the formation of the continental
margins. Igneous processes have been active since the formation of the Earth some 4.6 billion years
ago.

CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of mineralogy, chemistry, and texture. As discussed
earlier, texture is used to subdivide igneous rocks into two major groups: (1) the plutonic rocks,
with mineral grain sizes that are visible to the naked eye, and (2) the volcanic rocks, which are
usually too fine-grained or glassy for their mineral composition to be observed without the use of
a petrographic microscope. This is largely a genetic classification based on the depth of origin of
the rock (volcanic at or near the surface, and plutonic at depth). Remember that porphyritic rocks
have spent time in both worlds.

Classification of plutonic rocks A plutonic rock may be classified mineralogically based on the
actual proportion of the various minerals of which it is composed (called the mode). In any
classification scheme, boundaries between classes are set arbitrarily. The International Union of

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Geological Sciences (IUGS)

Subcommission on the
Systematics of Igneous Rocks
in 1973 suggested the use of the
modal composition for all
plutonic igneous rocks with a
color index less than 90 (Image
to the right). A second scheme
(not shown) was proposed for
those plutonic ultramafic rocks
with a color index greater than
90.

The plotting of rock modes

on these triangular
diagrams is simpler than it may
appear. The three
components, Q (quartz) + A
(alkali (Na-K) feldspar) + P
(plagioclase), are recalculated from the mode to sum to 100 percent. Each component is represented
by the corners of the equilateral triangle, the length of whose sides are divided into 100 equal parts.
Any composition plotting at a corner, therefore, has a mode of 100 percent of the corresponding
component. Any point on the sides of the triangle represents a mode composed of the two adjacent
corner components. For example, a rock with 60 percent Q and 40 percent A will plot on the QA side
at a location 60 percent of the distance from A to Q. A rock containing all three components will plot
within the triangle. Since the sides of the triangle are divided into 100 parts, a rock having a mode of
20 percent Q and 80 percent A + P (in unknown proportions for the moment) will plot on the line that
parallels the AP side and lies 20 percent of the distance toward Q from the side AP. If this same rock
has 30 percent P and 50 percent A, the rock mode will plot at the intersection of the 20 percent Q line
described above, with a line paralleling the QA side at a distance 30 percent toward P from the QA
side. The third intersecting line for the point is necessarily the line paralleling the QP side at 50
percent of the distance from the side QP toward A. A rock with 25 percent Q, 35 percent P, and 40
percent A plots in the granite field, whereas one with 25 percent Q, 60 percent P, and 15 percent A
plots in the granodiorite field. The latter is close to the average composition of the continental crust
of the Earth.

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Classification of Volcanic Rocks

Ideally it would be preferable to use the same

modal scheme for volcanic rocks. However,
owing to the aphanitic texture of volcanic rocks,
their modes cannot be readily determined;
consequently, a chemical classification is widely
accepted and employed by most petrologists. One
popular scheme is based on the use of both
chemical components and normative mineralogy.
Because most people have little access to analytic
facilities that yield igneous rock compositions,
only an outline will be presented here in order to provide an appreciation for the classification
scheme.

The major division of volcanic rocks is based on the alkali (soda + potash) and silica contents,
which yield two groups, the subalkaline and alkaline rocks. Furthermore as they are so
common, the subalkaline rocks have two divisions based mainly on the iron content with the
iron-rich group called the tholeiitic series and the iron-poor group called calc-alkaline. The
former group is most commonly found along the oceanic ridges and on the ocean floor and is
usually restricted to mafic igneous rocks like basalt and gabbro; the latter group is
characteristic of the volcanic regions of the continental margins (convergent, or destructive,
plate boundaries) and is comprised of a much more diverse suite of rocks.

Chemically the subalkaline rocks are saturated with respect to silica. This chemical property is
reflected in the mode of the mafic members that have two pyroxenes, hypersthene and augite
[Ca(Mg, Fe)Si2O6], and perhaps quartz. Plagioclase is common in phenocrysts, but it can also
occur in the matrix along with the pyroxenes. In addition to the differences in iron content
between the tholeiitic and calc-alkaline series, the latter has a higher alumina content (16 to 20
percent), and the range in silica content is larger (48 to 75 percent compared to 45 to 63
percent for the former). Hornblende and biotite phenocrysts are common in calc-alkaline
andesites and dacites but are lacking in the tholeiites. Dacites and rhyolites commonly have
phenocrysts of plagioclase, alkali feldspar (usually sanidine), and quartz in a glassy matrix.

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Hornblende and plagioclase phenocrysts are more widespread in dacites than in rhyolites,
which have more biotite and alkali feldspar.

The alkaline rocks typically are chemically undersaturated with respect to silica; hence, they have
only one pyroxene, the calcium-rich augite) and lack quartz but often have a feldspathoid mineral,
nepheline. Microscopic examination of alkali olivine basalts (the most common alkaline rock)
usually reveals phenocrysts of olivine, one pyroxene (augite), plagioclase and perhaps nepheline

A field classification is much simpler because it requires little detailed knowledge of rocks and can
be easily applied to any igneous rock we might pick up while on a field trip. It utilizes texture,
mineralogy and color. The latter is a particularly unreliable property, but the classification realizes
that certain fine-grained (aphanitic) igneous rocks contain no visible mineral grains and in their
absence color is the only other available property. Students the thus cautioned to use color only as a
last resort.

To employ this classification we must first determine the rock's texture. There are five basic
textures; phaneritic (coarse), aphanitic (fine), vesicular, glassy and fragmental (our
classification doesn't bother with the latter because we often term all fragmental igneous rocks
tuffs). If a rock is glassy, vesicular or fragmental you cannot determine mineralogy and hence
the name is simply obsidian for a glass, tuff for a fragmental or pumice/scoria for a vesicular
rock (the latter are differentiated on the basis or color and size of the vesicles or holes).

For the phaneritic and some aphanitic rocks you must determine the mineralogy. Often it is
only necessary to identify one or two key minerals, not all of the minerals in the rock. For
instance quartz and potassium feldspar (k-feldspar) are restricted to granites and rhyolites.
Amphibole is only abundant in diorite or andesite, although minor amounts can be present in

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granite. How am I getting these names? Let's take an example. I pick up my first specimen
and notice that it is distinctly coarse grained (phaneritic). This means that it must be one of the
rocks in the row labeled coarse (i.e., granite, diorite, gabbro or peridotite). I next place the
rock under a binocular microscope and identify the minerals plagioclase and pyroxene. I go to
the bottom row of the chart (Minerals Present) and look for a match with my mineralogy. I
find it in the third column (Ca-play, pyroxene) and read the name (gabbro) from the coarse
row on the chart.

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Igneous rock descriptions

Granite

 Is a granular plutonic rock that is light in colour and even textured consisting of chiefly quartz
and feldspar
 Quartz crystals are roughly spherical, clear to light grey in colour
 Feldspar crystals are rectangular, salmon pink to white in colour
 May contain muscovite, biotite and amphibole
 In some granites K-feldspar is dominant and dark pink in colour so the rock appears reddish
and is used as a building stone
 Granite may also have a porphyritic texture in which feldspar crystals are scattered among the
coarse groundmass of quartz and amphibole
 Granite is a by-product of mountain building and is resistant to weathering and it frequently
forms the core of eroded mountains

Granodiorite

 Is a plutonic rock consisting mainly of plagioclase and slightly more than 5% K-

feldspar
 Darker than granites in colour
 Usually phaneritic in texture
 has no visible quartz crystals

Rhyolite

 Is a volcanic equivalent of granite

 Consists of light coloured silicates hence its light buff to pink or very light grey colour
 It is usually aphanitic and may contain glassy fragments and voids
 May contain small quartz and K-feldspar phenocrysts

Basalt

 Very dark green to black fine grained volcanic rock

 Consists of pyroxene and Ca-rich feldspar with less amounts of olivine and amphibole

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 May be porphyritic containing small, light coloured Ca-feldspar phenocrysts or glassy

olivine phenocrysts embedded in dark groundmass.

Andesite

 Medium grey aphanitic rock of volcanic origin

 Porphyritic in texture with phenocrysts being light rectangular crystals of plagioclase
feldspar or black elongated hornblende crystals
 Composed of oligoclase or andesine feldspar
 K-feldspar and quartz absent or less than 10%
 Groundmass partly or completely glassy
 Abundant in the Andes mountains

N.B. Distinction between volcanic rocks is difficult because of their fine grained nature

Pegmatites

These are extremely coarse grained bodies closely related genetically and in space to large
masses of plutonic rocks. They generally contain quartz, feldspar and micas of large grain
sizes.

METAMORPHIC PETROLOGY

Metamorphism is the solid-state recrystallization of pre-existing rocks due to

changes in physical and chemical conditions, primarily heat, pressure, and the
introduction of chemically active fluids. Mineralogical, chemical and
crystallographic changes can occur during this process. Some gross features are
maintained. The processes that cause metamorphism include burial and heating
of sedimentary rocks, igneous activity and impact of large meteorites. Most
metamorphism occurs in the vicinity of active plate margins.

Agents of Metamorphism

Temperature

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Below 200°C minerals may remain at equilibrium with their environment for
long periods, but at high temperatures, minerals react within rocks to produce
secondary minerals. When subjected to high temperature, minerals may react to
recrystallize different minerals. This also happens on cooling. Generally
temperature increases with depth in the earth so metamorphism occurs deep in
the earth.

Pressure

Rocks subjected to high pressure will be changed physically, making them

ductile and flowing. However, no new minerals are formed and the existing
minerals may undergo mechanical breakdown.

Metamorphic (pore) fluids

These are found in the interstices of mineral grains formed from the rock in
which they are hosted or have migrated into the rock from an external source.
There is interchange of material between the fluids and the minerals in a rock
which may result in dissolution of minerals and precipitation of secondary
minerals.

Metamorphic textures

Metamorphic rocks exhibit a variety of textures. These can range from textures similar to the
original protolith at low grades of metamorphism, to textures that are purely produced during
metamorphism and leave the rock with little resemblance to the original protolith.
Metamorphic rocks may be foliated or nonfoliated. Here, we concentrate on the development
of foliation, one of the most common purely metamorphic textures.

Foliation is defined as a pervasive planar structure that results from the nearly parallel
alignment of sheet silicate minerals and/or compositional and mineralogical layering in the
rock. Most foliation is caused by the preferred orientation of phyllosilicates, like clay
minerals, micas, and chlorite. Preferred orientation develops as a result of non-hydrostatic or
differential stress acting on the rock (also called deviatoric stress).

Most Metamorphic rocks form in the influence of a directed stress field. Because of this
they develop conspicuous directional textures. Foliation can be subtle or pronounced
depending on the degree of metamorphism.
The foliated textures develop in the sequence listed below as temperature and pressure
increases.

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Slaty cleavage - a pervasive, parallel foliation (layering) of fine-grained platy minerals

(chlorite) in a direction perpendicular to the direction of maximum stress. Produces the rocks
slate and phyllite. Low grade metamorphic rocks are so fine-grained that the new mineral
grains are not visible with the unaided eye. Under a polarizing light microscope, the foliation
can be seen. However, the slaty cleavage produces a very distinct layering in the rock that
often runs at an angle to the bedding. Practically we see this in the rock slate, often used as
roof shingles or as paving stones. The slate easily splits into thin sheets with smooth, flat
surfaces

Schistosity - the layering in a coarse grained, crystalline rock due to the parallel arrangement
of platy mineral grains such as muscovite and biotite. Other minerals present are typically
quartz and feldspar, plus a variety of other minerals such as garnet, staurolite, kyanite,
sillimanite. At intermediate and high grades of metamorphism the chlorite breaks down and
recrystallizes to form quartz, feldspar, and mica. The grain size also increases and individual
mineral grains can be seen with the unaided eye.
Foliation in coarse grained metamorphic rocks is called SCHISTOSITY. In a hand sample
the foliation can be easily seen, and usually runs planar through the rock; that is, it all runs the
same direction. In larger specimens, however, the foliation may be folded. Schistosity is
derived from the Latin schistos meaning cleaves easily. Schistosity differs from slaty
cleavage in both grain size and mineral content.

Mineral Banding (Gneiss) - The layering in a rock in which bands or lenses of granular minerals
(quartz and feldspar) alternate with bands or lenses in which platy (mica) or elongate (amphibole)
minerals predominate. At the highest grades of metamorphism, minerals begin to segregate into
separate bands. The micaceous minerals separate from the quartz and feldspars.

TABLE 1: FOLIATED (banded) ROCK CLASSIFICATION

Metamorphic Environment 50-300ºC 300-450ºC Above 450ºC

Metamorphic Grade Low Intermediate High

Rock Name SLATE SCHIST GNEISS

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Minerals not visible with Rock is medium to coarse Rock is coarse grained and
the naked eye or with a grained with visible grains usually banded with
Rock Description hand lens, rock shows slaty of mica or other alternating layers of light
cleavage, is usually dark- metamorphic and dark minerals.
colored. A product of low- minerals. Often shiny due Foliation bands may be
grade metamorphism of to reflection of mica on folded. Product of high
shale or mudstone. foliation planes. Product grade metamorphism of
of intermediate grade shale, schist, granite or
metamorphism of shale, many other rock types.
slate, phyllite, basalt or
granite.

TABLE 2: NON-FOLIATED (granular) ROCK CLASSIFICATION

MARBLE QUARTZITE ANTHRACITE COAL

Mineral(s) calcite quartz crystalline carbon

Coarse-grained recrystallized Rock has intergrown quartz Hard, black shiny coal;
Description limestone or dolomite. grains, thus is massive and product of low-grade
Typically harder than the hard. Protolith is sandstone. metamorphism of bituminous
protolith. May have dark Intermediate to high grade coal.
bands due to organic metamorphism.
impurities.

Importance of studying metamorphic textures

-They provide a means for classifying metamorphic rocks, and hence for their nomenclature.

-They may help identify the original rock type prior to metamorphism.

-They help identify which minerals may have formed with each other (in equilibrium?) and
which minerals are definitely out of equilibrium, and hence help establish the order of
crystallization and paragenetic sequences which are essential in understanding the P-T history
of the sample.

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-They help identify metamorphic reactions that may have taken place during the rock's
history, and are therefore essential for deriving the P-T paths of such rocks.

-They help identify the relationship between deformation and mineral growth, which is
essential for any tectonic interpretations.

-They are critical for determining the number of deformational and/or metamorphic events
affecting an area.

The Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks are classified by their textures into two major groups, The foliated and
the nonfoliated rocks. Foliated rocks (Table 1) are classified based on metamorphic grade: the
lower the metamorphic grade, the smaller and finer the crystal size. Nonfoliated rocks (Table
2) are classified based on composition, and this usually depends on the type of rock it
originally formed from (called the protolith).

TABLE 1: FOLIATED (banded) ROCK CLASSIFICATION

Metamorphic 50-300ºC 300-450ºC Above 450ºC
Environment

Metamorphic Low Intermediate High

Grade

Rock Name SLATE SCHIST GNEISS

Minerals not visible Rock is medium to Rock is coarse grained and

with the naked eye coarse grained with usually banded with
or with a hand lens, visible grains of alternating layers of light
rock shows slaty mica or other and dark minerals. Foliation
cleavage, is usually metamorphic bands may be folded.
Rock dark-colored. A minerals. Often Product of high grade
Description product of low- shiny due to metamorphism of shale,
grade reflection of mica schist, granite or many other
metamorphism of on foliation rock types.
shale or mudstone. planes. Product of
intermediate grade
metamorphism of
shale, slate,
phyllite, basalt or
granite.

TABLE 2. NONFOLIATED (not banded) ROCK CLASSIFICATION

MARBLE QUARTZITE ANTHRACITE COAL

Mineral(s) calcite quartz crystalline carbon

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Coarse-grained Rock has Hard, black shiny coal;

recrystallized intergrown quartz product of low-grade
Description limestone or grains, thus is metamorphism of
dolomite. Typically massive and hard. bituminous coal.
harder than the Protolith is
protolith. May have sandstone.
dark bands due to Intermediate to
organic impurities. high grade
metamorphism.

The foliated metamorphic rocks

As shale is subjected to increasing grade of metamorphism (increasing temperatures and

pressures), it undergoes successive changes in texture associated with an increase in the size
of the mica grains.

Slate - very fine grained rock. Resembles shale. Has slaty cleavage which may be at an angle
to the original bedding. Relict bedding may be seen on cleavage planes. Often dark gray in
color. "Rings" when you strike it. (Unlike shale, which makes a dull sound. Temperature
about 200 degrees C; Depth of burial about 10 km.

Phyllite is a foliate metamorphic rock that is made up mainly of very fine-grained mica. The
surface of phyllite is typically lustrous and sometimes wrinkled. It is intermediate in grade
between slate and schist. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters
across).

Schist - metamorphic rock containing abundant obvious micas, several millimeters across.
Several types of schist may be recognized, based on minerals which may be present:

 mica schist
 garnet schist
 chlorite schist
 kyanite schist
 talc schist

Gneiss - (pronounced "nice") - a banded or striped rock with alternating layers of dark and
light minerals. The dark layers commonly contain biotite, and the light layers commonly
contain quartz and feldspar.

Migmatite - a very high grade metamorphic rock that has been subjected to such high
temperatures that it has partially melted. It is intermediate between the metamorphic and the
igneous rocks. Look for swirled banding. The light colored minerals have undergone melting

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and flow. The dark colored minerals have been contorted by flow. Example - the Lithonia
Gneiss in the area southeast of Atlanta.

The non-foliated (and weakly foliated) metamorphic rocks

Marble - fizzes in acid because its dominant mineral is calcite (or dolomite). The parent rock
is limestone (or dolostone).

Quartzite - interlocking grains of quartz. Scratches glass. The rock fractures through the
grains (rather than between the grains as it does in sandstone). The parent rock is quartz
sandstone.

Metagraywacke - metamorphosed greywacke or "dirty sandstone".

Metaconglomerate and stretched pebble metaconglomerate - the parent rock is conglomerate.

The clasts are fairly easily recognized. May be more difficult to recognize if the clasts have
been stretched.

Hornfels - A fine-grained, tough, dense, hard, massive rock. Usually (but not always) dark in
color. Finer grained than basalt, which it may superficially resemble. This rock forms through
contact metamorphism. The parent rock is commonly siltstone or basalt, but may be other
types of rock.

Serpentinite - A dark green, dense, tough, massive, hard rack. May contain veins of asbestos.
The parent rock is peridotite, an ultramafic rock.

Soapstone (sometimes called steatite) - a soft, easily carved rock with a slippery feel because
it contains talc and chlorite. The parent rock is peridotite (ultramafic), probably with more
water associated with it than in the formation of serpentinite. Example - Soapstone Ridge
southeast of Atlanta.

Metabasalt (sometimes called greenstone if massive and green, or greenschist if foliated and
green) - the green color comes from chlorite (soft and bluish green) and epidote (pea green).
The parent rock is basalt. The grade of metamorphism is LOW.

Amphibolite - Abundant amphibole is present; may be lineated. Usually black. The parent
rock is basalt. The grade of metamorphism is HIGH. Has been subjected to higher
temperatures and pressures than metabasalt, greenstone, or greenschist.

Mylonite - A dynamic metamorphic rock which forms along fault zones.

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SEDIMENTARY PETROLOGY

Definition of sedimentary rock

Sedimentary rocks are one of the three main rock groups formed by the lithification of
sediments and weathered remains of other rocks (known as clastic sedimentary rocks); by the
deposition of the results of biogenic activity; and by precipitation from solution (chemical
sedimentary rocks) Sedimentary rocks include common types such as chalk, limestone,
sandstone, and shale.

Formation

•When rocks are broken down into fragments, either through the mechanical means of
weathering, or through chemical reactions, the fragments are called sediment. When that
sediment is compacted or cemented together, it forms a sedimentary rock.

Clastic sediment

•Clastic sediment is what one usually thinks of when speaking of sediment. From the Greek
word klastos (broken), it refers to the broken remains of rocks of all types, broken and altered
by weathering processes such as wind, water and ice. Clastic sediment is also known as
detrital sediment.

•Clastic rocks (sedimentary) differ from igneous rocks not by the mineral composition but by
the grain texture that shows its history of mechanical weathering, the cementation material
and the possible presence of fossils (which cannot survive the high temperatures required to
melt igneous rocks).

•Sedimentary layering is also a powerful clue to sedimentary origin. Igneous rocks have
minerals which grow in every direction. Sedimentary rocks, on the other hand, are often laid
down in layers that mimic the horizontal surface of the Earth.

Chemical sediment

•Chemical sedimentary rocks may contain fossils and other sedimentary characteristics, but
their components were not broken up mechanically. Rather, rocks were dissolved in solution
(as salt can dissolve in water) and transported, then precipitated chemically (as salt can
precipitate out of a saturated solution).

•Precipitation can occur biochemically. Example: tiny plants living in seawater can decrease
the acidity of the surrounding water and so cause calcium carbonate to precipitate.

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•Precipitation can also occur through inorganic means. Example: As seawater evaporates, it
often leaves behind salts which have precipitated out. This is how halite (salt) is formed.

Lithification of a sedimentary rock

•Once either clastic or chemical sediment is formed, it becomes sedimentary rock through
sediment transport, deposition and diagenesis, or the alteration of sediments that create rock
out of deposited sediments.

•Each of these steps occur in many ways, but each of these processes will leave clues in the
characteristics of the rocks.

Transport

•Sediment can be transported in many ways. The main types of transport are through wind
action, water action, glacial or ice action, or mass wasting (mass movement of Earth, through
avalanches, slides, slumps and so on).Each of these processes leaves telltale marks on the
rocks that are produced. Example: Sediments transported by water often have rounded, sorted
grains because of the abrading, polishing action of the sediments transported in the flow.
Sediments transported by glaciers are often broken and shattered by the grinding action of the
travelling glacier. Thus, the sediments are commonly angular rather than rounded.

Deposition

•Sediment deposition occurs when the method of transport is unable to carry the sediment
grains.

•This is related to the size and weight of the grains and thus is an indicator of the power and
speed of the transporting mechanism.

•Example: Wind action cannot transport grains much larger than sand.

Diagenesis or Lithification

•Changes that sediment undergoes after deposition are referred to as diagenesis. This includes
any transformations during and after formation into a rock. The actual process of rock
formation from sediment is called lithification. Diagenesis occurs through the processes of
compaction, cementation, recrystallization and chemical alterations of the sediment.
Compaction occurs as the weight of accumulating sediment forces the rock and mineral grains
together. This reduces pore space and eliminates some of the contained water.

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•Cementation is a result of water circulating through the pore spaces of a sediment.

•If that water carries in it dissolved substances that then precipitate out during circulation,
those substances left behind in the sediments can act as cementing agents. Calcium carbonate
is one of the most common cements because it is found abundantly in seawater.

Grain size and grain size parameters

Sedimentary rocks are described by their grain sizes. The Udden-Wentworth grain size scale
divides sediments into 7 grades: clay, silt, sand, granules, pebbles, cobbles and boulders with
further subdivisions in some of the grades.

Phi is the logarithmic transformation of the grain size scale and is given by ;

Φ = -log2S where S is the grain size in millimeters

Clast size for conglomerates and breccia can be measured by a tape measure.

Sorting

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•Sorting is a conspicuous feature of many sedimentary rocks. Sorting is the process by which
grains of like size or weight are grouped together in a rock. This process is most common in
air or water transported sediments.

•Sorting is often an indicator of the energy of the transport mechanism: poor sorting means
lower energy or glacial transport.

•Grains can be sorted by specific gravity, for instance, as heavier particles carried in a stream
may fall out of the flow before lighter particles.

•Grains in a rock or bed may also be sorted by size, which is more important when most
grains are of the same mineral (and thus similar specific gravity).

•Finally, if transport if sediment is particularly long, grains may be sorted by durability. Thus,
in some cases, the only grains that survive the distance are the most resistant to weathering
and fracture — typically quartz.

Phi scale Description

<0.35 Very well sorted
0.35- 0.5 Well sorted with grains all about the same size
0.5- 0.71 Moderately well sorted
0.71- 1.0 Poorly sorted mixed grain sizes
1.0- 2.0 Very poorly sorted

kurtosis

Kurtosis is based on the size of a distribution's tails. Distributions with relatively large tails are called
"leptokurtic"; those with small tails are called "platykurtic." A distribution with the same kurtosis as
the normal distribution is called "mesokurtic."

The following formula can be used to calculate kurtosis:

where σ is the standard deviation. The kurtosis of a normal distribution is 0.

The following two distributions have the same variance, approximately the same skew, but differ
markedly in kurtosis.

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Skewness

This is a measure of the symmetry of distribution and is best seen from the smoothed frequency
curve. If the distribution has a coarse tail then the sediment is negatively skewed and if the tail is fine
the sediment is positively skewed and if the distribution is symmetrical, there is no skew.

Sphericity

This is a measure of how closely the grain shape approaches that of a sphere

Roundness

This is a measure of the curvature of the corners of a grain. It increases with duration of
transportation or reworking. Angular grains indicate short transport distance.

Particle shape

Particle shape is given by various ratios of the long, intermediate and short axes

-oblate—tabular or disc shaped particles

-equant-cubic or spherical particles

-bladed-

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-prolate- rod shaped

Characteristics of sedimentary rocks

-Classified by texture and composition

-Often contains fossils
-May react with acid
-Often has layers, flat or curved
-Usually composed of pieces cemented or pressed together
-Has great color variety
-Particle size may be the same or vary
-Usually has pores between pieces
-May have cross-bedding, mud cracks, worm burrows, raindrop impressions

Depositional Environments

In geology, sedimentary depositional environment describes the combination of physical, chemical

and biological processes associated with the deposition of a particular type of sediment and,
therefore, the rock types that will be formed after lithification, if the sediment is preserved in the rock
record. In most cases the environments associated with particular rock types or associations of rock
types can be matched to existing analogues. However, the further back in geological time sediments
were deposited, the more likely that direct modern analogues are not available (e.g. banded iron
formations).

•Sediments (and thus sedimentary rocks) are formed in many environments, which can be grouped
into four large categories: non-marine water environments, ice or glacial environments, eolian
environments and ocean environments.

•Non-marine water sediments are formed in streams and lakes. Both mechanical and chemical
sediments are important. Lakes or dry lake beds, especially, are places to look for chemically
deposited sediment.

•Sediments eroded and transported by glaciers are deposited at the base of the glacier or released at
its edge during melting.

•Wind-transported sediments are typically found in eolian environments, better known as deserts.

•Ocean sediments are formed either in near-shore environments such as beaches, lagoons and deltas,
offshore on the continental shelf (like reefs), or in the deep sea.

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Bodies of sediment recognizably different from adjacent sediment deposited in a different

depositional environment. Generally, facies are distinguished by what aspect of the rock or sediment
is being studied. Thus, facies based on petrological characters such as grain size and mineralogy are
called lithofacies, whereas facies based on fossil content are called biofacies.

These facies types are usually further subdivided, for examples, you might refer to a "tan, cross-
bedded oolitic limestone facies" or a "shale facies". The characteristics of the rock unit come from
the depositional environment and original composition. Sedimentary facies reflect depositional
environment, each facies being a distinct kind of sediment for that area or environment.

Since its inception, the facies concept has been extended to related geological concepts. For example,
characteristic associations of organic microfossils, and particulate organic material, in rocks or
sediments, are called palynofacies. Discrete seismic units are similarly referred to as seismic facies.

Vertical succession of facies reflects lateral changes in environment. Conversely, it states that when a
depositional environment "migrates" laterally, sediments of one depositional environment come to lie
on top of another.

Classification of sedimentary rocks

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Sedimentary rocks are classified according to the type of sediment making up the rock. There are
clastic sedimentary rocks made up of sediments from physical weathering of all types of rocks.
These are subdivided according to particle size. There are chemical rocks made from precipitation
processes and these are subdivided by chemical composition

Clastic sedimentary rocks

Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of discrete fragments or clasts of materials derived from
other rocks. They are composed largely of quartz with other common minerals including feldspars,
amphiboles, clay minerals, and sometimes more exotic igneous and metamorphic minerals.

Clastic sedimentary rocks may be regarded as falling along a scale of grain size, with shale being the
finest with particles less than 0.004 mm, siltstone being intermediate with particles between 0.004 to
0.06 mm, and sandstone being coarser still with grains 0.06- 0.2 mm, and conglomerates and breccia
being the coarsest with grains 2 to 256 mm.

The classification of clastic sedimentary rocks is complex because there are many variables involved.
Particle size (both the average size and range of sizes of the particles), composition of the particles,
the cement, and the matrix (the name given to the smaller particles present in the spaces between
larger grains) must all be taken into consideration.

Shales, which consist mostly of clay minerals, are generally further classified on the basis of
composition and bedding.

Coarser clastic sedimentary rocks are classified according to their particle size and composition.
Orthoquartzite is very pure quartz sandstone; arkose is a sandstone with quartz and abundant
feldspar; greywacke is a sandstone with quartz, clay, feldspar, and metamorphic rock fragments
present. The clastic rocks are also called detrital.

Detrital/clastic rocks

Texture Sediment and comments Rock name

particle size
Clastic Gravel >2mm Rounded rock fragments Conglomerate

Angular rock fragments Breccia

Clastic Sand 1/16 -2mm Quartz predominates Quartz

sandstone
Clastic Quartz with considerable feldspar Arkose

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Clastic Dark color, quartz + feldspar, clay greywacke

+ rock fragments

Clastic Mud <1/16mm Splits into thin layers Shale

Clastic Breaks into clumps or blocks mudstone

Chemical rocks

Group Texture Composition Rock name

Inorganic Clastic/nonclastic Calcite,CaCO3 Limestone
nonclastic Dolomite Dolostone
nonclastic Microcrystalline quartz Chert
nonclastic Halite Rock salt
nonclastic gypsum Rock gypsum
Biochemical Clastic/nonclastic Calcite Limestone
nonclastic Microcrystalline quartz Chert
nonclastic Altered plant remains coal

Biogenic sedimentary rocks

Biogenic sedimentary rocks contain materials generated by living organisms, and include carbonate
minerals created by organisms, such as corals, molluscs, and foraminifera, which cover the ocean
floor with layers of calcite which can later form limestone. Other examples include stromatolites, and
the flint nodules found in chalk (which is itself a biogenic sedimentary rock, a form of limestone) and
coal and oil shale.
Chemical (Precipitate )sedimentary rocks

Chemical sedimentary rocks form when minerals in solution become supersaturated and precipitate.
In marine environments, this is a method for the formation of limestone. Another common
environment in which chemical sedimentary rocks form is a body of water that is evaporating.
Evaporation decreases the amount of water without decreasing the amount of dissolved material.
Therefore, the dissolved material can become oversaturated and precipitate. Sedimentary rocks from
this process can include the evaporite minerals halite (rock salt), sylvite, barite and gypsum.

Importance of sedimentary rocks

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Sedimentary rocks are economically important in that they can be used as construction material. In
addition, sedimentary rocks often form porous and permeable reservoirs in sedimentary basins in
which petroleum and other hydrocarbons can be found.

It is believed that the relatively low levels of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere, in comparison
to that of Venus, is due to large amounts of carbon being trapped in limestone and dolomite
sedimentary layers. The flux of carbon from eroded sediments to marine deposits is known as the
carbon cycle.

Identification of sedimentary rocks

1.Terriginous Clastic Sediments

These include fine grained mudrocks, sandstones, conglomerates and breccia. The sediments consist
of fragments or clasts derived from pre-existing rocks. Some are individual crystals mainly quartz
and feldspar. Clay minerals are predominant in mudstones and form the matrix of sandstones and
conglomerates. Source areas of clastic sediments are upland mountainous regions that may be
undergoing uplift or erosion of lowland and coastal areas.

Important features are sedimentary structures and textures- highly dependent on depositional
processes though a few may be post depositional and affected by diagenic processes. Sand stones,
conglomerates and breccia consist of detrital grains, fine grained matrix and a cement. The detrital
particles are rock fragments, quartz, feldspar, micas, clays, heavy minerals and other components.

Rock fragments- are found in conglomerates and breccia and are coarser than sand grains in
sandstones. Their composition is determined by source rock and particle durability. They tend to be
unstable.

Quartz-the most common mineral in sandstones and the most stable mineral in sedimentary rocks
mainly derived from plutonic granitoid rocks.

Micas and clay minerals- common in the matrix of sandstone and coarser clastic and are the main
components of mudrocks.

Heavy minerals- define provenance and events in the source area e.g. garnet, epidote and staurolite
are mostly from metamorphic terrains while rutile, apatite, tourmaline are from igneous rocks. They
may be dissolved out during diagenesis and are usually smaller than quartz and may accumulate in
beds or laminae. Other components include carbonate grains, fossils, fossil fragments, non-skeletal
grains and volcanic fragments.

Quartz arenites

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A quartz arenite or quartz arenite is a sandstone composed of greater than 90% detrital quartz with
limited amounts of other framework grains (feldspar, lithic fragments, etc.) and matrix. It can have
higher-than-average amounts of resistant grains, like chert.Heavy minerals like tourmaline; zircon
and ilmenite may also be present.

The term 'quartz arenite' is derived from the main component (quartz) and arenite, a Latin term for a
rock with sand-sized grains. In some literature, these can be called orthoquartzites, a confusing term
which usually refers to the metamorphic rock quartzite, though most metamorphic quartzites are
diagenetically fused from quartz arenites. The term "quartzose sandstone" can also be used for a
quartz arenite.

Quartz arenites are the most mature sedimentary rocks possible, and are often referred to as ultra- or
super-mature, and are usually cemented by silica. They often exhibit both textural and compositional
maturity. The two primary sedimentary depositional environments that produce quartz arenites are
beaches/upper shoreface and aeolian processes, due to their high residence time, high transport
distance, and/or high energy of the environment. Most of the time, these sediments are reworked over
and over, even being eroded out of a lithified rock and becoming a brand new sediment and rock.
This is known as a multicycle sand.

Arkose is a detrital sedimentary rock, specifically a type of sandstone containing at least 25%
feldspar.Arkosic sand is sand that is similarly rich in feldspar, and thus the potential precursor of
arkose. The other mineral components may vary, but quartz is commonly dominant, and some mica is
often present. Apart from the mineral content, rock fragments may also be a significant component.
Arkose usually contains small amounts of calcite cement, which causes it to 'fizz' slightly in dilute
hydrochloric acid; sometimes the cement also contains iron oxide. Arkose is typically grey to reddish
in color. The sand grains making up an arkose may range from fine to very coarse, but tends toward
the coarser end of the scale. Fossils are rare in arkose, due to the depositional processes that form it,
although bedding is frequently visible.

Arkose is generally formed from the weathering of feldspar-rich igneous or metamorphic, most
commonly granitic rocks, which are primarily composed of quartz and feldspar. These sediments
must be deposited rapidly and/or in a cold or arid environment such that the feldspar does not
undergo significant chemical weathering and decomposition; therefore arkose is designated a
texturally immature sedimentary rock. Arkose is often associated with conglomerate deposits sourced
from granitic terrain and is often found above unconformities over such granitic terrain.

Limestone

Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate: CaCO3). Like most othe
rocks, limestones are composed of grains; however, most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments /f marine organis
foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts, and extraclasts. Some lime
consist of grains at all and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite. i.e. travertine.

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The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes. Regions
overlying limestone bedrock tend to have fewer visible groundwater sources (ponds and streams), as
surface water easily drains downward through joints in the limestone. While draining, water and
organic acid from the soil slowly (over thousands or millions of years) enlarges these cracks;
dissolving the calcium-carbonate and carrying it away in solution. Most cave systems are through
limestone bedrock.

Limestone makes up about 10% of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks. Limestones may also
form in both lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments.

Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly where there
are waterfalls and around hot or cold springs. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of
the water leaves a solution that is supersaturated with chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous
or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls. Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone
composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the
mountain building process (orogeny) limestone recrystallizes into marble.

Uses

Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in Europe and North America. Many
landmarks across the world, including the Great Pyramid and its associated Complex in Giza, Egypt,
are made of limestone. Limestone is readily available and relatively easy to cut into blocks or more
elaborate carving. It is also long-lasting and stands up well to exposure. However, it is a very heavy
material, making it impractical for tall buildings, and relatively expensive as a building material.

Other uses include:

 The manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide) and slaked lime (calcium hydroxide);
 Cement and mortar;
 Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soil conditions;
 Crushed for use as aggregate—the solid base for many roads;
 Geological formations of limestone are among the best petroleum reservoirs;
 As a reagent in flue gas desulfurization (sulfur dioxide air pollution control);
 Glass making, in some circumstances;
 Added to paper, plastics, paint, tiles, and other materials as both white pigment and a cheap
filler.
 Toothpaste
 Suppression of methane explosions in underground coal mines

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 Added to bread and cereals as a source of calcium

 Calcium supplement for poultry (when ground up)
 Remineralizing and increasing the alkalinity of purified water to prevent pipe corrosion and to
return essential nutrients
 Used in blast furnaces to extract iron from its ore
 Medicines
 Cosmetics

Sandstone
Sandstone (sometimes known as arenite) is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized
minerals or rock grains. Most sandstone is composed of quartz and/or feldspar because these are the
most common minerals in the Earth's crust. Like sand, sandstone may be any color, but the most
common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, gray and white. Since sandstone beds often form highly
visible cliffs and other topographic features, certain colors of sandstone have been strongly identified
with certain regions.

Some sandstones are resistant to weathering, yet are easy to work. This makes sandstone a common
building and paving material. However, some that have been used in the past, such as the Collyhurst
sandstone used in North West England, have been found less resistant, necessitating repair and
replacement in older buildings. Because of the hardness of the individual grains, uniformity of grain
size and friability of their structure, some types of sandstone are excellent materials from which to
make grindstones, for sharpening blades and other implements. Non-friable sandstone can be used to
make grindstones for grinding grain, e.g., gritstone.

Rock formations that are primarily composed of sandstone usually allow percolation of water and
other fluids and are porous enough to store large quantities, making them valuable aquifers and
petroleum reservoirs. Fine-grained aquifers, such as sandstones, are more apt to filter out pollutants
from the surface than are rocks with cracks and crevices, such as limestone or other rocks fractured
by seismic activity.

Origins

Sandstones are clastic in origin (as opposed to either organic, like chalk and coal, or chemical, like
gypsum and jasper).[2] They are formed from cemented grains that may either be fragments of a pre-
existing rock or be mono-minerallic crystals. The cements binding these grains together are typically
calcite, clays and silica. Grain sizes in sands are defined (in geology) within the range of 0.0625 mm
to 2 mm (0.002-0.079 inches). Clays and sediments with smaller grain sizes not visible with the
naked eye, including siltstones and shales, are typically called argillaceous sediments; rocks with
larger grain sizes, including breccia and conglomerates are termed rudaceous sediments.
.

The formation of sandstone involves two principal stages. First, a layer or layers of sand accumulates
as the result of sedimentation, either from water (as in a river, lake, or sea) or from air (as in a
desert). Typically, sedimentation occurs by the sand settling out from suspension; i.e., ceasing to be

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rolled or bounced along the bottom of a body of water (e.g., seas or rivers) or ground surface (e.g., in
a desert or erg). Finally, once it has accumulated, the sand becomes sandstone when it is compacted
by pressure of overlying deposits and cemented by the precipitation of minerals within the pore
spaces between sand grains.

The most common cementing materials are silica and calcium carbonate, which are often derived
either from dissolution or from alteration of the sand after it was buried. Colors will usually be tan or
yellow (from a blend of the clear quartz with the dark amber feldspar content of the sand). A
predominant additional colorant in the southwestern United States is iron oxide, which imparts
reddish tints ranging from pink to dark red (terracotta), with additional manganese imparting a
purplish hue. The environment where it is deposited is crucial in determining the characteristics of
the resulting sandstone, which, in finer detail, include its grain size, sorting and composition and, in
more general detail, include the rock geometry and sedimentary structures. Principal environments of
deposition may be split between terrestrial and marine, as illustrated by the following broad
groupings:

Types

Sandstones fall into several major groups based on their mineralogy and texture. Below is a partial
list of common sandstone types.
Quartz arenites are made up almost entirely of quartz grains, usually well sorted and rounded. These
pure quartz sands result from extensive weathering that occurred before and during transport and
removed everything but quartz, the most stable mineral. They are common in beach environments.

 Arkoses are more than 25 percent feldspar. The grains tend to be poorly rounded and less well
sorted than those of pure quartz sandstones. These feldspar-rich sandstones come from
rapidly eroding granitic and metamorphic terrains where chemical weathering is subordinate
to physical weathering.
 Lithic sandstones contain many lithic fragments derived from fine-grained rocks, mostly
shales, volcanic rocks, and fine-grained metamorphic rocks.
 Greywacke is a heterogeneous mixture of lithic fragments and angular grains of quartz and
feldspar, and/or grains surrounded by a fine-grained clay matrix. Much of this matrix is
formed by relatively soft fragments, such as shale and some volcanic rocks, which are
chemically altered and physically compacted after deep burial of the sandstone formation.
 Eolianite is a term used for a rock which is composed of sand grains that show signs of
significant transportation by wind. These have usually been deposited in desert environments.
They are commonly extremely well sorted and rich in quartz.
 Oolite is more a limestone than a sandstone, but is made of sand-sized carbonate ooids, and is
common in saline beaches with gentle wave action.

Greywackes.
-are characterized by a fine grained matrix consisting of an intergrowth of chlorite, sericite, quartz,
feldspar and some rock fragments
- they are usually dark grey to black in color and are deposited in turbidity currents in continental
margin basins.

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Mudrocks
Are usually poorly exposed due to ease of weathering and normally have fine grains. They are
deposited in river floodplains, lakes, large deltas, continental shelves and ocean floors. They consist
of clay minerals and silt-grade quartz.
Mudstone is a blocky, non-fissile rock. It is difficult to define because of the fine grainsizes. May be
massive, containing concretions and nodules.
Shale is laminated and fissile
Siltstone consists of silt-grade material and may have small current ripples
Claystone consists of clay grade material
These rocks have different colors according to composition;
Grey-black, due to the presence of organic matter
Red-purple, due to the presence of ferric oxide
Green, due to the presence of ferrous iron within illite and chlorite
Olive-yellow, due to mixing of green clay minerals and organic matter.

Volcanoclastic sediments
-composed of grains of volcanic origin that may be from explosive activity
1. Pyroclastic fall deposits-these sediments result from the fallout of volcanic fragments ejected from
a fissure or vent. They are characterized by a decrease of bed thickness and grainsize away from
fissure. Blocks, bombs are deposited near the vent and ash may be deposited near the vent or
kilometers away.
2. Volcaniclastic flow deposits
i. Ignimbrites- fluidization of ash flows is due to the expansion of gases exsolved from magma and
of air caught in the advancing flow. Ignimbrite deposits are characterized by homogenous
appearance, no/little internal stratification and they tent to follow valleys and low ground
ii. Base-surge deposits-sub aerial flows formed when magma comes into contact with water. The
base flow is a fast moving turbulent mixture of pyroclastic material, gas and water. They are usually
stratified and exhibit planar and cross bedding.

3. Hyaloclastites-produced when lava comes into contact with water so that it is rapidly chilled and
quenching causes fragmentation of lava surface rind which becomes granulated.

Coal.
Humic coal- is formed by the in-situ accumulation of woody plant material
Sapropelic coal-is formed from algae ,spores and comminuted plant debri
Coal is a fossil fuel formed by the accumulation of large quantities of plant remains in a swamp
where oxygen is deficient preventing oxidation (decay) of the plant material. Overlying material
exerts pressure and allows for an increase in pressure such that coalification occurs, producing
different ranks of coal. The carbon content increases with rank while volatiles decrease with rank.

Humic coals Carbon Volatile descriptions

content % content %

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peat 53 Plant material with original

60 cell structures visible

Soft brown coal- 49 Plant material with original

lignite 71 cell structures visible

Hard brown coal- 42 Plant cell walls compacted

77
Bituminous hard coal 29 Black, hard, bright, breaks into
LR 87 rectangular lumps

8
HR 91
anthracite 0 Burns with smokeless flame,
100 bright, shiny with concoidal
fracture

Sapropelic coals
Massive non laminated coal with even, fine grained texture and concoidal fracture consisting of
altered plant debri, spores and algae. Usually formed in ponds and shallow lakes.

Evaporites

These are chemical sediments precipitated from water following the evaporative concentration of
dissolved salts. Evaporative minerals are gypsum CaSO4. 2H2O and anhydrite CaSO4 halite NaCl.
Evaporite beds are essential components of many oilfields and they commonly affect structural traps
through salt diapirism. Evaporites are usually restricted to low latitudes, high temperatures, low
humidity and evaporation rates higher than rainfall areas. When seawater evaporates, minerals
evaporate in a sequence determined by their solubility. Less soluble minerals precipitate first e.g.
gypsum halite potassium and magnesium salts.

Sedimentary ironstones and iron formations

Iron is present in all sedimentary rocks and when iron content exceeds 15% ironstones and iron
formations are formed.
They are normally formed under marine conditions where sedimentation rates are low, those formed
during the Precambrian are BIFs which are typically thick sequences with various iron minerals
interbedded with chert. Phanerozoic ironstones are usually thin sequences often oolitic. The iron
comes from weathering on the continental shelf under humid, tropical conditions of mafic igneous
rocks and other rocks. The iron is carried to sea to sea by rivers through adsorption onto organic
matter or as ferric hydroxide colloidal suspension or by clay minerals as part of the mineral structure
or as oxide films. The iron minerals commonly found in these ironstones are: hematite, goethite,
limonite, magnetite, siderite, pyrite, chamosite and glauconite.

Cherts and Siliceous Sediments

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Chert refers to fine grained siliceous sediments of chemical, biochemical and biogenic origin. Chert
is usually dense, hard and has a concoidal fracture. Nodular cherts are associated with limestones or
mudrocks and are diagenic, formed by replacement. Bedded cherts are associated with volcanic rocks
and are primary accumulations.
Types of chert
Flint-is dark colored due to the presence of organic matter
Jasper-is red, due to the presence of iron oxide
Agate is banded chert
NB. Chert beds are believed to originate from the remains of marine organisms that produce CaCO3.

Oil shales.
These are rocks containing organic material of algal origin and fine grained higher plant debris and
megaspores. Inorganic material present may be quartz and clay minerals.

MODULE THREE
MINE GEOLOGY

1.0 OVERVIEW OF MINE GEOLOGY

Importance of mine geology

Geology provides technical service to the production and recovery team in a mining operation. It is
said to be the ‘light and compass’ of mining- giving direction so as to optimise mineral reserves
exploration and exploitation. Mine geology department is responsible for generation of mineral
reserves and resources, grade control to ensure viability and sustainability of a mining operation,
crucial part of the planning and scheduling team, mineral reserves management and, quality control
and quality analyses.

Roles of a mine geologist

 Producing a mine geology model and ore body model
 Mapping and core logging
 Grade control
 Production planning and scheduling
 Exploration in and around the mine/ mining leases
 Rock mechanics and ground control
 Database creation and management
 Supervision of sampling activities
 Supervision of diamond drilling
 Producing technical reports

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 Advising management on production/ ore deposit issues

 Ore reserves/resources estimation
 Attend to exploratory and operation problems

1.1 SAMPLING

Sampling is a process of obtaining a small representative part of a whole rock mass to represent the
whole. The sample is taken for analysis of assay values, mineral composition, texture or a field
specimen.

Methods of sampling
1. Channel sampling: a groove is cut across the strike of the rock formation or ore body/reef
using a diamond saw-cutter. A chisel is then used to chip out the rock material in between the
groove. The samples are collected at standard sample length as governed by the mine
standard (classical geostatistics or geological).This sampling method is most preferred for
evaluation and mineral reserves/resources estimations to chip sampling because is more
effective and is auditable.
2. Chip sampling: this sampling is done by a hammer and a chisel. No groove is cut, it is
superficial. This is mainly used were quick results are needed e.g. in guiding developments
and quick grade evaluations.
3. Grab sampling: broken muck samples are collected by shovel or hand at certain time
intervals, or sampling intervals, or randomly so as to get the indication of the mineral value of
the respective ground. This method is applied on stockpiles, tramming, drawpoints, hoists,
trucks and conveyors. Grab sampling is often done for grade control purposes.
4. Core sampling: these are samples obtained from diamond drilling. The sample is measured
along the core run and is split or not split (depending on QAQC standards and purpose)
before being sent to assay laboratory. Core samples are crucial for exploration and evaluation
exercises and are reliable.
5. Sludge sampling: sludge or pulp from jackhammer drilling is collected during drilling at
known sample intervals as the hole deepens. The pulp is assayed and results are used to
roughly indicate/delineate the ore body limits on stopes. These results are not used for
mineral reserves/resources estimation due to high possible contamination levels- not reliable.
6. Bulk sampling: large quantities than normal are collected for analyses, mainly for
metallurgical investigation or evaluation (e.g. in alluvial deposits were mineral distribution
are random). Bulk sampling is an essential part of exploration and evaluation of ores. Large
samples are required to check the accuracy of the drill samples and to obtain the needed
information on the crushing and grinding characteristics of the ore as well as for use in
detailed and large-scale metallurgical tests. In natural ores, bulk samples give information
regarding the nature and quantities of various sized ore products that can be shipped

Activity: Discuss advantages and disadvantages of each method above?

General sampling procedure

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Equipment
Base map/ survey plan with pegs, pan,clinorule, chisel, diamond saw cutter (if channel sampling), 4lb
hammer, sample bags, tickets, strings, crayon, paint and brush, canvas bag, notebook, pen and pencil

Protective clothing
Overall/ work suit, goggles, gloves, hardhat, gumboots, cap lamp belt

General procedure
 Having identified the area to be sampled on plan in the office, gather the necessary equipment
and PPE. Inform the Miner in charge of the section when you get into the section of your
intention. This is done so that the area is made safe and resources made available for
sampling to proceed e.g. compressed air/ water.
 Inspect the area to make sure the workplace is safe, bad hangings are barred down with help
of mining official (if any)
 Identify the area to be sampled using the reference pegs
 Mark out the sampling position and sample lengths using the crayon noting the strike of the
shear/ reef. Samples are taken at right-angle to the strike
 Cut the groves and chip out the fragments with a chisel
 Bag the samples and ticket them
 Sketch the sampled area and record the ticket numbers
 Securely tie the sample bags and put into the canvas bag and transport to the laboratory
 Fill the sample register in duplicate and submit together with samples at the laboratory and
keep one for records

Quality Control
In order to control the quality of the assay results several practices are done which include but not
limited to the following:
 Include assaying blanks on the batches
 Standard samples, the low and high grade samples at known intervals
 Repeats
 Check assaying
 Statistical Data analyses and recommendations
 Core Sample splitting
 Sampling standard procedure enforcement and supervision
 Training

After assaying the values are plotted on the assay level plan on their rightful positions on space.
Hence x, y, z of the sample must be known. It is this assay information together with geology model
that are used for ore reserves estimations and, mine planning and scheduling.

Sources of sampling errors

1. Contamination- either during sampling, transportation or assaying.
2. Fatigue
3. Human error
4. Laboratory- mix up or machine calibration
5. Bias toward softer material during chipping or fine material during grab sampling

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6. Salting

Errors in sampling mislead judgement of the information end user, the geologist, and hence the entire
management (mining/ exploration).Hence quality control and quality analyses measures should be
crafted, implemented and enforced to guard against making catastrophic decisions.

UNDERGROUND DRILLING AS A SAMPLING METHOD

 Done to evaluate the orebodies /reefs through grid drilling, thus drilling at specified regular
intervals
 To check the influence of geological structures that may affect mining progress or
mineralization
 Exploration tool – down dip continuity
- Strike continuity
- Parallels
- New mineralization as per geology model
- Neutralizing the ground in the orebody vicinity

1.2 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING

Map is a record of geological facts in their correct space relations and not theories. A geology map
includes geological structures, mineralogy, alteration levels, lithology and texture. Structures are:
faults, bedding, joints, dykes, veins, shears, etc.
 For underground mapping, the geology information is projected from the roof of a
development to middle-level development plane and plotted on the survey plan. Survey
measurements for developments are done at mid –level hence the projections to that level.
The pegs and tape measure are used to locate and plot the geological features on plan.

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 The information is taken to office where it is synthesised onto the main geology plan and also
computer database
 Interpretations and decisions are then made based on the available information
 Geology models are created from this geology data

Surface mapping:
 firstly identify the general strike of the region
 using a base map, draw the gridlines across the strike and at reasonable mapping intervals
 walk along the grid line picking all the geology information as much as possible
 the geology information is plotted on the base map with help of topography, GPS,
infrastructure, and relief
 Record orientation of features-strike/dip/ dip direction, name, etc.
 collect specimen of interest in the field for further detailed analyses and rock naming

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Cross-sections and long-sections are drawn to interpret and understand the geology of the mapped
area(s).Stereo-plots may also be plotted for same purpose.

MAPPING TECHNIQUES
All details capable of being mapped should be picked or recorded, including those which at first
appear to be of remote significance. They normally become significant when integrated and plotted
on the plans or maps. Sometimes, however the mapping can be constrained to a certain features for
certain reasons e.g.
1. Mapping of structures: picking of geological structures mainly for geotechnical purposes
and mine planning, e.g. faults, joints, folds, strike and other orientations.
2. Mapping for alteration: type and intensity of alteration. Useful for locating the mineralized
zones during evaluation, exploration or grade control .Examples of alteration types are,
carbonization, epidotization, sericitization, silicification, etc.
3. Lithological mapping: mapping of rock types, this is useful for production of geological
maps and geology modelling
4. Mapping for ore: picking ore and waste only. Mainly done for grade control purposes only.

General Mapping equipment:

 Compass
 Base map/ survey plan
 Rule
 Tape measure
 GPS (surface mapping)
 Crayon
 Notebook
 Pens and pencil
 Eraser
 Clip-board

Properties to be measured in the field:

1. Strike - compass bearing of a long axis of the feature
2. Dip – angle of inclination of the geological feature
 True dip: dip measured at right angle to the strike
 Apparent dip: dip measured at any other angle which is not at right angle to the strike
3. Dip direction – bearing of the inclination direction

Underground mapping involves mapping of developments and stopes

Surface mapping: mapping of pit walls and bench floors

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1.3 PLANS AND PROJECTIONS

Plans are layouts drawn to scale. They show the surveyed infrastructure and features drawn to scale
in their actual positions in space.

Types of mine plans

1. Assay plans: show assay values in their respective locations. Used for production planning,
ore reserves and life of mine estimation, grade control

2. Geology plans: show geological information of production and development area. Used for
geology modelling, reef interpretation, decision making and grade control.

3. Ore reserves plans: shows distribution and quantity of mineral reserves and resources. Used
for life of mine estimations, reconciliations planning and scheduling

4. Exploration plans: show exploration information e.g. exploration targets, geophysical data,
geochemical data, trenches, drill holes, mining leases and claims

5. Surface plans: show general surface infrastructure like offices, shafts, workshops, roads etc.

6. Geotechnical plans: show geotechnical data which has a bearing on rock mechanics and
ground control. Some mines would plot this together with geology plans, some have special
geotechnical plans especially where ground conditions are a cause for concern.

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Projection
Drawing, done to scale, that has been mirrored on certain plane to depict some chosen information.
The developments, ore-bodies and geology can be projected to certain levels to plan and guide
developments. In projecting the down-dip planar information, the dip and the pitch/rake of the
structure is taken into consideration. Examples are the longitudinal sections and the cross sections.

Longitudinal sections:
Projection along a datum line parallel to the general regional strike of the hosting structure or the ore
body.

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Cross section:
Projections normally at chosen intervals made across the strike. These can be true or apparent. True
sections are cut at right angles to strike while apparent are taken at any other angle.

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Applications/uses

Long-sections:
 Depicts the distribution of mineral reserves and resources for the mine
 Useful tool for planning and scheduling
 Can be used to show the mine ventilation system
 Can be used in ore reserves estimation in narrow reefs
 Can also be used together with cross sections for orebody and geology modelling

Cross-sections:
 Show the vertical extents of the reef and geological features as well as width variations along
strike if more sections are cut , hence useful for modelling
 Used to guide developments into ore, thus a grade control tool
 Useful for planning of stoping e.g. ring design
 Used to design down dip/up dip evaluation or exploration drilling (target generation)

1.4 MINERAL RESERVES AND MINERAL RESOURCES

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Ore resource is defined as naturally occurring solid, liquid or gas in or on the Earth’s crust which can
be useful or valuable. Ore reserve is that part of the measured or indicated resource which is
economically viable at present time under conditions realistically assumed at that time.

The classification of both the reserves and resources is determined by level of confidence in the data
at hand, knowledge and geological data. When looking at reserves the modifying factors are
considered in the classification process. The modifying factors include; commodity price, state laws,
market conditions, cost, social, environmental, metallurgical, geographical, political, etc. Conditions
change in any of the modifying factors may lead to down grading or upgrading of the reserve to
resource or vice versa, or change in material content of resource/reserve (e.g. change in commodity
price or pay limit)

Ore deposit is the concentration of minerals at a given location and recoverable at a profit after
considering various factors as listed above.

Resource classification
 Inferred: no drilling or development has been done. A geological model is used to infer/
predict the existence of an orebody. For models with vertical continuity, an inferred block can
be said to exist below a drill indicated block
 Indicated: drill holes or sampling points are widely spaced, but indicate existence of
mineralization. Continuity of the mineralization between the sampling points is not
ascertained
 Measured: sufficient sampling and geological data has been acquired and the 3D exposure of
the resource has been done by developments and ore limits are defined with confidence. High
level of geological knowledge, but modifying factors are not yet considered.

Reserve classification
 Proven: being mined or ready for mining at profit.3D exposure by developments has been
done. Modifying factors have been considered and no material change is expected on this
block. Highest confidence level.
 Probable: high confidence level, but lower than proved. May be due to insufficient drilling as
per reporting standard or lagging development.

Reserves/Resource estimation
It is a calculation meant to quantify the mineral reserve/resource as accurate as possible. It is from
the reserve and resource base estimation from which the life of mine is determined. The
reconciliations and short to long term production plans are derived from reserve estimations.
The ore reserve document is bankable, meaning it can be used as collateral for seeking debentures,
loans and luring shareholders, hence the importance is attached to quality control and quality
analyses in acquiring data, storage and geologist’s competence in reporting the ore reserves.
Reporting standards have been set by various professional institutions to this effect, in order to align
reporting of reserves with financial and investment ethics, e.g. SAMREC, JORC Code, etc.

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1.5 GRADE CONTROL

It is the management of mineral reserves and resources to enable sustainability and viability of the
mining operation. It involves quality control measures for the ore and waste blasting and movement,
and development and stopes monitoring. Grade control starts from planning and scheduling and
taken all the way from directing development and stoping to the plant head grade.

Dilution is ‘the number one enemy’ hence is avoided as much as possible

Ways of Grade Control

1. Grab sampling at tramming levels, hoist and conveyor belts and stock piles
2. Management of stock piles (blending and the consumption/depletion rate)
3. Planting of washers in waste material to track waste going into the plant.
4. Monitor the developments and guide into ore
5. Monitor slypings on stopes and benches.
4. Monitoring drilling i.e. whole lengths and inclinations to avoid over breaks, insufficient
breaking and dilution.
7. Consider rock mechanics and geological structures in planning e.g. effects of faults to grade
and safety.
8. Draw point control
9. Sorting (normally small scale operations or where ore and waste are distinct).
10. Level controls for open pit

1.6 CORE LOGGING

Once the core has been obtained, the geologist will analyze the core paying attention to the
intersected structures, lithology, alteration, mineralisation, bedding, etc., and record all this. The
promising mineralized areas are sampled and sent to the assay laboratory for determination of the
intersected mineral grade.
The sampled core run can be split or not depending on the importance. If core is split, the remaining
core is used for reconciliation or auditing purposes.

Geotechnical logging
Here the geologist concentrates on geological structures like joints, faults, oxidation levels,
weathering intensity and rock types. The sole purpose of geotechnical logging is to determine the
rock stability/mechanics of the drilled area. This comes in handy for mine design, mining method
determination, support recommendation, civil engineering and construction and, etc.
Rock mass rating is done from geotechnical logging data:

Rock quality designation, RQD, = Core pieces ≤10cm x 100%

Measured core run

Core recovery = actual core measured x 100%

Drilled depth

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CORE HANDLING AND STORAGE

Core is transported in secured core boxes to avoid spillages and mix ups either from underground or
from the field. Core must be kept clean, no grease or oils, as this will cover some useful information
leading to poor geological core logging, hence defeating the purpose of drilling.
Core is arranged in a core box normally from left to right ‘reading a book fashion’. The blocks
indicating hole depth and the respective recovered core are put. The boxes are numbered and
arranged in order of the hole depth. After logging, the boxes are then catalogued and stacked in the
core shed.

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