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Why measurements, instrumentation and process control?

Millat Equipment Ltd.

(Raiwind road Lhr)
❑ Reduce variability
❑ Increase efficiency
❑ Ensure safety
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Approved Course Contents:

❑Feedback Process Control

❑Process characteristics and controllability
❑Process pressure measurement instruments
(Understanding the effects of gravity, Pressure gauges, level and density
measurements, flow measurements, Actuators and Valves)
❑Temperature and humidity measurements
❑Calibration
(Calibrations in terms of concentration, electrochemical measurements
pneumatic control mechanism, electronic control systems,
❑Logical and numerical controls
(Programmable logic controls (PLC’s).

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Suggested Books

❑ Curtis Johnson Process Control Instrumentation Technology 8th Edition

Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2006.

❑ Norman A Anderson, Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control, 3rd Edition
CRC press 1997.

❑ William C. Dunn , Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation and Process Control

McGraw-Hill, 2005.

❑ Alan S. Morris, Measurement and Instrumentation Principles, Butterworth-Heinemann,

2001

❑ Reza Langari Alan S. Morris, Measurement and Instrumentation Theory and

Application, 2012 Elsevier Inc.

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Course Contents
Class Assessments

❑Assignments/Project 10%
❑Quizzes 10%
❑Mid 30%
❑End Semester Exam 50%

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 Cognitive
CLOs CLO Statement
Level
CLO-1 C2 Identify and explain the elements of a process
control.
CLO-2 C2 Explain the working principles of various
measurement techniques such as thermal,
mechanical, electrochemical, etc.
CLO-3 C6 Design a process-control system to solve a real-
life problem.

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Introduction to Process
Control
Process-Control Principles

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 Process - the conversion of feed materials to products
using chemical and physical operations

Process control refers to the methods that are used to

Lecture 1

control process variables to desired values or reference

values (Setpoints) when manufacturing a product.

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Process-Control Principles: Basic
strategy

Under what values of Qin and Qout ‘h’ will increase or decrease? 9
Process-Control Principles

Example:
The tank in Figure 1 has a relationship between flow and level given by
where h is in feet. Suppose the input flow rate is 2 gal/min.
At what value of h will the level stabilize from self-regulation?

Also consider in put flow rates or 1 and 3 gal/min

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Process-Control Principles

Self-regulation:
for some input flowrate,
the liquid height will rise until it reaches
a height for which the output flow rate
matches the input flow rate.

A self-regulating system does not provide regulation of a

variable to any particular reference value.

‘h’ will adopt a value for which in and out flow rates are same

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Process-Control Principles

If you must control the water level to a reference value (or

setpoint) H, how would you do that?

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Process-Control Principles

Human-Aided Control

Sight-tube: sensor

Human

Valve 13
Process-Control Principles

Automatic Control

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Process-Control Principles

Types of Process Control

1) Natural Process control
living organisms to maintain temperature, fluid flow rate, and
a host of other biological functions.

2)Artificial Process control

human as an integral part of the control action.

3) Automatic Control
human function replaced by machines, electronics, and computers

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 Control Terminology
controlled variables - these are the variables which
quantify the performance or quality of the final
product, which are also called output variables.
Lecture 1

manipulated variables - these input variables are

adjusted dynamically to keep the controlled variables
at their set-points.
disturbance variables - these are also called "load"
variables and represent input variables that can
cause the controlled variables to deviate from their
respective set points.

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 Control Terminology
Identify controlled, manipulated, and disturbance or
load variables?
Lecture 1

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Process-Control Principles

other types of Control systems

Servomechanisms

Discrete-State Control Systems

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Process-Control Principles

Servomechanisms

• Variable is not controlled to a fixed value

Or setpoint

• forces some parameter to vary in a specific manner.

Maybe called as tracking control system

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Process-Control Principles

Discrete-State Control Systems

concerned with controlling a sequence of events rather than
regulation or variation of individual variables

The starting and stopping of events is a discrete-based system

because the event is either true or false, (i.e., started or stopped,
open or closed, on or off).

Control system can also be made automatic

These discrete-state control systems are often implemented using

specialized computer based equipment called programmable
logic controllers (PLCs)
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 PROCESS-CONTROL BLOCK DIAGRAM

Identification of Elements ?

Process or plant
Controlled or measured variable
Manipulated variable
Distance variable
Sensors
Transducers
Converters
Actuators
Controllers
An error signal
A correction signal
Transmitters
The Loop (feedback or feedforward) 21
PROCESS-CONTROL BLOCK DIAGRAM

Identification of Elements
Identify the elements of the following control system?

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PROCESS-CONTROL BLOCK DIAGRAM

Block Diagram

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 Feedback Control:
Distinguishing feature: measure the controlled variable

Advantages:
➢ Corrective action is taken regardless of the source of
Lecture 3

the disturbance.
➢ Reduces sensitivity of the controlled variable to
disturbances and changes in the process.
Disadvantages:
➢ No corrective action occurs until after the disturbance
has upset the process, that is, until after c differs from
r.
➢ Very oscillatory responses, or even instability…
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 Feedforward Control:

Distinguishing feature: measure a disturbance

variable
Advantage:
Lecture 3

➢ Correct for disturbance before it upsets the process.

Disadvantage:
➢ Must be able to measure the disturbance.
➢ No corrective action for unmeasured disturbances.

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CONTROL SYSTEM EVALUATION

If error is zero, what would be the function of a

control system?

the objective of a control system is to make the error

in exactly zero (above equation)

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CONTROL SYSTEM EVALUATION

There will always be an error

The question of evaluation becomes one of how large

the error is and how it varies in time.

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CONTROL SYSTEM EVALUATION

Three requirements to achieve process

control objective

1. The system should be stable.

And the system should provide
2. the best possible steady-state
regulation
3. the best possible transient regulation.
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CONTROL SYSTEM EVALUATION

Stability
No control system➔ the controlled variable
value fluctuates randomly and is not regulated
Control system ➔ the controlled variable value
is forced to adopt the setpoint value

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CONTROL SYSTEM EVALUATION

Steady-State Regulation

the steady-state error should be a minimum

Transient Regulation

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CONTROL SYSTEM EVALUATION

Evaluation Criteria
Many criteria for gauging the response

Tuning is used to indicate how a

process-control loop is adjusted to
provide the best control.

Damped Response
Cyclic Response

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CONTROL SYSTEM EVALUATION

Damped Response

tD is time taken by controlled variable tD is time from the start of the

to go from 10% of the change to 90% disturbance until the controlled
of the change variable is again within 4% of the
reference.

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different values of tD and emax for the same excitation
CONTROL SYSTEM EVALUATION

Cyclic Response
Tow parameters
1) maximum error, emax
2) tD also called the settling time

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CONTROL SYSTEM EVALUATION

Cyclic Response: two criteria

for judging the quality of a control system

1) The minimum area criterion

2) The quarter-amplitude criterion

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CONTROL SYSTEM EVALUATION

Cyclic Response: two criteria

The minimum area criterion

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CONTROL SYSTEM EVALUATION

Cyclic Response: two criteria

The quarter-amplitude criterion

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Data Representation
Data Conversions

Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs)

The Analogue-to-Digital Converter, (ADCs) allow micro-processor
controlled circuits, Arduinos, Raspberry Pi, and other such digital logic
circuits to communicate with the real world.

In the real world, analogue signals have

continuously changing values which come from various
sources and sensors
which can measure sound, light, temperature or movement,
and many digital systems interact with their environment by measuring
the analogue signals from such transducers.
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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Data Representation
Data Conversions
Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs)

Difference b/w Analog and digital signals?

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Data Representation
Data Conversions
Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs)
Difference b/w Analog and digital signals?

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Data Representation

Analog Data
‘c’ is some variable
‘b’ analog representation of ‘c’

Digital Data
‘c’ is some variable
‘n’ digital representation of ‘c’

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Data Representation
Data Conversions

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Data Representation

Data Conversions
Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs)
Device that coverts analog voltages into a digital representation.

The number of binary digits, or bits used to represent this analogue voltage value
depends on the resolution of an A/D converter.

A 4-bit ADC will have a resolution of one part in 15

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Data Representation
Data Conversions

How many comparators are required for a 2-bit ADC?

4 to 2-bit converter

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Data Representation
Data Conversions

Priority Encoder such as the TTL 74LS148 allocates a

priority level to each individual input.

The priority encoders output corresponds to the

currently active input which has the highest priority.
Other inputs will be ignored

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Data Representation

Digital Data

A change of one volt produces a change of the

least significant bit (LSB).

the representation cannot distinguish between

4.25 V and 4.75 V because both would be
represented by 01002.

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Data Representation
Data Conversions

(D1 compared to D0)

Decimal
0
1
2
3

(D2 compared to others)

(D3 compared to others)
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 ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Data Representation
Data Conversions

Priority encoders are not available as 4-to-2 bit devices

we use a commercially available one such as the TTL 74LS148 or its CMOS
4532 equivalent which are both 8-bit devices, then six of the binary bits
would not be used.

2-bit ADC Using Diodes

Boolean expression

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Data Representation
Data Conversions For High Resolution

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control (Functioning of Relays)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

ON/OFF Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Analog Control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Supervisor control

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Direct Digital Control (DDC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Smart Sensor

integration of a microprocessor-based
controller computer directly into the
sensor assembly

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Networked Control Systems

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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Types of Control (Continuous)

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 Proportional control is a
Proportional (P) Control form of feedback control

P-control linearly correlates the controller output (actuating

signal) to the error (diference between measured signal and
set point).

the bias and

controller gain are
constants specific
to each controller

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 Proportional (P) Control

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tFVAaUcOm4I
Proportional (P) Control

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Proportional (P) Control

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Proportional (P) Control

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Proportional (P) Control

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 Proportional control is a
Proportional (P) Control form of feedback control

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 Proportional control is a
Integral (I) Control form of feedback control

I-control correlates the controller output to the integral of the error.

The integral of the error is taken with respect to time

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 Proportional control is a
Integral (I) Control form of feedback control

• It returns the controlled variable to Set-Point

• The system returns to both steady state and its original
setting
• A negative error will cause the signal to the system to
decrease, while a positive error will cause the signal to
increase
• I-only controllers are much slower in their response time
than P-only controllers because they are dependent on more
parameters.

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Proportional-Integral (PI) Control
PI control is a form of
feedback control
PI-control correlates the controller output to the error and the
integral of the error.

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Integral (I) Control

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Proportional-Integral (PI) Control

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 D-control is a form of
Derivative (D) Control feed forward control

• D-control correlates the controller output to the

derivative of the error.

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Derivative (D) Control

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Proportional-Integral-Derivative
(PID) Control

• PID-control correlates the controller output to the error, integral

of the error, and derivative of the error.

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 D-control is a form of
Derivative (D) Control feed forward control

• Although I-only controls exist, D-only controls do not exist.

• D-controls measure only the change in error.
• D-controls do not know where the setpoint is, so it is usually used
in conjunction with another method of control, such as P-only or a
PI combination control.
• D-control is usually used for processes with rapidly changing
process outputs.

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Proportional-Integral-Derivative
(PID) Control

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Proportional-Integral-Derivative
(PID) Control

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 PI control is a form of
feedback control

Proportional-Integral (PI) Control

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Proportional-Derivative (PD)
Control PD-control is combination of
feedforward and feedback
control
• PD-control correlates the controller output to the error and the
derivative of the error

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Proportional-Integral-Derivative
(PID) Control

• Proportional-integral-derivative control is a combination of all

three types of control methods.
• PID-control is most commonly used because it combines the
advantages of each type of control.
• This includes a quicker response time because of the P-only
control, along with the decreased/zero offset from the
combined derivative and integral controllers.

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL PROCESSING

Digital Control: Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

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STANDARDS

STANDARDS: Analog Data Representation

Two common Signals
primarily to transmit variable information over some distance,
such as to and from the control room and the plant

1) For electrical systems ➔a range of electric current

2) For pneumatic systems ➔ a range of gas pressure carried in pipes

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STANDARDS

STANDARDS: Analog Data Representation Range; 1000 meters

Two common Signals without error
Current Signal

The most common current transmission signal is 4 to 20 mA

For temperature range 20 °C to 120 °C

4 mA = 20 °C 20mA = 120 °C

Can you determine the current for a particular temperature and vice versa, if I is
proportional to T?

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STANDARDS

STANDARDS: Analog Data Representation

Two common Signals
Current Signal

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STANDARDS

STANDARDS: Analog Data Representation

Two common Signals
Current Signal

Why current signal instead of voltage one for transmission of variable

information for electrical systems?

And why is 4-20mA not 0-20mA range used?

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STANDARDS

STANDARDS: Analog Data Representation

Two common Signals
Current Signal

Why current signal instead of voltage one for transmission of variable

information for electrical systems?

And why is 4-20mA not 0-20mA range used?

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STANDARDS

STANDARDS: Analog Data Representation

Two common Signals
Pneumatic Signals

The most common standard for pneumatic signal transmission is 3 to 15 psi or 20 to

100 kPa.

sensor measures some variable in a range, it is converted into a proportional

pressure of gas in a pipe. The gas is usually dry air.

The pipe may be many hundreds of meters long, but as long as there is no leak in
the system, the pressure will be propagated down the pipe.

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Characteristics of an instrument :

1) Static
➢accuracy 2) Dynamic
➢range • Zero order
➢span • First order
➢Precision • Second order
➢Reproducibility
➢Sensitivity
➢Hysteresis
➢Resolution
➢Repeatability
➢Linearity

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Accuracy and inaccuracy (measurement
uncertainty)
What is reading of temperature ??
Is it 21.5 C or 22 C
For room temperature measurement
It does not matter if it is 21.5 C or 22 C
+/-0.5 does not matter

But for the chemical reaction in a reactor

This +/-0.5 C change is much significant

The accuracy of an instrument or device is the difference

between the indicated value and the actual value.
Accuracy and inaccuracy (measurement
uncertainty)

Measured variable;
Percentage of the instrument full-scale (FS) reading;
Percentage of instrument span;
Percentage of the actual reading;
 Accuracy and inaccuracy (measurement
uncertainty)

A temperature sensor has a span of 20-250 °C.

A measurement results in a value of 55°C for
the temperature.
Specify the error if the accuracy is
(a)± 0.50% FS,
(b) ± 0.75% of span, and
(c) ± 0.80% of reading.
What is the possible temperature in each case?
 Precision/ repeatability/ reproducibility

Precision
Precision is a term that describes an instrument’s degree
of freedom from random errors.
If a large number of readings are taken of the same
quantity by a high precision instrument, then the spread
of readings will be very small.
 Precision/ repeatability/ reproducibility
Repeatability and Reproducibility

Repeatability if (over Short time) Reproducibility if

Same measurement conditions Different measurement conditions
Same instrument Different instrument
Same location Different location
Same maintained conditions Different maintained conditions
Threshold
Linearity
Sensitivity of measurement

Sensitivity=
Resolution
Resolution

A sensor has a transfer function of 5mV/°C . Find

the required voltage resolution of the
signal conditioning if a temperature resolution of
0.2°C is required?
Dynamic characteristics of an instrument
Zero order and First order instrument
Zero order and First order instrument
First order System

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Second order instrument