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 Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
6.061 Introduction to Power Systems
Class Notes
Chapter 1: Review of Network Theory∗
J.L. Kirtley Jr.

1 Introduction
This note is a review of some of the most salient points of electric network theory. In it we do not
prove any of the assertions that are made. We deal only with passive, linear network elements.

2 Network Primitives
Electric network theory deals with two primitive quantities, which we will refer to as:
1. Potential (or voltage), and
2. Current.
Current is the actual flow of charged carriers, while difference in potential is the force that
causes that flow. As we will see, potential is a single- valued function that may be uniquely defined
over the nodes of a network. Current, on the other hand, flows through the branches of the network.
Figure 1 shows the basic notion of a branch, in which a voltage is defined across the branch and a
current is defined to flow through the branch. A network is a collection of such elements, connected
together by wires.

i + v −

Figure 1: Basic Circuit Element

Network topology is the interconnection of its elements. That, plus the constraints on voltage
and current imposed by the elements themselves, determines the performance of the network,
described by the distribution of voltages and currents throughout the network.
Two important concepts must be described initially. These are of “loop” and “node”.
∗
c
�2007 James L. Kirtley Jr.

1
 1. A loop in the network is any closed path through two or more elements of the network. Any
non-trivial network will have at least one such loop.

+ v −
i2 2
i3

+
v1 v3
+

−
i1

Figure 2: This is a loop

2. a node is a point at which two or more elements are interconnected.

+ v1 − − v2 +
i1 i2
−

v3
+

i3

Figure 3: This is a node

The two fundamental laws of network theory are known as Kirchoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL), and
Kirchoff ’s Current Law (KCL). These laws describe the topology of the network, and arise directly
from the fundmantal laws of electromagnetics. They are simply stated as:
• Kirchoff’s Voltage Law states that, around any loop of a network, the sum of all voltages,
taken in the same direction, is zero: �
vk = 0 (1)
loop

• Kirchoff’s Current Law states that, at any node of a network, the sum of all currents entering
the node is zero: �
ik = 0 (2)
node

1Note that KVL is a discrete version of Faraday’s Law, valid to the extent that no time-varying
flux links the loop. KCL is just conservation of current, allowing for no accumulation of charge at
the node.

2
 Network elements affect voltages and currents in one of three ways:

1. Voltage sources constrain the potential difference across their terminals to be of some fixed
value (the value of the source).

2. Current sources constrain the current through the branch to be of some fixed value.

3. All other elements impose some sort of relationship, either linear or nonlinear, between voltage
across and current through the branch.

+
v i
−

Voltage Current
Source Source

Figure 4: Notation for voltage and current sources

Voltage and current sources can be either independent or dependent. Independent sources have
values which are, as the name implies, independent of other variables in a circuit. Dependent
sources have values which depend on some other variable in a circuit. A common example of a
dependent source is the equivalent current source used for modeling the collector junction in a
transistor. Typically, this is modeled as a current dependent current source, in which collector
current is taken to be directly dependent on emitter current. Such dependent sources must be
handled with some care, for certain tricks we will be discussing below do not work with them.
For the present time, we will consider, in addition to voltage and current sources, only impedance
elements, which impose a linear relationship between voltage and current. The most common of
these is the resistance, which imposes the relationship which is often referred to as Ohm’s law:

vr = Rir (3)

ir
+
R vr
−

Figure 5: Resistance Circuit Element

A bit later on in this note, we will extend this notion of impedance to other elements, but for
the moment the resistance will serve our purposes.

3
3 Examples: Voltage and Current Dividers
Figure 6 may be used as an example to show how we use all of this. See that it has one loop and
three nodes. Around the loop, KVL is:

Vs − v1 − v2 = 0

At the upper right- hand node, we have, by KCL:

i1 − i2 = 0

The constitutive relations imposed by the resistances are:

v1 = R1 i1

v2 = R2 i2
Combining these, we find that:
Vs = (R1 + R2 )i1
We may solve for the voltage across, say, R2 , to obtain the so-called voltage divider relationship:
R2
v2 = Vs (4)
R1 + R2

i1
v1
+

+ +
v R1 R2 v2
s −
− i2

Figure 6: Voltage Divider

A second example is illustrated by Figure 7. Here, KCL at the top node yields:

Is − i1 − i2 = 0

And KVL, written around the loop that has the two resistances, is:

R1 i1 − R2 i2 = 0

Combining these together, we have the current divider relationship:

R1
i2 = Is (5)
R1 + R2
Once we have derived the voltage and current divider relationships, we can use them as part of
our “intellectual toolkit”, because they will always be true.

4
 i1 i2
+ +
I R1 v1 R2 v2
s − −

Figure 7: Current Divider

4 Node Voltages and Reference

One of the consequences of KVL is that every node in a network will have a potential which is
uniquely specified with respect to some other node. Thus, if we take one of the nodes in the network
to be a reference, or datum, each of the other nodes will have a unique potential. The voltage across
any network branch is then the difference between the potentials at the nodes to which the element
is connected. The potential of a node is the sum of voltages encountered when traversing some
path between that node and the datum node. Note that any path will do. If KVL is satisfied, all
paths between each pair of nodes will yield the same potential.
A commonly used electric circuit is the Wheatstone Bridge, shown in its simplest form in
Figure 8. The output voltage is found simply from the input voltage as just the difference between
two voltage dividers:
R2 R4
� �
vo = vs −
R1 + R2 R3 + R4
This circuit is used in situations in which one or more resistors varies with, say temperature or
mechanical strain. The bridge can be balanced so that the output voltage is zero by adjusting one
of the other resistors. Then relatively small variations in the sensing element can result in relatively
big differences in the output voltage. If, for example R2 is the sensing element, R4 can be adjusted
to balance the bridge.

5 Serial and Parallel Combinations

There are a number of techniques for handling network problems, and we will not be able to
investigate each of them in depth. We will, however, look into a few techniques for analysis which
involve progressive simplification of the network. To start, we consider how one might handle series
and parallel combinations of elements. A pair of elements is in series if the same current flows
through both of them. If these elements are resistors and if the detail of voltage division between
them is not required, it is possible to lump the two together as a single resistance. This is illustrated
in Figure 9. The voltage across the current source is:
vs = v1 + v2 = is R1 + is R2 = is (R1 + R2 )
The equivalent resistance for the series combination is then:
Rseries = R1 + R2 (6)

5
 + +
R1 v1 R3 v3
+ − −

v vo
s

− + +
R2 v3 R4 v4
− −

Figure 8: Wheatstone Bridge

v1
+

+ +
is vs R1 R2 v2
−
− i2

Figure 9: Series Resistance Combination

Similarly, resistance elements connected in parallel can be lumped if it is not necessary to know
the details of division of current between them. Figure 10 shows this combination.
Here, current i is simply:
v v 1 1
� �
i= + =v +
R1 R2 R1 R2
The equivalent resistance for the parallel combination is then:
1 R1 R2
Rpar = 1 1 = (7)
R1 + R2
R1 + R2

Because of the importance of parallel connection of resistances (and of other impedances), a special
symbolic form is used for parallel construction. This is:
R1 R2
R1 ||R2 = (8)
R1 + R2
As an example, consider the circuit shown in Figure 11, part (a). Here, we have four, resistors
arranged in an odd way to form a two- terminal network. To find the equivalent resistance of this
thing, we can do a series of series-parallel combinations.
The two resistors on the right can be combined as a series combination to form a single, two
ohm resistor as shown in part (b). Then the equivalent resistor, which is in parallel with one of the

6
 I

+ i1 i2
+ +
v R1 v1 R2 v2

− − −

Figure 10: Parallel Resistance Combination

2 1 2 2

2 1 2 2 1 3

Parrallel Series
(a) Series (b) (c) Comb (d)
Comb Comb

Figure 11: Series-Parallel Reduction

two ohm resistors can be combined to form a single combination part(c). That is in series with the
remaining resistor, leaving us with an equivalent input resistance of R = 3Ω.

6 Loop and Node Equations

There are two well- developed formal ways of solving for the potentials and currents in networks,
often referred to as loop and node equation methods. They are closely related, using KCL and
KVL together with element constraints to build sets of equations which may then be solved for
potentials and currents.

• In the node equation method, KCL is written at each node of the network, with currents
expressed in terms of the node potentials. KVL is satisfied because the node potentials are
unique.

• In the loop equation method, KVL is written about a collection of closed paths in the network.
“Loop currents” are defined, and made to satisfy KCL, and the branch voltages are expressed
in terms of them.

The two methods are equivalent and a choice between them is usually a matter of personal prefer­
ence. The node equation method is probably more widely used, and lends itself well to computer
analysis.
To illustrate how these methods work, consider the network of Figure 12.
This network has three nodes. We are going to write KCL for each of the nodes, but note that
only two explicit equations are required. If KCL is satisfied at two of the nodes, it is automatically
satisfied at the third. Usually the datum node is the one for which we do not write the expression.

7
 i1 R2

+ +

V R1 I R v
3 2
−
−

Figure 12: Sample Network

KCL written for the two upper nodes of the network is:
V V − v2
−i1 + + = 0 (9)
R1 R2
v2 − V v2
−I + + = 0 (10)
R2 R3
These two expressions are easily solved for the two unknowns, i1 and v2 :
R3 R2 R3
v2 = V + I
R2 + R3 R2 + R3
R1 + R2 + R3 R3
i1 = V − I
R1 (R2 + R3 ) R2 + R3

i1 R2

+ +

V R1 I R v
3 2
− ia ib
−

Figure 13: Sample Network Showing Loops

The loop equation method is similar. We need the same number of independent expressions
(two), so we need to take two independent loops. For this, take as the loops as is shown in
Figure 13:
1. The loop that includes the voltage source and R1 .
2. The loop that includes R1 , R2 , and R3 .
It is also necessary to define loop currents, which we will denote as ia and ib . These are the currents
circulating around the two loops. Note that where the loops intersect, the actual branch current
will be the sum of or difference between loop currents. For this example, assume the loop currents
are defined to be circulating counter-clockwise in the two loops. The two loop equations are:
V + R1 (ia − ib ) = 0 (11)
R1 (ib − ia ) + R2 ib + R3 (ib − I) = 0 (12)
These are equally easily solved for the two unknowns, in this case the two loop currents ia and ib .

8
7 Linearity and Superposition
An extraordinarily powerful notion of network theory is linearity. This property has two essential
elements, stated as follows:
1. For any single input x yielding output y, the response to an input kx is ky for any value of k.
2. If, in a multi-input network the input x1 by itself yields output y1 and a second input x2 by
itself yields y2 , then the combination of inputs x1 and x2 yields the output y = y1 + y2 .
This is important to us at the present moment for two reasons:
1. It tells us that the solution to certain problems involving networks with multiple inputs is
actually easier than we might expect: if a network is linear, we may solve for the output with
each separate input, then add the outputs. This is called superposition.
2. It also tells us that, for networks that are linear, it is not necessary to actually consider the
value of the inputs in calculating response. What is important is a system function, or a ratio
of output to input.
Superposition is an important principle when dealing with linear networks, and can be used
to make analysis easier. If a network has multiple independent sources, it is possible to find the
response to each source separately, then add up all of the responses to find total response. Note
that this can only be done with independent sources!
Consider, for example, the example circuit shown in Figure 12. If we are only interested in the
output voltage v2 , we may find the response to the voltage source first, then the response to the
current source, then the total response is the sum of the two. To find the response to the voltage
source, we must “turn off” the current source. This is done by assuming that it is not there. (After
all, a current source with zero current is just an open circuit!). The resulting network is as in
Figure 14.
R2

+ +

V R v
3 2v
−
−

Figure 14: Superposition Fragment: Voltage Source

Note that the resistance R1 does not appear here. This is because a resistance in parallel with
a voltage source is just a voltage source, unless one is interested in current in the resistance. The
output voltage is just:
R3
v2v = V
R2 + R3
Next, we “turn off” the voltage source and “turn on” the current source. Note that a voltage source
that has been turned off is a short circuit, because that implies zero voltage. The network is as
shown in Figure 15

9
 R2

I R v
3 2i

Figure 15: Superposition Fragment: Current Source

The response to this is:

v2i = IR2 ||R3
The total response is then just:
R3 R2 R3
v2 = v2v + v2i = V +I
R2 + R3 R2 + R3

8 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits

A particularly important ramification of the property of linearity is expressed in the notion of
equivalent circuits. To wit: if we are considering the response of a network at any given terminal
pair, that is a pair of nodes that have been brought out to the outside world, it follows from the
properties of linearity that, if the network is linear, the output at a single terminal pair (either
voltage or current) is the sum of two components:
1. The response that would exist if the excitation at the terminal pair were zero and

2. The response forced at the terminal pair by the exciting voltage or current.
This notion may be expressed with either voltage or current as the response. These yield the
Thevenin and Norton equivalent networks, which are exactly equivalent. At any terminal pair, the
properties of a linear network may be expressed in terms of either Thevenin or Norton equivalents.
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 16, while the Norton equivalent circuit is shown
in Figure 17.

+ R th +

v V th

− −

Figure 16: Thevenin Equivalent Network

10
 i

+
v R In
eq
−

Figure 17: Norton Equivalent Network

The Thevenin and Norton equivalent networks have the same impedance. Further, the equiva­
lent sources are related by the simple relationship:

VT h = Req IN (13)

The Thevenin Equivalent Voltage, the source internal to the Thevenin equivalent network, is
the same as the open circuit voltage, which is the voltage that would appear at the terminals of
the equivalent circuit were it to be open circuited. Similarly, the Norton Equivalent Current is the
same as minus the short circuit current.
To consider how we might use these equivalent networks, consider what would happen if the
Wheatstone bridge were connected by some resistance across its output, as shown in Figure 18

+ +
R1 v1 R3 v3
+ − −
vo −
+

v
s
R5
− + +
R2 v3 R4 v4
− −

Figure 18: Wheatstone Bridge With Output Resistance

The analysis of this situation is simplified substantially if one recognizes that each side of the
bridge can be expressed as either a Thevenin or Norton equivalent network. We may proceed to
solve the problem by finding the equivalent networks for each side, then paste them together to
form the whole solution. So: consider the equivalent network for the left-hand side of the network,
formed by the elements V , R1 and R2 . This is shown in Figure 19.

11
 + R1
RTh l
V
+
−
R2 V Th l
−

Figure 19: Construction of Equivalent Circuit

Where, here, the components of the equivalent circuit are:

R2
vT hl = V
R1 + R2
Reql = R1 ||R2

Similarly, the right side of the network is found to have an equivalent source and resistance:
R4
vT hr = V
R3 + R4
Reqr = R3 ||R4

And the whole thing behaves as the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 20
RTh l R5 R Th r

+ +
V Th l V Th r

− −

Figure 20: Equivalent Circuit

This is, of course, easily solved for the current through, and hence the voltage across, the
resistance R5 , which was desired in the first place:
R5 R2 R5
� �
v5 = (vT hl − vT hr ) =V − f racR4 R3 + R4
R5 + reql + reqr R1 + R2 R5 + R1 ||R2 + R3 ||R4

9 Two Port Networks

So far, we have dealt with a number of networks which may be said to be one port or single-terminal­
pair circuits. That is, the important action occurs at a single terminal pair, and is characterized
by an impedance and by either a open circuit voltage or a short circuit current, thus forming either
a Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit. A second, and for us very important, class of electrical
network has two (or sometimes more) terminal pairs. We will consider formally here the two port
network, illustrated schematically in Figure 21.
There are a number of ways of characterizing this type of network. For the time being, consider
that it is passive, so that there is no output without some input and there are no dependent sources.

12
 i1 i2

+ +
v1 v2
− −

Figure 21: Two-Port Network

Then we may characterize the network in terms of the currents at its terminals in terms of the
voltages, or, conversely, we may describe the voltages in terms of the currents at the terminals.
These two ways of describing the network are said to be the admittance or impedance parameters.
These may be written in the following way:
The impedance parameter point of view would yield, for a resistive network, the following
relationship between voltages and currents:
� � � �� �
v1 R11 R12 i1
= (14)
v2 R21 R22 i2

Similarly, the admittance parameter point of view would yield a similar relationship:
� � � �� �
i1 G11 G12 v1
= (15)
i2 G21 G22 v2

These two relationships are, of course, the inverses of each other. That is:
� � � �−1
G11 G12 R11 R12
= (16)
G21 G22 R21 R22

If the networks are linear and passive (i.e. there are no dependent sources inside), they also
exhibit the property of reciprocity. In a reciprocal network, the transfer impedance or transfer
admittance is the same in both directions. That is:
R12 = R21
G12 = G21 (17)
It is often useful to express two- port networks in terms of T or Π networks, shown in Figures 22
and 23.
Sometimes it is useful to cascade two-port networks, as is shown in Figure 24. The resulting
combination is itself a two-port. Suppose we have a pair of networks characterized by impedance
parameters: � � � �� �
v1 R11 R12 i1
=
v2 R12 R22 i2

13
 R11− R12 R22− R12

R12

Figure 22: T- Equivalent Network

G12
G11 − G12 G22 − G12

Figure 23: Π-Equivalent Network

� � � �� �
v3 R33 R34 i3
=
v4 R34 R44 i4
By noting that v2 = v3 and i3 = −i2 , it is possible to show, with a little manipulation, that:
� � � �� �
v1 �
R11 R14 i1
= �
v4 R14 R44 i4

where
2
R12
�
R11 = R11 −
R22 + R33
2
R34
�
R44 = R44 −
R22 + R33
R12 R34
R14 =
R22 + R33

10 Inductive and Capacitive Circuit Elements

So far, we have dealt with circuit elements which have no memory and which, therefore, are
characterized by instantaneous behavior. The expressions which are used to calculate what these
elements are doing are algebraic (and for most elements are linear too). As it turns out, much of
the circuitry we will be studying can be so characterized, with complex parameters.
However, we take a quick diversion to discuss briefly the transient behavior of circuits containing
capacitors and inductors.

14
 i1 i2 i3 i4

+ + + +
v1 1 v2 v3 2 v4
− − − −

Figure 24: Cascade of Two-Port Networks

ic vc il v
l

C L

Figure 25: Capacitance and Inductance

Symbols for capacitive and inductive circuit elements are shown in Figure 25. They are char­
acterized by the relationships between voltage and current:
dvc di�
ic = C v� = L (18)
dt dt
Note that, while these elements are linear, since time derivatives are involved in their char­
acterization, expressions describing their behavior in networks will become ordinary differential
equations.

10.1 Simple Case: R-C

ic + ir

C v R

−
Figure 26: Simple Case: R-C

Figure 26 shows a simple connection of a resistance and a capacitance. This circuit has only
two nodes, so there is a single voltage v across both elements. The two elements produce the
constraints:
v
ir =
R
dv
ic =
dt

15
and, since ir = −ic ,
dv 1
+ v=0
dt RC
Now, we know that this sort of first-order, linear equation is solved by:
t
v ∼ e− RC

(To confirm this, just substitute the exponential into the differential equation.) Then, if we have
some initial condition, say v(t = 0) = V0 , then
t
v = V0 e− RC

This was a trivial case, since we don’t describe how that initial condition might have taken
place. But consider a closely related problem, illustrated in Figure 27.

10.2 Simple Case with Drive

R
+ +
v C vc
s
− −
Figure 27: RC Circuit with Drive

The analysis of this circuit is accomplished by noting that it contains a single loop, and adding
up the voltages around the loop we find:
dvc
RC + vc = vs
dt
Now, assume that the voltage source is a step:

vs = Vs u−1 (t)

We should define the step function with some care, since it is of quite a lot of use. The step is
one of a hierarchy of singularity functions. It is defined as:
�
0 t<0
u−1 (t) = (19)
1 t>0

Now, remembering that differential equations have particular and homogeneous solutions, and
that for t > 0 a particular solution which solves the differential equation is:

vcp = V

16
Of course this does not satisfy the initial condition which is that the capacitance be uncharged:
vc (t = 0+) = 0. Again, remember that the whole solution is the sum of the particular and a
homogeneous solution, and that the homogeneous solution is the un-driven case. To satisfy the
initial condition, the homogeneous solution must be:
t
cch = −V e− RC
So that the total solution is simply:
t
� �
vc = V 1 − e− RC
Next, suppose vs = u−1 (t)V cos ωt. We know the homogeneous solution must be of the same
form, but the particular solution is a bit more complicated. In later chapters we will learn how to
make the process of extracting the particular solution easier, but for the time being, let’s assume
that with a sinusoidal drive we will get a sinusoidal response of the same frequency. Thus we will
guess
vcp = Vcp cos (ωt − φ)
The time derivative is
dvcp
= ωVcp sin (ωt − φ)
dt
so that we can find an algebraic equation for the particular solution:
V cos ωt = Vcp (cos (ωt − φ) + ωRC sin (ωt − φ))
Note the trigonometric identities:
cos (ωt − φ) = cos φ cos ωt + sin φ sin ωt
sin (ωt − φ) = − sin φ cos ωt + cos φ sin ωt
Since the sine and cosine terms are orthogonal, we can equate coefficients of sine and cosine to
get:
V = Vcp [cos φ + ωRC sin φ]
0 = Vcp [sin φ + ωRC cos φ]
The second of these can be solved for the phase angle:
φ = tan−1 ωRC
and squaring both equations and adding:
� �
V 2 = Vcp
2
1 + (ωRC)2
so that the particular solution is:
V
vcp = � cos (ωt − φ)
2
1 + (ωRC)
Finally, if the capacitor is initially uncharged (vc (t = 0+) = 0), we can add in the homogeneous
solution (we already know the form of this), and find the total solution to be:
V � t
�
vc p = � cos (ωt − φ) − cos φe− RC
1 + (ωRC)2
This is shown in Figure 28

17
 R=1, C=1, OM = 10
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
Vcp

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1

−1.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
t

Figure 28: Output Voltage for RC Example

10.3 Second-Order System Example

R1 R2

+
+
v L i1 L vo
s
i
− 2 −

Figure 29: Two-Inductor Circuit

Figure 29 shows a network with two inductances and two resistances. Assume that this is
driven by a voltage step: vs = Vs u−1 (t). Note that, with two inductances, we will require two
initial conditions to complete the solution.
The steady state (particular) solution is vo = 0. There will, of course, be current flowing in
each of the inductances, but if excitation is constant there will be no time derivative of current so
that voltage across each of the inductances will eventually fall to zero.
The initial conditions may be found by inspection. Right after t = 0 (note we use t = 0+ for
this), output voltage must be:
vo (t = 0+) = Vs
This must be so since current cannot be made to flow instantaneously in either inductance, so that
there is no current in either resistance.

18
 The second initial condition is the rate of change of voltage right after the instant of the voltage
step. To find this, note that output voltage is equal to the source voltage minus the voltage drops
across each of the two resistances.

vo = vs − R2 i2 − R1 (i1 + i2 )

If we differentiate this with respect to time and note that the time derivative of a constant (after
the step the input voltage is constant) is zero:

dvo di2 di1

(t = 0+) = −(R1 + R2 ) − R1
dt dt dt
Now, since right after the instant of the step both inductances have the source voltage Vs across
them:
di1 di2 Vs
|t=0+ = |t=0+ =
dt dt L
the rate of change of voltage at t = 0+ is:
dvo 2R1 + R2
|t=0+ = − Vs
dt L
Now, we can find the homogeneous solution using the loop method. Setting the source to zero,
assume a current ia in the left-hand loop and ib in the right-hand loop. KVL around these two
loops yields:
d
R1 ia + L (ia − ib ) = 0
dt
dib dia
R2 ib + 2L −L = 0
dt dt
With a little manipulation, these become:
dia
L + 2R1 ia + R2 ib = 0
dt
dib
L + R1 i a + R2 i b = 0
dt
Assume that solutions are of the form Iest , and this set of simultaneous equations becomes:
� �� � � �
(sL + 2R1 ) R2 Ia 0
=
R1 (sL + R2 ) Ib 0

We need to solve this for s (to find values of s for which this set is true, and that is simply the
solution of the “characteristic equation”

(sL + 2R1 ) (sL + R2 ) − R1 R2 = 0

which is the same as:

2R1 + R2 R1 R2
s2 + s+ =0
L L L

19
 Now, for the sake of “nice numbers”, assume that R1 = 2R, R2 = 3R. The characteristic
equation is:
� �2
R R
s2 + 7 s + 6 =0
L L
which factors nicely into (s + R R R R
L )(s + 6 L ) = 0, or the two values of s are s = − L and s = −6 L .
Since the particular solution to this one is zero, we have a total solution which is:
R R
vo = Ae− L t + Be−6 L t

The initial conditions are:

vo |t=0+ = A + B = Vs
dvo R R
|t=0+ = − (A + 6B) = −7 Vs
dt L L
The solution to that pair of expressions is:
Vs 6Vs
A=− B=
5 5
and this is shown in Figure 30.
Two Inductor Example
1.2

0.8

0.6
Vo

0.4

0.2

−0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
t

Figure 30: Output Voltage for Two Inductor Example

20
MIT OpenCourseWare
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6.061 / 6.690 Introduction to Electric Power Systems

Spring 2011

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 Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
6.061 Introduction to Power Systems
Class Notes Chapter 2
AC Power Flow in Linear Networks ∗
J.L. Kirtley Jr.

1 Introduction
Electric power systems usually involve sinusoidally varying (or nearly so) voltages and currents.
That is, voltage and current are functions of time that are nearly pure sine waves at fixed frequency.
In North America, most ships at sea and eastern Japan that frequency is 60 Hz. In most of the
rest of the world it is 50 Hz. Normal power system operation is at this fixed frequency, which is
why we study how systems operate in this mode. We will deal with transients later.
This note deals with alternating voltages and currents and with associated energy flows. The
focus is on sinusoidal steady state conditions, in which virtually all quantities of interest may be
represented by single, complex numbers.
Accordingly, this section opens with a review of complex numbers and with representation of
voltage and current as complex amplitudes with complex exponential time dependence. The dis­
cussion proceeds, through impedance, to describe a pictorial representation of complex amplitudes,
called phasors. Power is then defined and, in sinusoidal steady state, reduced to complex form.
Finally, flow of power through impedances and a conservation law are discussed.
Secondarily, this section of the notes deals with transmission lines that have interesting behavior,
both in the time and frequency domails.

2 Complex Exponential Notation

Start by recognizing a geometric interpretation for a complex number. If we plot the real part on
the horizontal (x) axis√and the imaginary part on the vertical (y) axis, then the complex number
z = x + jy (where j = −1) represents a vector as shown in Figure 1. Note that this vector may be
represented not only by its real and imaginary components, but also by a magnitude and a phase
∗
�2007
c James L. Kirtley Jr.

1
 Im(·)
y z = x + jy
��
�
�
� �
�
�
� φ
�
�
�
� �
x Re(·)

Figure 1: Representation of the complex number z = x + jy

Im(·)
sin φ
��
�
�
� �
� Magnitude = 1
�
� φ
�
�
�
� �
cos φ Re(·)

Figure 2: Representation of ejφ

angle:
�
|z| = x2 + y 2 (1)
y
φ = arctan( ) (2)
x

The basis for complex exponential notation is the celebrated Euler Relation:

ejφ = cos(φ) + j sin(φ) (3)

which has a representation as shown in Figure 2.

Now, a comparison of Figures 1 and 2 makes it clear that, with definitions (1) and (2),

z = x + jy = |z|ejφ (4)

It is straightforward, using (3) to show that:

ejφ + e−jφ
cos(φ) = (5)
2
jφ
e − e−jφ
sin(φ) = (6)
2j
(7)

2
 Im(·)
z
��
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
� Re(·)
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�� ∗
z
Figure 3: Representation Of A Complex Number And Its Conjugate

The complex exponential is a tremendously useful type of function. Note that the product of
two numbers expressed as exponenentials is the same as the exponential of the sums of the two
exponents:
ea eb = ea+b (8)
Note that it is also true that the reciprocal of a number in exponential notation is just the exponential
of the negative of the exponent:
1
= e−a (9)
ea
Then, if we have two numbers z 1 = |z 1 |ej φ1 and z 2 = |z 2 |ej φ2 , then the product of the two numbers
is:
z 1 z 2 = |z 1 ||z 2 |ej(φ1 +φ2 ) (10)
and the ratio of the two numbers is:
z1 |z |
= 1 ej(φ1 −φ2 ) (11)
z2 |z 2 |
The complex conjugate of a number z = x + jy is given by:
z ∗ = x − jy (12)
The sum of a complex number and its conjugate is real:
z + z ∗ = 2Re(z) = 2x (13)
while the difference is imaginary:
z − z ∗ = 2jIm(z) = 2jy (14)
where we have used the two symbols Re(·) and Im(·) to represent the operators which extract the
real and imaginary parts of the complex number.
The complex conjugate of a complex number z = |z|ejφ may also be written as:
z ∗ = |z|e−jφ (15)
so that the product of a complex number and its conjugate is real:
zz ∗ = |z|ejφ |z|e−jφ = |z|2 (16)

3
3 Sinusoidal Time Functions
A sinusoidal function of time might be written in at least two ways:

f (t) = A cos(ωt + φ) (17)

f (t) = B cos(ωt) + C sin(ωt) (18)

A third way of writing this time function is as the sum of two complex exponentials:

f (t) = Xejωt + X ∗ e−jωt (19)

Note that the form of equation 19, in which complex conjugates are added together, guarantees
that the resulting function is real.
Now, to relate equation 19 with the other forms of the sinusoidal function, equations 17 and 18,
see that X may be expressed as:
X = |X|ejψ (20)
Then equation 19 becomes:

f (t) = |X |ejψ ejωt + |X |∗ e−jψ e−jωt (21)

j(ψ+ωt) ∗ −j(ψ+ωt)
= |X |e + |X | e (22)
= 2|X | cos(ωt + ψ) (23)

Then, the coefficients in equation 17 are related to those of equation 19 by:

A
|X| = (24)
2
ψ = φ (25)

Alternatively, we could write

X = x + jy (26)
in which the real and imaginary parts of X are:

x = |X | cos(ψ) (27)
y = |X | sin(ψ) (28)

Then the time function is written:

f (t) = x(ejωt + e−jωt ) + jy(ejωt − e−jωt ) (29)

= 2x cos(ωt) − 2y sin(ωt) (30)

Thus:

A = 2x (31)
B = −2y (32)
A B
X = −j (33)
2 2

4
 It is also possible to write equation 19 in the form:

f (t) = Re(2Xejωt ) (34)

While both expressions (19 and 34) are equivalent, it is advantageous to use one or the other of
them, according to circumstances. The first notation (equation 19) is the full representation of that
sinusoidal signal and may be used under any circumstances. It is, however, cumbersome, so that
the somewhat more compact version(equation 34) is usually used. Chiefly when nonlinear products
such as power are involved, it is necessary to be somewhat cautions in its use, however, as we will
see later on.

4 Impedance
Because it is so easy to differentiate a complex exponential time signal, such a way of representing
time signals has real advantages in electric circuits with all kinds of linear elements. In Section 1 of
these notes, we introduced the linear resistance element, in which voltage and current are linearly
related. We must now consider two other elements, inductances and capacitances. The inductance

⊃
⊃L C
⊃
⊃

Figure 4: Inductance and Capacitance Elements

produces a relationship between voltage and current which is:

diL
vL = L (35)
dt
If voltage and current are sinusoidal functions of time:

v = V ejωt + V ∗ e−jωt
i = Iejωt + I ∗ e−jωt

Then the relationship between voltage and current is given simply by:

V = jωLI (36)

This is a particularly simple form, and as can be seen is directly analogous to resistance. We can
generalize our view of resistance to complex impedance (or simply impedance), in which inductances
have impedance which is:
Z L = jωL (37)
The capacitance element is similarly defined. A capacitance has a voltage-current relationship:
dvC
i=C (38)
dt

5
Thus the impedance of a capacitance is:
1
ZC = (39)
jωC
The extension to resistive network behavior is now obvious. For problems in sinusoidal steady
state, in which all excitations are sinusoidal, we may use all of the tricks of linear, resistive network
analysis. However, we use complex impedance in place of resistance.
The inverse of impedance is admittance:
1
Y =
Z
Series and parallel combinations of admittances and impedances are, of course, just like those
of conductances and resistances. For two elements in series or in parallel:
Series:

Z = Z1 + Z2 (40)
Y 1Y 2
Y = (41)
Y1+Y2
Parallel:
Z1Z2
Z = (42)
Z1 + Z2
Y = Y1+Y2 (43)

4.1 Example
Suppose we are to find the voltage v(t) in the network of Figure 5, in which i(t) = I cos(ωt). The

�� +
< ⊃
� i(t) <> ⊃L v(t)
>R ⊃
��< ⊃ −

Figure 5: Complex Impedance Network

excitation may be written as:

I jωt I −jωt � �
i(t) = e + e = Re Iejωt
2 2
Now, the complex impedance of the parallel combination of R and L is:
RjωL
R||jωL =
R + jωL
So that, if v(t) is represented by:

6
 V jωt V −jωt
v(t) = e + e
2 � 2�
jωt
= Re V e

Then
RjωL
V = I
R + jωL
Now: the impedance Z may be represented by a magnitude and phase angle:

Z = |Z |ejφ
ωLR
|Z| = �
(ωL)2 + R2
π ωL
φ = − arctan
2 R
Then, using relations developed here, v(t) may be written as:

ωLI
v(t) = � � �2 cos(ωt + φ)
1 + ωL
R

Note that this expression represents only the sinusoidal steady state solution, and therefore does
not represent any starting transients.

5 System Functions and Frequency Response

If we are interested in the behavior of a linear system such as the circuits we have been discussing,
we often speak of the system function. This is the (usually complex) ratio between output and input
of the system. System functions can express driving point behavior (impedance or its reciprocal,
admittance) or transfer behavior. We speak of voltage or current transfer ratios and of transfer
impedance (output voltage related to input current) and transfer admittance (output current related
to input voltage).
The system function may be expressed in a number of ways, often as a Laplace Transform. Such
is beyond the scope of this subject. However, it is important to understand one way of expressing
linear system behavior, in the form of frequency response. The frequency response of a system is
the complex number that relates output of the system to input as a function of frequency. Usually
it is expressed as a pair of numbers, magnitude and phase angle. Thus

H(jω) = |H(jω)|ejφ(jω)

Subjects in Signals and Systems or Network Theory often spend some time on how to obtain
and plot the frequency response of a network in ways which are both useful and easy. For our
purposes, a straightforward, perhaps even “brute force” approach will do. Consider, for example,
the circuit shown in Figure 6.

7
 1 mHy
� ∩∩∩∩ �
+ < +
Vin <> 1 kΩ Vout
− <> −
� �

Figure 6: Example Circuit for Frequency Response

This is just a voltage divider between an inductance and a resistance. We seek to find, and
then plot, the transfer ratio Vout /Vin of this network. A very little analysis yields an expression for
the transfer function, which is:

Vout (jω) R 1
= = L
Vin (jω) R + jωL 1 + jω R

The magnitude and angle of this function can be extracted in a number of ways. For the pur­
pose of these notes, we have done the mathematics using MATLAB. The specific instructions for
producing the frequency response plot are shown in Figure 7. Funamentally what is done is to
compute the system function for a number of frequencies (note that we use a way of computing
specific frequencies which produces a uniform spacing on a logarithmic scale, and then plotting the
magnitude (also on a logarithmic scale) and angle of that system function against frequency.

6 Phasors
Phasors are not weapons. They are a handy geometric trick which help us understand the nature
of sinusoidal steady state signals and systems. To start, consider the basis for complex exponential
time notation, the function ejωt . At any instant of time, this is a complex number: at time t = 0
it is equal to 1, at time ωt = π2 it is equal to j, and so forth. We may describe this function
as a vector, of length unity, rotating about the origin of the complex number plane, with angular
velocity ω. It has, of course, both real and imaginary parts, which are just the projections of the
vector onto the real and imaginary axes.
Now consider a sinusoidally varying signal x(t), which may be represented by:

X jωt X ∗ −jωt
x(t) = e + e
2 2
This is the sum of two numbers, complex conjugates, which are, as functions of time, rotating in
opposite directions in the complex plane. The sum of the two is, of course, real. This is the same
time function as: � �
x(t) = Re Xejωt (44)
where the real part operator Re(·) simply takes the projection of the function on the real axis.
It might be helpful at this point to remember one of the features of complex arithmetic. Mul­
tiplication of two complex numbers results in a third complex number which has:

8
 L=1e-3; % Set Parameter Values
R=1000;
e=3:.05:7; % This is a way of producing evenly
f=10 .^ e; % spaced points on a logarithmic chart
om=2*pi .* f; % Frequency in radians per second
H = 1 ./ (1 + j*L/R .* om); % This is the frequency response
subplot(211);
loglog(f, abs(H)) % Plot of magnitude
xlabel(’Frequency, Hz’);
ylabel(’Magnitude’);
grid
subplot(212);
semilogx(f, angle(H)) % Plot of angle
xlabel(’Frequency, Hz’)
ylabel(’Angle’)
grid
title(’Frequency Response of L-R’)
print(’freq.ps’)

Figure 7: MATLAB Program freq.m

1. a magnitude which is the product of the magnitudes of the two numbers begin multiplied and,
2. an angle which is the sum of the angles of the two numbers being multiplied.
Thus, multiplying a number by ejωt , which has a magnitude of unity and an angle which is increasing
with time at the rate ω, simply has the effect of setting that number spinning around the origin of
the complex plane.
It is therefore relatively easy to represent sinusoidally varying signals with just their complex
amplitudes, understanding that they also include ejωt , which provides time variation. The complex
amplitude includes not only the magnitude of the signal, but also a phase angle. Usually the phase
angle by itself is of little use, and must be related to some time reference. That is, as we will see,
it is the difference between phase angles that is important in most cases.
Impedances and admittances are also complex numbers, so that phasors can be used to visualize
the relationship between voltages and currents in a network. The key here is that multiplication and
division of complex numbers is the same as multiplication or division of magnitudes and addition
or subtraction of angles.

6.1 Example
Consider the simple network shown in Figure 9, and suppose that the current source is sinusoidal:
� �
i = Re Iejωt

The impedance of the R-L combination is a complex number:

9
 0
10
Magnitude

−1
10

−2
10 3 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency, Hz
Frequency Response of L−R
0

−0.5
Angle

−1

−1.5

−2 3 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency, Hz

Figure 8: Frequency Response

Z = R + jωL = 1 + j2

Now: the impedance may be represented in the complex plane as shown in Figure 10.
Voltage v is given by: � �
v = Re V ejωt
where:
V = ZI
Then the relationship between voltage and current is as shown in Figure 11. Note that the phase
angle between voltage and current is the same as the phase angle of the impedance.
Note that KVL may be represented graphically in the fashion of Figure 12.

7 Energy and Power

For any terminal pair with voltage and current defined as shown in Figure 13, power flow into the
element is:
p = vi (45)

10
 R = 1Ω
�� ∨ ∨
∧∧
+
⊃
� is v ⊃ ωL = 2Ω
⊃
�� ⊃
−

Figure 9: Example Circuit

Im(Z)
2 Z
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
� Re(Z)
1

Figure 10: Complex Impedance

Power is expressed in Watts (W), and one Watt is the product of one Volt and one Ampere.
Energy transferred over an interval of time t0 to t1 is the integral of power:
� t1
w= v(t)i(t)dt (46)
t0

Energy is expressed in Joules, and one Joule is one Watt- Second. A Joule is also a Newton-Meter
(force times distance), and therefore a Watt is a Newton-Meter per Second.
Consider the behavior of the three types of linear, passive elements we have encountered:
• Resistance: v = Ri, Instantaneous power is:
v2
p = Ri2 = (47)
R

Im(·)
V
�
�
�
�
�
�
� I
� � Re(·)

Figure 11: Voltage and Current

11
 Im(V )
V
���
�
�
� VL
�
�
�
� � Re(V )
VR

Figure 12: Components of Voltage

i
�
+
v element
−

Figure 13: Definition for Power

di
• Inductance: v = L dt , Instantaneous power is:
di 1 di2
p = iL = L (48)
dt 2 dt
The quantity wL = 12 Li2 may be interpreted as energy stored in the inductance, so that
p = dwdt . We will need to refine this definition later, when we consider electromechanical
L

interactions or nonlinear elements, but it will do for now.

• Capacitance: i = C dv
dt , Instantaneous power is:

dv 1 dv 2
p = vC = C (49)
dt 2 dt
The quantity wC = 12 Cv 2 may similarly be interpreted as energy stored in the capacitance.
Next, consider the power input to each of these three elements under sinusoidal steady state
conditions:
• Resistance: if i = I cos(ωt + θ), then
p = RI 2 cos2 (ωt + θ)
RI 2
= [1 + cos 2(ωt + θ)] (50)
2

12
 Thus, average power into the resistance is:
1
P = RI 2 (51)
2

• Inductance: if i = I cos(ωt + θ), then voltage is v = −ωLI sin(ωt + θ), and power is:

p = −ωLI 2 cos(ωt + θ) sin(ωt + θ)

ωLI 2
= − sin 2(ωt + θ) (52)
2
Average power into the inductance is zero. Instantaneous energy stored in the inductance is
1
wL = LI 2 cos2 (ωt + θ)
2
and that has an average value:
1
< wL >= LI 2 (53)
4
• Capacitance: if v = V cos(ωt + φ), then i = −ωCV sin(ωt + φ), and power is:

ωCV 2
p=− sin 2(ωt + φ) (54)
2
which has zero time average. Energy stored in the capacitance is:
1
wC = CV 2 cos2 (ωt + φ)
2
which has time average:
1
< wC >= CV 2 (55)
4
Now, consider power flow into a set of terminals in a situation in which both voltage and current
are sinusoidal and have the same frequency, but possibly different phase angles:

v(t) = V cos(ωt + φ)
i(t) = I sin(ωt + θ)

It is necessary to revert to the original form of complex notation, as in equation 19, to compute
power.
1 � jωt �
v(t) = V e + V ∗ e−jωt (56)
2
1 � jωt �
i(t) = Ie + I ∗ e−jωt (57)
2
Instantaneous power is the product of voltage and current:
1� ∗ �
p= V I + V ∗ I + V Iej2ωt + V ∗ I ∗ e−j2ωt (58)
4

13
This is directly equivalent to:
1 � �
p= Re V I ∗ + V Iej2ωt (59)
2
This is, in turn, expressible as:
1
p= |V ||I| [cos(φ − θ) + cos(2ωt + φ + θ)] (60)
2
From this, we extract “real power”, or time- average power:
1 1
P = Re [V I ∗ ] = |V ||I| cos(φ − θ) (61)
2 2
The ratio between real power and apparent power Pa = 21 |V ||I| is called the power factor, and
is simply:
power factor = cos ψ = cos(φ − θ) (62)
The power factor angle ψ = φ − θ is the relative phase shift between voltage and current.
This expression for time- average power suggests a definition for something we might call complex
power:
1
P + jQ = V I ∗ (63)
2
in which average power P is the real part. The magnitude of this complex quantity is the apparent
power. The imaginary part is called reactive power. It has importance which will be discussed later.
Different units are used for real, reactive and apparent power, in order to gain some distinction
between quantities. Usually we will express real power in watts (W) (or kW, MW,...). Apparent
power is expressed in volt-amperes (VA), and reactive power is expressed in volt-amperes-reactive
(VAR’s).
To obtain some more feeling for reactive power, expand the time- varying part of the expression
for instantaneous power:
1
pvarying = |V ||I| cos(2ωt + φ + θ)
2
Now, using the trig identity cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y, and assigning x = 2ωt + 2φ and
y = −ψ = θ − φ, we have:
1
pvarying = |V ||I | [cos 2(ωt + φ) + sin ψ sin 2(ωt + φ)]
2
Thus, total instantaneous power is:
1 1
p= |V ||I | cos ψ [1 + cos 2(ωt + φ)] + |V ||I | sin ψ sin 2(ωt + φ) (64)
2 2
Now, if we note expressions for P and Q, we can re-write this as:

p = P [1 + cos 2(ωt + φ)] + Q sin 2(ωt + φ) (65)

Thus, real power P represents not only time average power but also the pulsations that go with
time average power. Reactive power Q represents energy exchange with zero average value.

14
7.1 RMS Amplitude
Note that, in all of the expressions for power used so far, a factor of 12 appears. This is, of course,
because the average value of the product of two sinusoids of the same frequency has a value of half
of the products of their peak amplitudes multiplied by the cosine of the relative phase angle. It has
become common to use a different measure of voltage amplitude, which is called root-mean-square
or simply RMS. The proper definition for the RMS value of a waveform is somewhat complex,
but boils down to that value which, if it were DC, would dissipate the same power in a resistor.
It is possible to define RMS for any periodic waveform. However, since we will be dealing with
sinusoids, the definition is even easier. Clearly, since power dissipated in a resistor is, in terms of
peak amplitudes:
1 |V |2
P =
2 R
then the RMS amplitude must be:
|V |
VRM S = √ (66)
2
Then,
V2
P = RM S
R
As we will see, RMS amplitudes are the default for most situations: when a circuit is described as
“120 Volts A√ C”, the designation virtually always means 120 Volts, RMS. The peak amplitude of
this is |V | = 2 · 120 ≈ 170 volts. Often you will see sinusoidal waveforms expressed in the form:
√
v = 2VRM S cos(ωt)

in which VRM S is obviously the RMS amplitude.

7.2 Example
Consider the simple network of Figure 14. We will calculate the instantaneous power flow into that
network in terms we have been discussing. Assume that the voltage source has RMS amplitude

��
<>
+ ⊃
<> Rv ⊃X
⊃
��<
−
⊃

Figure 14: Example Circuit

of 120 volts and R and X are both 100 Ω. Then:

v(t) = 170 cos ωt

The admittance of this network is:

1 j
Y = −
100 100

15
 Instantaneous Power Flow
350

300

250

200
Power, Watts

150

100

50

−50

−100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency * Time, Radians

Figure 15: Power Flow For Example Circuit

so that the complex amplitude of current is:

I = 1.7 − j1.7

And then complex power is:

1
P + jQ = 170(1.7 + j1.7)
2
Real and reactive power are, respectively: P = 144 W, Q = 144 VAR. This gives a power factor
angle of ψ = arctan(1) = 45◦ . Then, instantaneous power is:

p = 144 [1 + cos 2(ωt − 45◦ )] + 144 sin 2(ωt − 45◦ )

This is illustrated in Figure 15.

8 A Conservation Law
It is possible to show that complex power is conserved in the same way as we expect time average
power to be conserved. Consider a network with a collection of terminals and with a collection of
internal branches. Instantaneous power flow into the network is:
�
pin = vi
terminals

Note that this expression holds for voltage and current expressed over any complete set of terminals.
That is, if it is possible to delineate the terminals of the network into a set of pairs, the voltages
might correspond to voltages across the pair, while currents would flow between the terminals of
each pair. Alternatively, the voltages might correspond to single node-to-datum voltage, while

16
currents would then be single input node currents. Since power can go only into network elements,
it follows that the sum of internal branch powers must be equal to the sum of terminal powers:
� �
vi = vi (67)
terminals branches

If this is true for instantaneous power, it is also true for complex power:
� �
VI = VI (68)
terminals branches

Now, if the network is made up of resistances, capacitances and inductances,

� � � �
VI = VI + VI + VI (69)
terminals resistances inductances capacitances

For these individual elements:

• Resistances: V I ∗ = R|I|2

• Inductances: V I ∗ = jωL|I|2

• Capacitances: V I ∗ = −jωC|V |2

Then equation 69 becomes:

R|I|2 + j ωL|I|2 − j ωC |V |2
� � � �
VI = (70)
terminals resistances inductances capacitances

Then, identifying individual terms:

�
VI = 2(P + jQ) Total Complex Power into Network
terminals
R|I |2 =
�
2 < pr > Power Dissipated in Resistors
�
resistances
ωL|I|2 = 4ω
�
j < wL > Energy Stored in Inductances
�

inductances
ωC|V |2 = 4ω
�
j < wC > Energy Stored in Capacitances
�
capacitances

So, for any RLC network:

 
� � �
P + jQ = < pr > +2jω  < wL > − < wC > (71)
resistors inductors capacitors

9 Power Flow Through An Impedance

Consider the situation shown in Figure 16. This actually represents a number of important situ­
ations in power systems, where the impedance Z might represent a transmission line, transformer
or motor winding. Of interest to us is the flow of power through the impedance. Current is given

17
 il + vl
� −
�� ��
+ Z +
V1 V2
�� ��
− −

Figure 16: Power Flow Example

by:
V1−V2
il = (72)
Z
Then, complex power flow out of the left- hand voltage source is:
1 V ∗1 − V ∗2
� �
P + jQ = V 1 (73)
2 Z∗
Now, the complex amplitudes may be expressed as:
V 1 = |V 1 |ejθ (74)
jθ+δ
V 2 = |V 2 |e (75)
where δ is the relative phase angle between the two voltage sources. Complex power at the terminals
of the voltage source V 1 is now given by:
|V 1 |2 |V 1 ||V 2 |e−jδ
P + jQ = − (76)
2Z ∗ 2Z ∗
This is describable as a circle in the complex plane, with its origin at
|V 1 |2
2Z ∗
and its radius equal to:
|V 1 ||V 2 |
2|Z|
Now suppose the impedance through which we are passing power is describable as a simple
inductance as shown in Figure 17. This is perhaps the simplest of transmission line models which
represents only the inductive impedance of the line. Line inductance arises because currents in the
line produce magnetic fields, and this is a fair model for most lines which are fairly ’short’. More
on that in the next section. This line has the impedance
Z = jωL = jXL
√ √
Now, switching to RMS amplitudes, so that V s = 2V 1 and V r = 2V 2 , Then real and
reactive power flow are:
|Vs |2 − V s V ∗r
Ps + jQs = V s I ∗ = j
Xl
|V 2 ∗
r − V sV r
|
Pr + jQr = −V r I ∗ = j
Xl

18
 I L

Vs Vr

Figure 17: Simplest Transmission Line Model

Now if we assume that the voltages are of the form:

V s = Vs ejφ
V r = Vr ejθ
and that the relative phase angle between them is φ − θ = δ and doing a little trig:
Vs Vr sin δ
Ps =
XL
Vs2 − Vs Vr cos δ
Qs =
XL
Vs Vr sin δ
Pr = −
XL
2
Vr − Vs Vr cos δ
Qr =
XL

A picture of this locus is referred to as a power circle diagram, because of its shape. Figure 18
shows the construction of a sending end power circle diagram for equal sending-end and receiving-
end voltages and a purely reactive impedance.

V2
X
δ

Figure 18: Power Circle, Equal Voltages

As a check, consider the reactive power consumed by the line itself: we expect that Qs + Qr =
QL , and so:
Vs2 + Vr2 − 2Vs Vr cos δ
Qs + Qr =
XL

19
 Note that the voltage across the line element itself is found using the law of cosines (see Figure 19:

V
s

δ
V
l

V
r

Figure 19: Illustration of the Law of Cosines

VL2 = Vs2 + Vr2 − 2Vs Vr cos δ

and, indeed,
VL2
QL =
XL

10 Compensated Line

Vs Cs Cr
Vr

Figure 20: Transmission Line Model

Perhaps a more commonly used model for a transmission line is as shown in Figure 20. This
represents not only the fact that most transmission lines have, in addition to series inductance,
parallel capacitance but also the fact that many transmission lines are shunt compensated. This
may be represented as a two-port network with the admittance parameters, using XL = jωL and
−j
XC = ωC ,:
1 1
Y ss = −
jXL jXC1
1
Y sr = Y rs =
jXL
1 1
Y rr = −
jXL jXC2
It is fairly clear that, for voltage sources at both ends, real and reactive power flow are:

Vs Vr sin δ
Ps =
XL

20
 1 1 Vs Vr cos δ
� �
Qs = Vs2 − −
XL XC1 XL
Vs Vr sin δ
Pr = −
X
� L
1 1 Vs Vr cos δ
�
2
Qr = Vs − −
XL XC2 XL

1 1
2
V
X X
L C

δ
P

Figure 21: Power Circle, Equal Voltages, Compensation Offset

The power circle for this sort of line is similar to that of the simpler model, but the center is
offset to smaller reactive component, as shown in Figure 21.
An interesting feature of transmission lines is illustrated by what might happen were the re­
ceiving line to be open: in that case:
1
Vr =Vs
1 − ω 2 LC
Depending on the values of frequency, inductance and capacitance this could be arbitrarily
large, and this is a potential problem, particularly for longer lines, as we will discuss in the next
section.

11 Transmission Lines
A transmission line is really a long, continuous thing. It has inductance which is really inductance
per unit length multiplied by the line length, but it also has a continuous capacitance. We might
attempt to represent a long transmission line as a series of relatively ’short’ sections each represented
by an inductance and a capacitance. These ’lumped parameter’ models for lines are actually
used in many system studies, particularly in physical analog models called ’Transmission System
Simulators’. (We built one of these at MIT in the 1970’s). After the next section you might
contemplate the definition of ’short’ for our purposes here, but generally each lumped parameter
capacitance and resistance pair would represent a few to a few tens of miles.

11.1 Telegrapher’s Equations

Peering at the model presented in Figure 22, one might divine that a proper representation of
voltage and current, both of which are functions of time and distance along the line, might be:

21
 L L L L

C C C C

Figure 22: Transmission Line Lumped Parameter Model

∂v ∂i
= −Ll
∂x ∂t
∂i ∂v
= −Cl
∂x ∂t
These are known as the “Telegrapher’s Equations” and represent the fact that inductance
presents voltage drop along the line in proportion to rate of change of current and that capacitance
presents a change in current along the line in proportion to rate of change of voltage.
It is not difficult to eliminate either voltage or current from these to produce a wave equation.
For example, take the cross-derivatives and substitute the second of these equations into the first
to get:
∂2v ∂2v
= L C
l l
∂x2 ∂t2
Now: this equation is solved by arbitrary functions which are of the form:

v(x, t) = v(x ± ut)

where the wave velocity is:
1
u= √
L l Cl
So now we can see that the voltage on the line is the sum of some waveform going in the
’positive’ direction and something else going in the ’negative’ direction:

v(x, t) = v+ (x − ut) + v− (x + ut)

The same will be true of current, and substituting back into either of the telegrapher’s equations
yields:
1
i(x, t) = (v+ (x − ut) − v− (x + ut))
Ll u
the product of inductance times wave velocity has the units of impedance:
�
Ll
Ll u = = Z0
Cl
This is often referred to as the ’characteristic impedance’ of the transmission line. This is also a
commonly used term: transmission cables are often referred to by their characteristic impedances.
For coaxial wires 50 to 72 ohms are common values. For high tension transmission lines somewhat
higher values are to be expected.

22
11.2 Surges on Transmission Lines
Consider the situation shown in Figure 23. Here the left-hand end of the line is driven by a current
source with a pulse (illustrated is a square pulse). This is actually not too far from the situation
that transmission lines experience with lightning, which is usually representable as a current source,
typically of magnitude between 20 and 100 kA and duration of about 1µS. (Actually, it is not a
square pulse but that is not important here).
What will happen, if the pulse is short enough, is that it will launch a traveling wave in which
v+ = Z0 i+ and i+ is the current that was imposed. When this pulse reaches the far, or load end of
the line, we have the situation in which at that point:

v(t) = v+ + v−
v+ V−
i(t) = −
Z0 Z0
and, of coures, v = Ri.
The ’reflected’, or negative going wave will have magnitude:
R
−1
v− = v+ ZR0
Z0 +1

In the extreme case of an open circuit, the magnitude of the voltage pulse at the end of the
transmission line is exactly twice that of the propagating pulse. In the case of a short circuit, of
course, the magnitude of the voltage is zero, the current in the short is double the current of the
pulse itself, and the pulse is reflected, but going in the reverse direction with a polarity the opposite
of the forward-going pulse. This is illustrated in cartoon form in Figure 23.
i i
R > Z0
v v

I R
s

i
R < Z0
v

Figure 23: Pulse Propagation on a Transmission Line

11.3 Sinusoidal Steady State

Now, consider a transmission line operating in the sinusoidal steady state. As suggested by Fig­
ure 24, it is driven by a voltage source at one end and is loaded by a resistive load at the other.
Consistent with the voltage and currents that we know can exist on such a line, we know they will
be of this form:

23
 V R
s

Figure 24: Transmission Line in Simple Configuration

� �
v(x, t) = Re V + ej(ωt−kx) + V − ej(ωt+kx)
V + j(ωt−kx) V − j(ωt+kx)
� �
i(x, t) = Re e − e
Z0 Z0
Where the phase velocity is u = ωk = √L1 C .
l l
At the termination end of the line, at x = ℓ
V V e−jkℓ + V − ejkℓ
R= = Z0 + −jkℓ
I V +e − V − ejkℓ
This may be solved for the ratio of ’reverse’ to ’forward’ amplitude:
R
−1
V − = V + e−2jkℓ ZR0
Z0 +1
Since at the ’sending’ end:

Vs = V + + V −
With a little manipulation it can be determined that
�� � � ��
R R
e−jkℓ Z0 +1 + Z0 −1
V r = Vs � � � �
R R
Z0 + 1 + e−2jkℓ Z0 −1

Further manipulation yields:

R
Z0
V r = Vs R
Z0 cos kℓ + j sin kℓ
This might be made a bit more comprehensible when turned into a magnitude:
R
Vr Z0
| | = ��
Vs �2
R
Z0 cos kℓ + (sin kℓ)2

If the line is loaded with a resistance equivalent to the ’surge impedance’ (so-called ’surge
impedance loading’, the receiving end voltage is the same as the sending end voltage. If it is more
heavily loaded, the receiving end voltage is less than the sending end and if it is less heavily loaded
the receiving end voltage is greater.

24
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http://ocw.mit.edu

6.061 / 6.690 Introduction to Electric Power Systems

Spring 2011

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 Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
6.061 Introduction to Power Systems
Class Notes Chapter 3
Polyphase Networks ∗
J.L. Kirtley Jr.

1 Introduction
Most electric power applications employ three phases. That is, three separate power carrying
circuite, with voltages and currents staggered symmetrically in time are used. Two major reasons
for the use of three phase power are economical use of conductors and nearly constant power flow.
Systems with more than one phase are generally termed polyphase. Three phase systems are
the most common, but there are situations in which a different number of phases may be used.
Two phase systems have a simplicity that makes them useful for teaching vehicles and for certain
servomechanisms. This is why two phase machines show up in laboratories and textbooks. Sys­
tems with a relatively large number of phases are used for certain specialized applications such as
controlled rectifiers for aluminum smelters. Six phase systems have been proposed for very high
power transmission applications.
Polyphase systems are qualitatively different from single phase systems. In some sense, polyphase
systems are more complex, but often much easier to analyze. This little paradox will become ob­
vious during the discussion of electric machines. It is interesting to note that physical conversion
between polyphase systems of different phase number is always possible.
This chapter starts with an elementary discussion of polyphase networks and demonstrates
some of their basic features. It ends with a short discussion of per-unit systems and power system
representation.

2 Two Phases
The two-phase system is the simplest of all polyphase systems to describe. Consider a pair of
voltage sources sitting side by side with:

v1 = V cos ωt (1)
v2 = V sin ωt (2)
∗
c
�2003 James L. Kirtley Jr.

1
 Suppose this system of sources is connected to al “balanced load”, as shown in Figure 1. To
compute the power flows in the system, it is convenient to re-write the voltages in complex form:

� �
i1 i2
�� + �� +
+ v1 v1 + v2 v2
Z Z
�� ��
− −
− −

Figure 1: Two-Phase System

� �
v1 = Re V ej ωt (3)
� �
v2 = Re −jV ejωt (4)
j(ωt− π2 )
� �
= Re V e (5)

� V1

�
V2

Figure 2: Phasor Diagram for Two-Phase Source

If each source is connected to a load with impedance:

Z = |Z |ejψ

then the complex amplitudes of currents are:

V −jψ
I1 = e
|Z|
V −jψ −j π
I2 = e e 2
|Z|
Each of the two phase networks has the same value for real and reactive power:
|V |2 jψ
P + jQ = e (6)
2| Z |

2
or:
|V |2
P = cos ψ (7)
2| Z |
|V |2
Q = sin ψ (8)
2| Z |

The relationship between “complex power” and instantaneous power flow was worked out in
Chapter 2 of these notes. For a system with voltage of the form:
� �
v = Re V ejφ ejωt

instantaneous power is given by:

p = P [1 + cos 2(ωt + φ)] + Q sin 2(ωt + φ)

For the case under consideration here, φ = 0 for phase 1 and φ = − π2 for phase 2. Thus:

|V |2 |V |2
p1 = cos ψ [1 + cos 2ωt] + sin ψ sin 2ωt
2| Z | 2| Z |
|V |2 |V |2
p2 = cos ψ [1 + cos(2ωt − π)] + sin ψ sin(2ωt − π)
2| Z | 2| Z |

Note that the time-varying parts of these two expressions have opposite signs. Added together,
they give instantaneous power:
|V |2
p = p1 + p2 = cos ψ
|Z|
At least one of the advantages of polyphase power networks is now apparent. The use of a
balanced polyphase system avoids the power flow pulsations due to ac voltage and current, and
even the pulsations due to reactive energy flow. This has obvious benefits when dealing with
motors and generators or, in fact, any type of source or load which would like to see constant
power.

3 Three Phase Systems

Now consider the arrangement of three voltage sources illustrated in Figure 3.
The three phase voltages are:
� �
va = V cos ωt = Re V ejωt (9)
2π
� �
2π )
vb = V cos(ωt − 3 ) = Re V ej(ωt− 3 (10)
j(ωt+ 2π
� �
2π )
vc = V cos(ωt + 3 ) = Re V e 3 (11)

These three phase voltages are illustrated in the time domain in Figure 4 and as complex
phasors in Figure 5. Note the symmetrical spacing in time of the voltages. As in earlier examples,
the instantaneous voltages may be visualized by imagining Figure 5 spinning counterclockwise with

3
 +
+
vc
�� �� ��+ vb
+ 2π + 2π + va
V ej V e−j V
�� �� ��
− 3 − 3 −
− − −

Figure 3: Three- Phase Voltage Source

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Va, Vb, Vc

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
0 5 10 15
t

Figure 4: Three Phase Voltages

angular velocity ω. The instantaneous voltages are just projections of the vectors of this “pinwheel”
onto the horizontal axis.
Consider connecting these three voltage sources to three identical loads, each with complex
impedance Z, as shown in Figure 6.
If voltages are as given by (9 - 11), then currents in the three phases are:

V jωt
� �
ia = Re e (12)
Z
V j(ωt− 2π )
� �
ib = Re e 3 (13)
Z
V j(ωt+ 2π )
� �
ic = Re e 3 (14)
Z

4
Other documents randomly have
different content
JOHAN. May I say a word?
KING. No, because I can tell myself what you want to say. I can tell
that the hand of the Lord has been laid heavily upon me, although I
cannot tell why. If the Lord speaks through conscience and prayer,
then it is he who has made me act as I have acted. Why my
obedience should be punished, I cannot grasp. But I submit to a
higher wisdom that lies beyond my reason.—That girl was my
goddaughter, and her father was my friend, and I had to take his
head.... Oh, cruel life, that has to be lived nevertheless! [Pause]
Knock again.
MARCUS. [In travelling clothes, enters from the right] Your Highness!
[He kneels.
KING. Still more?
MARCUS. A message from Herman Israel.
KING. At last!—Speak!
MARCUS. Herman Israel has this afternoon set sail for Luebeck.
KING. [Rising] Then I am lost!—God help me!
JOHAN. And all of us!

The KING and JOHAN go out. MARCUS goes over to the tavern and
raps on one of the tables.

AGDA. [Appearing] Is that you, Marcus?

MARCUS. Yes, Agda, it's me.
AGDA. Where is Jacob?
MARCUS. He has started on a journey—a very long one.
AGDA. Where?
MARCUS. I cannot tell. But he asked me to bring you his greeting and
to give you this ring.
AGDA. As a keepsake only, or as a plight of his troth?
MARCUS. Read what it says.
AGDA.[Studying the ring] Yes, I can spell a little "For ever," it says.
What does it mean?
MARCUS. I fear it means—farewell for ever.
AGDA. [With a cry] No, no, it means that he is dead!

MARCUS does not answer.

AGDA. Who killed him?

MARCUS. The law and his own crime. He rebelled against his father
and his country.
AGDA. To save mine!—Oh, what is to become of me?
MARCUS. [Shrugging his shoulders] That's the way of the world.
Nothing but deceit and uncertainty.
AGDA. Alas, he was like all the rest!
MARCUS. Yes, all human beings are pretty much alike. He who is no
worse than the rest is no better, either. Good-bye!
Curtain.

SECOND SCENE

The study of MASTER OLAVUS PETRI. There is a door on either side

of the room.
OLAVUS is writing at a table.
CHRISTINE is standing beside the table with a letter in her hand.

CHRISTINE. Do I disturb you?

OLAVUS. [Quietly and coldly] Naturally, as I am writing.
CHRISTINE. Are you sure that you are writing?
OLAVUS. Absolutely sure.
CHRISTINE. But I have not seen your pen move for a long while.
OLAVUS. That was because I was thinking.
CHRISTINE. Once....
OLAVUS. Yes, once upon a time!
CHRISTINE. Can Reginald come in and say good-bye?
OLAVUS. Are we that far already?
CHRISTINE. The carriage is waiting and all his things have been
packed.
OLAVUS. Let him come, then.
CHRISTINE. Are you certain that he is going to Wittenberg to study?
OLAVUS. I have seen too much uncertainty, as you know, to be
certain of anything. If you have reason to doubt the feasibility of his
plans, you had better say so.
CHRISTINE. If I had any doubts, I would not disturb you with them.
OLAVUS.Always equally amiable! Will you please ask Reginald to
come here?
CHRISTINE. I'll do whatever you command.
OLAVUS. And as I never command, but merely ask....
CHRISTINE.If you would command your precious son now and then,
he might be a little more polite and obedient to his mother.
OLAVUS. Reginald is hard, I admit, but you do wrong in trying to
educate him to suit your own high pleasure.
CHRISTINE. Do you side with the children against their parents?
OLAVUS. If I am not mistaken, I have always done so when the
natural rights of the children were concerned.
CHRISTINE. Have the children any natural rights to anything?
OLAVUS. Of course, they have! You haven't forgotten how we....
CHRISTINE. Yes, I have forgotten every bit of that old tommy-rot! I
have forgotten how you swore to love me. I have forgotten the noise
made about the pope's beard, and the stealing of the church silver,
and the humbug with the bells, and the pure faith, and roast ducks
and cackling swans, and martyrs with a taste for fighting, and the
following of Christ with wine and women, and the scratching of eyes
and tearing of hair, until we now have twenty-five brand new faiths
in place of a holy Catholic Church.... I have forgotten every bit of it!
OLAVUS. Perhaps that was the best thing you could do. And will you
please ask Reginald to come here now?
CHRISTINE. Certainly, I'll ask him to come here, and it will be a great
pleasure to do so. [She goes out to the left.
OLAVUS. [Alone, speaking to himself] Happy she, who has been able
to forget! I remember everything!
CHRISTINE returns with REGINALD.
REGINALD. I want mother to go out, because I can't talk when she is
here.
OLAVUS. There won't be so very much to talk about.
CHRISTINE. I won't say a word; only listen—and look at you. [She
seats herself.
REGINALD. No, you mustn't look at us.
OLAVUS. Be quiet, boy, and be civil to your mother! When you go
travelling, there is no telling whether you ever come back.
REGINALD. So much the better!
OLAVUS. [Painfully impressed] What's that?
REGINALD. I am tired of everything, and I just wish I were dead!
OLAVUS. Yes, that's the way youth talks nowadays!
REGINALD. And why? Because we don't know what to believe!
OLAVUS. Oh, you don't? And how about the articles of confession?
Don't you believe in them?
REGINALD. Believe, you say? Don't you know that belief comes as a
grace of God?
OLAVUS. Are you a Calvinist?
REGINALD. I don't know what I am. When I talk with Prince Johan, he
says I am a papist, and when I meet Prince Eric, he tells me I am a
follower of Zwingli.
OLAVUS.And now you wish to go to Wittenberg to learn the true faith
from Doctor Martin Luther?
REGINALD. I know his teachings and don't believe in them,
OLAVUS. Is that so?
REGINALD. To him belief is everything, and deeds nothing. I have
believed, but it didn't make my deeds any better at all, and so I felt
like a perfect hypocrite in the end.
OLAVUS. Is Prince Johan a Catholic?
REGINALD. So he must be, as he sticks to deeds, which ought to be
the main thing.
OLAVUS. And Prince Eric belongs to the Reformed Church, you say?
REGINALD. Yes, in so far as he believes in the dispensation of grace.
And Jorghen Persson must be a Satanist, I think. And young Sture is
absolutely an Anabaptist....
OLAVUS. Well, this is news to me! I thought the days of schism were
past....
REGINALD.Schism, yes—that's the word Prince Johan is using always.
We had a Catholic Church, and then....
OLAVUS. Oh, shut your mouth and go to Wittenberg!
REGINALD. As it is your wish, father—but I won't study any more
theology.
OLAVUS. Why not?
REGINALD. I think it is device of the devil to make people hate each
other.
CHRISTINE. Good for you, Reginald!
OLAVUS. And it had to come to this in my own house! Pulchre, bene,
rede!—Who, Reginald, do you think has caused this dissension under
which you young people are suffering now?
REGINALD. That's easily answered.
OLAVUS. Of course! We old ones, you mean? But we, too, were
children of our time, and were stripped of our faith by our prophets.
Who is, then, to blame?
REGINALD. No one.
OLAVUS. And what do you mean to do with your future?
REGINALD. My future? It appears to me like a grey mist without a ray
of sunlight. And should a ray ever break through, it will at once be
proved a will-o'-the-wisp leading us astray.
OLAVUS. That's just how I felt once! At your age I could see my
whole future as in vision. I foresaw the bitter cup and the pillory.
And yet I had to go on. I had to enter the mist, and I myself had to
carry the will-o'-the-wisp that must lead the wanderers astray. I
foretold this very moment, even, when my son would stand before
me saying: "Thus I am, because thus you have made me!" You
noticed, perhaps, that I was not surprised—and this is the reason.
REGINALD. What am I to do? Advise me!
OLAVUS. You, no more than I, will follow the advices given you.
REGINALD. Inform me, then! Tell me: what is life?
OLAVUS. That's more than I know. But I think it must be a
punishment or an ordeal. At your years I thought I knew everything
and understood everything. Now I know nothing and understand
nothing. For that reason I rest satisfied with doing my duty and
bearing what comes my way.
REGINALD. But I want to know!
OLAVUS.You want to know what is not allowed to be known. Try to
know and you will perish!—However, do you want to go or stay?
REGINALD. I am going to Wittenberg to pull Luther to pieces!
OLAVUS. [Wholly without irony] That's the way to speak! O thou
splendid youth with thy Alexandrian regret that there are no more
things to pull to pieces!
REGINALD. Are you not a Lutheran?
OLAVUS. I am a Protestant.
CHRISTINE. If you have finished now, I shall ask permission to tell in a
single word what Luther is—just one word!
OLAVUS. Oh, do, before you burst!
CHRISTINE. Luther is dead!
OLAVUS. Dead?
CHRISTINE.That's what my brother-in-law writes me in this letter
from Magdeburg.
OLAVUS. [Rising] Dead! [To REGINALD] My poor Alexander, what will
you pull to pieces now?
REGINALD. First the universe, and then myself.
OLAVUS. [Pushing him toward the door at the left] Go ahead, then,
but begin with yourself. The universe will always remain.
CHRISTINE. [As she rises and is about to go out with REGINALD] Will
there be peace on earth now?
OLAVUS. That will never be!—Let me have that letter.

CHRISTINE and REGINALD go out to the left.

 While OLAVUS is reading the letter, a hard knock is heard at the
right-hand door.

OLAVUS. Come!

The knock is repeated. OLAVUS goes to the door and opens it.
The KING enters, wearing his big hat and his cloak, which he
throws of.

OLAVUS. The King!

KING. [Very excited] Yes, but for how long? Do you know who Dacke
is?—A farm labourer who has killed a bailiff; a common thief and
incendiary, who is now writing to me with a demand of answer. I am
to take pen in hand and open correspondence with a scamp like
him! Do you know that he has crossed the Kolmord Forests and
stands with one foot in West Gothia and the other in East Gothia?—
Who is back of him? The Emperor, the Elector Frederick of the
Palatinate, Magnus Haraldsson, the runaway Bishop of Skara, the
Duke of Mecklenburg. The Emperor wishes to put the children of
Christian the Tyrant back on the throne.[3] But what troubles me
more than anything else is to find the Luebeckians and Herman
Israel on the same side—my old friend Herman! I ask you how it can
be possible. And who has done this to me? Who?—Have you not a
word to say?
OLAVUS. What can I say, and what—may I say?
KING. Don't be hard on me, Olof, and don't be vengeful, I am nothing
but an unfortunate human creature who has had to drink humiliation
like water, and I come to you as my spiritual guide. I am in despair
because I fear that the Lord has deserted me for ever.—What an
infernal notion of mine that was to take the head of the Dalecarlians
just now, when I am in such need of them! Do you think that deed
was displeasing to the Lord? But if I have sinned like David, you
must be my Nathan.
OLAVUS. I have lost the power of prophecy, and I am not the right
man to inflict punishment.
KING. Console me, then, Olof.
OLAVUS. I cannot, because only those who repent can accept
consolation.
KING.You mean that I have transgressed—that I have gone too far?
Speak up! But do it like a servant of the Lord, and not like a
conceited schoolmaster.... Have I gone too far?
OLAVUS. That is not the way to put the question. The proper way is
to ask whether the others have any right on their side.
KING. Go ahead and ask!
OLAVUS. Dacke is the mouthpiece of warranted dissatisfaction. Being
the brother-in-law of Christian II, the Emperor is the guardian of his
children, and they have inherited a claim to the Swedish throne, as
the constitution cannot be cancelled by a rebellion.[4] Bishop
Magnus Haraldsson is the spokesman of all the illegally exiled
bishops.
KING. Illegally, you say?
OLAVUS. [Raising his voice] Yes, because the law of Sweden does not
drive any man away on account of his faith.
KING. Take care!
OLAVUS. Too late now!—The dissatisfaction of the peasants is
warranted, because the Riksdag at Vesterås authorised the King to
seize only the property of bishops and convents. When he took what
belonged to parish churches and private persons, he became guilty
of a crime.
KING. You are a daring man!
OLAVUS. Nothing compared with what I used to be!—As far as
Herman Israel is concerned, he called recently on the King to offer a
treaty of friendship, and it was stupid of the King to reject it.
KING. Stop!
OLAVUS. Not yet!—The gold and silver of the churches was meant to
pay the debt to Luebeck, and much of it was used for that purpose,
but a considerable part found its way to Eskil's Chamber under the
Royal Palace, and has since been wasted on Prince Eric's silly
courtships among other things....
KING. The devil you say!
OLAVUS. Well, Queen Elizabeth is merely making fun of him.
KING. Do you know that?
OLAVUS. I do.—The bells were also to be used in payment of the debt
to Luebeck, but a part of them went to the foundry and were turned
into cannon, which was not right.
KING. Is that so?
OLAVUS. Add also that the Convent of Vreta was left unmolested in
violation of the ordinance concerning the closing of all such places—
and for no other reason than that the King's mother-in-law
happened to be a Catholic. This is a cowardly and mischievous
omission that has caused much bad blood.
KING. The convent is to be closed.
OLAVUS. It should be closed now, and it is not!—If I were to sum up
what is reprehensible in my great King, I should call it a lack of piety.
KING. That's the worst yet! What do you mean?
OLAVUS. Piety is the respect shown by the stronger even if he be a
man of destiny—for the feelings of the weaker, when these spring
from a childlike, and for that reason religious, mind.
KING. Oh, is that what it is?
OLAVUS. Now I have said my say.
KING. Yes, so you have—time and again.
OLAVUS. And if my King had been willing to listen now and then, he
would have learned a great deal more. But it is a common fault of
princes that they won't listen to anybody but themselves.
KING.Well, I never heard the like of it! I am astounded—most of all
because I haven't killed you on the spot!
OLAVUS. Why don't you?
KING. [Rises and goes toward OLAVUS, who remains standing
unabashed, looking firmly at the approaching KING; the latter
withdraws backward and sits down again; for a few moments the
two men stare at each other in silence; then the KING says] Who are
you?
OLAVUS. A humble instrument of the Lord, shaped to serve what is
really great—that marvellous man of God, to whom it was granted to
unite all Swedish men and lands.
KING. That was granted Engelbrecht, too, and his reward was the
axe that split his head.[5] Is that to be my reward, too?
OLAVUS. I don't think so, your Highness, but it depends on yourself.
KING. What am I to do?
OLAVUS. What you advised me to do when I was carried away by the
zeal of my youth.
KING. And you think it necessary to return that advice to me now?
OLAVUS. Why not? I have learned from life, and you have forgotten.
KING. What am I to do?
OLAVUS. Answer Dacke's letter.
KING. Never! Am I to bow down to a vagabond?
OLAVUS. The Lord sometimes uses mere vagabonds for our
humiliation. Picture it to yourself as an ordeal by fire.
KING. [Rising and walking the floor] There is truth in what you say. I
can feel it, but it does not fetch bottom in my mind. Say one word
more.
OLAVUS. Dacke will be right as long as you are in the wrong, and God
will be with him until you take your place on the side of right.
KING. I can't bend!
OLAVUS. Then you'll be broken by someone else.
KING.[Walking back and forth] Are you thinking of the Dalecarlians?
Have you heard of a rising among them on account of the
executions?
OLAVUS. Such a thing has been rumoured.
KING. I am lost.
OLAVUS. Write to Dacke!
KING. [Without conviction] I won't.
OLAVUS. The Emperor does.
KING.That's true! If the Emperor can write to him, why shouldn't I?
—But it is perfectly senseless. Who is this mysterious man who
never appears?
OLAVUS. Perhaps another marvellous man of God—in his own way.
KING. I must see him face to face. I'll write and offer him safe-
conduct, so that I can talk with him. That's what I'll do.—Bring me
pen and paper! Or you write, and I'll dictate.

OLAVUS seats himself at the table.

KING. How do we begin? What am I to call him?

OLAVUS. Let us merely put down "To Nils Dacke."
KING. Oh, his name is Nils? After St. Nicolaus, who comes with rods
for children on the sixth of December?[6] [Pause] Write now.... No,
I'll go home and do the writing myself.... Have you heard that Luther
is dead?
OLAVUS. I have, your Highness.
KING.He was a splendid man! May he rest in peace!—Yes, such as
he was, he was a fine man, but we got rather too much of him.
OLAVUS. Too many dogmas and not enough of religion.
KING.He was an obstinate fellow and went too far. What he needed
was a taskmaster like you to call him to terms now and then.
OLAVUS.I hope the time of schism and dissension will come to an
end now.
KING. A time of dissension you may well call it!—Good-bye, Olof. [As
OLAVUS makes a mien of saying something] Yes, yes, I will write!

Curtain.

[1] A rough and inaccessible forest region on the eastern shore of

Lake Vettern, marking the border-line between the province of
Småland in the south and Ostergötland (East Gothia) in the north.
[2] As far back as we know the two principal ornaments of a
Swedish bride have been the crown—sometimes woven out of
myrtle and sometimes made of metal and semi-precious stones—
and the wreath, always made of myrtle.
[3] The Elector Frederick was a son-in-law of the deposed
Christian II of Denmark, and also one of the trusted liegemen of
Emperor Charles V, who hoped to see him the head of a reunited
Scandinavia dominated by German influences.
[4] Christian II was married to Isabelle, sister of Charles V.
[5] Engelbrecht Engelbrechtsson, a free miner of Dalecarlia, was
the first one of a series of notable chieftains who led the Swedish
people in their determination to rid the country of the Danish
kings after these had shown a growing inclination to treat Sweden
as a Danish province, and not as an independent kingdom, united
on equal terms with Denmark and Norway. At the head of the
Dalecarlians, Engelbrecht began the work of liberation in 1434,
and was remarkably successful in a short time. Unfortunately, he
was treacherously and shamefully killed while crossing the Lake
Maelaren only two years later. To the Swedes he has ever since
been the symbol of their national independence and unity, and
 he, the simple country squire, remains to this day one of the most
beloved and revered figures in Swedish history. It is to him Barbro
refers in the opening scenes of the play, and his name is heard
again in the closing scenes, with the appearance of his simpler
namesake.
[6] An old Swedish custom and superstition, prescribing that
every child must be spanked on the date mentioned in order to
insure its obedience during the whole ensuing year. That custom
still survived when the translator was a child, although for many
decades the spanking had been a mere formality serving as an
excuse for some little gift or treat.

ACT V
The terrace in front of the Royal Palace, with trimmed hedges,
statuary, and a fountain. Chairs, benches, and tables are placed
about. The near background shows a balustrade with Tuscan
columns, on which are placed flowers in faïence pots. Beyond
the balustrade appear tree tops, and over these tower the tops
of masts, from which blue and yellow flags are flying. In the far
background, a number of church spires.
The MOTHER-IN-LAW of the KING is on the terrace in her Cistercian
dress.

QUEEN. [Enters] For the last time I beg you, mother, don't wear that
dress!
MOTHER-IN-LAW. It is my festive garb, and I am as proud of it as you
of your ermine robe.
QUEEN. What is the use of being proud? The day of disaster is upon
us all, and we must hold together.
MOTHER-IN-LAW. Let us do so then, and have peace.
QUEEN. Yes, so you say, but you won't even change dress for the
sake of the country's peace.
MOTHER-IN-LAW.I don't change faith as you change clothes, and there
is a solemn vow to God connected with this dress. The people are
making threats against my life. Let them take it! I have my grave-
clothes on.
QUEEN.Don't you know that we may have to flee this very day, if the
news should prove as bad as yesterday?
MOTHER-IN-LAW. I will not flee.
QUEEN. Everything has already been packed by order of the King,
and our sloop lies at the foot of the southern hills, ready to hoist
sail.
MOTHER-IN-LAW. I have nothing to pack, because I own nothing. "Be
thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life." That's
what I used to learn. But you have sold your birthright for a crown
which soon will no longer be yours.
QUEEN. Go on and punish me; it feels like a relief.

PRINCE ERIC appears on the terrace; his dress and appearance

are orderly, and his mien subdued.

MOTHER-IN-LAW. Can you tell me what has come over Eric these last
days? He looks quite submissive, and something new has come into
his face that used to be so hard.
QUEEN. I don't know, but they say that he has changed his ways and
cannot bear the company of Jorghen. I have heard whispers about a
serious affection....
MOTHER-IN-LAW. No!
QUEEN. [To ERIC] What news do you bring?
ERIC. [Gently and respectfully] No news at all, mother.
QUEEN. [To her mother] He called me mother! [To ERIC] How fare
you, Eric? Is life heavy?
ERIC. Heavier than it was the day before yesterday.
QUEEN. What happened yesterday?
ERIC.What happens to a human being only once in a lifetime.—Are
you much wiser now?
QUEEN. [To her mother] How childlike he has grown! [To Eric] Have
you heard anything of your friend Jacob?
ERIC. Yes, he was my real friend, and so they took his head.
QUEEN. Now you are unjust. There has been no attempt to take the
head of Jorghen....
ERIC.He is no longer my friend. [Peevishly] But now I don't want to
be questioned any longer, least of all about my secrets—that is,
about the secrets of my heart.
QUEEN. [To her mother] He is quite charming in his childishness.
Apparently he would love to talk of his secret.

PRINCE JOHAN enters.

ERIC. [Going to meet him] Soon we may have nothing left to fight
over, brother Johan, and so—it seems to me we may as well be
friends.
JOHAN. With a right good heart, brother! Nothing could give me
greater pleasure.
Give me your hand! [They shake hands] I don't want to be the
ERIC.
enemy of any human being after this.

[He goes out, deeply moved.

MOTHER-IN-LAW. [To Johan] What's the matter with Eric?

JOHAN. He has found a sweetheart, they say.
QUEEN. What did I say?
MOTHER-IN-LAW. Are you coming with me to the mass in the chapel,
Johan? [When JOHAN hesitates and does not answer, she says
sharply] Johan!
QUEEN. Mother!
MOTHER-IN-LAW. Is he free to follow his conscience, or is he not?
QUEEN. If you will leave his conscience alone, he will be free.
MOTHER-IN-LAW. Well, I am going, and you know where, Johan. [She
goes out.
QUEEN. Johan!
JOHAN. What do you wish?
QUEEN. That you do not desert your childhood faith.
JOHAN.My childhood faith, which I got from my nurse, and not from
you, was also the childhood faith of my father. Why did you not give
me yours?
QUEEN. Yes, punish me. You have a right to do so. Everything comes
home to us now. I was young then. Life was nothing but a game.
The King demanded my company at banquets and festivities, and so
your cradle was left unattended and unguarded. Those were the
days when we were drunk with victory and happiness. And now!—
Go where you find it possible to worship, Johan, and pray for your
mother!
JOHAN. If it hurts my gracious mother, I won't go.
QUEEN. Pray for us all! [In a lowered voice] I do not know the new
prayers and must not use the old ones!—Hush now! The King is
coming.

PRINCE JOHAN goes in the direction previously taken by the KING'S

MOTHER-IN-LAW.
 The KING enters, holding a letter in his hand. He is accompanied
by MASTER OLAVUS PETRI.

KING. [To the QUEEN] Have everything ready for the start. We are
lost!
QUEEN. The will of God be done!
KING.That's what seems to be happening. Go and look after your
house, child.

The QUEEN goes out.

KING. [To OLAVUS] This is the situation. Dacke answers that he does
not care to see "that rebel, and perjurer, and breaker of safe-
conducts, Ericsson." He rails me Ericsson, mind you. His people have
reached as far north as Södermanland—which means that they are
right at our gates! Furthermore, two thousand Dalecarlians are
encamped at the North Gate. Their intentions are not known, but
can easily be guessed. A fine prophet you are, Olof!
OLAVUS. We have not seen the end yet.
KING. Where do you get your confidence from?
OLAVUS. That's more than I can tell, but I know that everything will
end well.
KING. You say that you know? How do you know? I have ceased to
believe anything—except in the wrath of God, which has been
turned against me. I am now waiting for the axe. Good and well! I
have done my service and am now to be discharged. That's why I
wish to leave before I am kicked out.—Do you know what day it is
to-day? Nobody has thought of it, and I didn't remember until just
now.... It is Midsummer Day: my day, which no one celebrates. A
generation ago I made my entry into the capital on this day. That
was the greatest moment of my life. I thought the work of liberation
was done, and I thanked God for it!—But it had not been done, and
I am not done with it yet.—The Dalecarlians rose. I subdued them,
and thought that I was done, which I was not. Twice more they
rose, and each time I gave thanks to God, thinking I had done—
which was not the case. The lords of West Gothia rose. I squelched
them, and was happy, thinking that I surely must have done by that
time—which I had not. And now, Olof?—We are never done until
done for—and that's where I am now!
OLAVUS. Oh, no, there is a whole lot left.
KING. Where do you get your fixed ideas from? Have you heard some
bird sing, or have you been dreaming?
OLAVUS. Neither.
KING.[Listening] Listen! That's the sound of birch-horns. Do they
mean to give me a crown of birch, like the one I gave to Peder the
Chancellor and Master Knut? Or is it the scaffold that.... that?...
OLAVUS. Oh, don't!
KING. What was it you called that thing—piety? Much it would have
availed me to have piety at Larv Heath or Tuna Plain![1]—No, I have
been right, right, right, so God help me, amen!

OLAVUS makes no answer.

KING.[Listening] They have drums, too.—Oh, everything comes

home!—Do you think I can get out of this, Olof?
OLAVUS. I do! And let me give you a final piece of advice: don't leave!
KING. I don't see how it can be avoided. Do you think I'll let them
take my head?—Do you know, I can actually hear the tramp-tramp
of their feet as they come marching through the North Gate. And
that's the Dalecarlians—my own Dalecarlians! Oh, life is cruel! Can
you hear it? Tramp—tramp—tramp! Do you think I can get out of
this?
OLAVUS. I do.
KING. When the sun rises to-morrow I shall know my fate. I wish I
were that far already!—Now I hear something else! [The reading of
a litany in Latin is faintly heard from the outside] What is that?
OLAVUS. [Goes to the balustrade and looks over it] The Queen's
mother is reading the Romish litany.
KING. But I hear a male voice, too.
OLAVUS. That's Prince Johan.
KING. Johan?—So I must drink that cup, too! I wonder if the cup is
full yet? Is everything that I have built to be torn down?
OLAVUS. Everything you have torn down must be built up again.
KING. Johan a papist, and Eric a Calvinist!—Do you remember the
days when we were crying in the words of Von Hutten: "The souls
are waking up, and it is a joy to live"? A joy to live, indeed—ha-ha!
And the souls woke up to find their feet on the pillows! Was it you
who said that the gods are playing with us?—Hush! I was mistaken a
while ago! It's the North Bridge they are crossing! Can't you hear
their heavy tread on the planking of the bridge? Let us fly! [He puts
a document on a table] Here I place my resignation.
[Seizing the document] I'll take care of that. I'll keep it—as a
OLAVUS.
memento! And now we'll hoist a flag of truce.

He pulls a white cloth from one of the tables and ties it to the
branch of a tree.

PRINCE ERIC. [Enters] Father!

KING. Croak away, raven!
ERIC.Our last hope is gone! The sloop has dragged its anchor and
gone ashore.
KING. [In desperation] And lightning has struck the nursery, and the
grasshoppers have eaten the crops, and the waters are rising, and....
ERIC. The Dalecarlians are negotiating with the palace guards, and
they are awfully drunk.
KING. [Sitting down] Come on, death!
ERIC.[Listening] I can hear their wooden shoes on the garden stairs!
[He goes to the balustrade.
KING. [Counting on his fingers] Anders Persson, Mons Nilsson, Master
John.
ERIC. [Drawing his sword] Now he is here!

He can be seen following somebody on the other side of the

balustrade with his eyes.

KING. [As before] Inghel Hansson, Master Stig, Nils of Söderby. God
is just!
ENGELBRECHT. [Enters; he is in the happy stage of intoxication, but in
full control of his movements for all that; he looks about with a
broad grin on his face, a little embarrassed, and yet pleased; then
he says to ERIC] Are you the King?

He puts his hat on the ground and takes off his wooden shoes.

KING. [Rising and pushing ERIC aside] No, I am the King!

ENGELBRECHT. Yes, so I see now!
KING. Who are you?
ENGELBRECHT. [Faltering] Don't you know me?...
KING. I don't.
ENGELBRECHT. [Pulls a dagger with silver handle out of his long
stocking and shows it to the KING, grinning more broadly than ever]
Well, don't you know this one?
KING. I don't understand at all. What is your name?
ENGELBRECHT. Well—it happens to be Engelbrecht!
KING. Eng-el-brecht?
ENGELBRECHT. It sounds mighty big, but I am not of that family.—You
see, it was like this—once upon a time the King—who was no king at
all then—oh, mercy, but I am drunk!... Well, it was me who followed
you on skis to the border of Norway, and that time you gave me this
here dagger and said: "If you ever need me, come on!" Now I've
come, and here I am! And I wish only that I was not so frightfully
drunk!
KING. And what do you want?
ENGELBRECHT. What I want?—I want to fight that man Dacke, of
course, and that's what the rest of them want, too.
KING. You want to fight Dacke?
ENGELBRECHT. Why do you think we have come, anyhow?
KING. [Raising his arms toward heaven] Eternal God, now you have
punished me!
ENGELBRECHT. Is it all right? You see, the rest are down there and
they'd like to do something to celebrate the day.
KING. Is it all right?—Ask me for a favour!
ENGELBRECHT. [After thinking hard] I'd like to shake hands!

The KING holds out his hand.

ENGELBRECHT. [Looking at the King's hand] My, what a fist! Hard as

nails, but clean! Yes, and a devil of a fellow you are, all in all!—I
must say I was rather scared when I came here!
KING. Are all the rest of them as drunk as you are?
ENGELBRECHT. About the same! But they can toot the horns for all
that. [He goes to the balustrade, waves his hand and utters the yell
used by the Dalecarlians in calling their cows] Poo-ala! Poo-ala! Poo
Oy-ala! Oy-ala! Oy!
 The blowing of horns and beating of drums is heard from the
outside.
The KING goes to the balustrade and waxes his hand.
The MOTHER-IN-LAW appears in court dress.
The QUEEN enters and goes to the KING, who folds her in his
arms.
PRINCE JOHAN enters and goes to the balustrade.

KING. [With raised arms] You have punished me, O Lord, and I thank
thee!

Curtain

[1]Larv Heath was the place where the dissatisfied lords of West
Gothia summoned the peasants to meet them in 1529, when they
tried to raise the province against the King. Tuna Plain, to which
Mons Nilsson and his friends refer a number of times in the first
act, was the place where Gustav settled his first score with the
obstreperous Dalecarlians.

MUSICAL APPENDIX TO "THE BRIDAL CROWN"

NOTE TO THE MUSIC
The song of the long-tailed duck is given by Strindberg in the
first part of his "The Swedish People in War and Peace."
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