Harmonics Principle

Transformer Neutral Current

 Harmonic Currents in the Data Center: A Case Study

The net result is the present design practice of rating the neutral conductors for three-phase
Wye 4-wire feeders and branch circuits in IT data center environment at 173% of the phase
current. This practice is fine, if the actual load is 100% nonlinear load. While this is correct
for a high-density nonlinear distributed PC desktop or office environment, it doesn’t take into
account load diversity in an IT data center rack environment.

Neutral current in 4-wire wye circuits with load diversity

Where the diversity is encountered, i.e., a mixture of linear and nonlinear loads, the following
formula can be used to calculate the total rms neutral current.

k = harmonic currents, i.e., triplens – 3rd (180Hz), 9th (), 15th (90540Hz 0Hz), etc.

This formula takes into account both the linear and nonlinear load effects on the neutral
conductor. It also accounts for load imbalance of either linear or nonlinear loads. Generally
it is sufficient to use the 3rd & 9th as these are two dominant triplen harmonic currents.

Power factor in IT data center circuits with load diversity

Where a circuit contains a diversity of loads the total circuit power factor can be calculated
with the following formula.

Where: DPF = Displacement Power Factor THDi = Circuit Current % Total Harmonic
Distortion expressed as a decimal.

Case study The effects of load diversity are best illustrated through review of actual system data
measurements. Measurements were conducted to determine the power factors, neutral
current levels, and harmonics in a typical IT data center rack environment. Two installed
InfraStruxure™ (ISX) Type B systems were used in this study. The InfraStruxure™ Type B
architecture uses three-phase 20A multi-wire branch circuits (4-wire +ground) to efficiently
feed power to high density IT rack enclosures.

The system studied is installed at OneBeacon in Foxboro MA. This system consists of a 60
kVA, K-1, 480 delta input, 208 Y/120 output transformer feeding an APC Symmetra™ PX (40

Schneider Electric – Data Center Science Center White Paper 38 Rev 1 4

 Hazards of
Harmonics and
Neutral Overloads

White Paper #26

Revision 0
Harmonics overload building power transformers and cause them to wear out.
Power transformers are rated in KVA and are designed to carry currents at the power line frequency (50 or
60 Hz). The factor that limits the power handling capacity of a transformer is how hot it gets. The heat in a
transformer is caused by the inherent resistance of the transformer and the current carried by it. When a
power transformer carries harmonic currents, an effect known as the proximity effect (sometimes confused
with the eddy current effect) causes the effective resistance of the transformer to increase with frequency.
The result is that the transformer rating must be decreased if the transformer carries significant harmonic
currents, otherwise it will overheat and wear out due to insulation degradation. Transformer failures are
often catastrophic and emit noxious fumes or fire; they can result in facility closure for days and a variety of
health and safety consequences.

For this to be a problem, three things must happen together: 1) The transformer must be loaded nearly to
capacity (unusual); 2) The transformer must have a poor "K" factor rating (bad proximity effect design); and
3) The load in the building must be mainly PCs. This is a real potential problem especially in situations
where a large number of PCs have been deployed. Again, the location for concern is typically an office
environment with high PC density such as a call center. The problem is no longer of concern in the
datacenter environment as explained previously.

Abatement and mitigation of harmonic problems

There are a number of approaches to avoiding harmonic problems. These include:

1. Specifying equipment that does not create harmonics

2. Correcting harmonics
3. Oversizing neutral wiring
4. K-rated transformers

Specifying equipment that does not create harmonics

In the case of networking equipment, the problem is solved because of the IEC regulations. In the case of
PCs, it is more difficult since a large amount of the harmonic contribution comes from the monitor. One
approach is to use PCs and monitors with lower power draw overall, such as the use of LCD monitors or
laptop PCs. This avoids both building wiring and transformer problems.

Correcting Harmonics
If a UPS is used in conjunction with the equipment, then in some cases the UPS can correct or eliminate
the harmonics. Some single phase UPS like the APC Symmetra eliminates neutral current entirely. If a
power factor correcting UPS is used to power clusters of PCs, the harmonics problem cannot pass
upstream to the building wiring or power transformers. This approach has the advantage that it can be
retrofit to an existing building, and used with existing loads. It also corrects both the wiring and the

2003 American Power Conversion. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be used, reproduced, photocopied, transmitted, or 7
stored in any retrieval system of any nature, without the written permission of the copyright owner. www.apc.com
transformer issues. For other types of loads, such as large industrial motor drives which are not covered by
the harmonic regulations, specialized products are available that can absorb harmonics near the source.

Oversizing neutral wiring

In modern facilities the neutral wring should always be specified to be the same capacity as the power
wiring (or larger). This is in contrast the electrical codes which may permit undersizing the neutral wire.
An appropriate design in the case of a large Personal Computer load like a call center is to specify the
neutral wiring to exceed the phase wire capacity by about 50% (2 wire gauges in USA i.e. if the phase
wiring is 8 gauge, the neutral wiring should be 6 gauge). Particular attention should be paid to wiring in
office cubicles. This protects the building wiring, but does not help protect the transformers.

K-rated transformers
Modern office facilities with high densities of PCs should always be specified to include transformers with a
"K" rating of at least 9. These transformers have been specially designed to withstand harmonic currents.
For datacenters, a "K" rating of 9 would be sufficient to ensure harmonic carrying capability for the fraction
of the datacenter consisting of old legacy loads, PC loads, or lighting loads.

Conclusion
International regulations have dramatically affected the power requirements for computing systems.
Networking equipment, once rightly accused of "power pollution" and of causing fires due to overheated
transformers and wiring, have transformed into one of the "cleanest" loads to be found in a modern
commercial or industrial establishment. Datacenter design standards specifying double neutrals or
transformers with K=20 ratings are driving needless expense and should be updated.

2003 American Power Conversion. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be used, reproduced, photocopied, transmitted, or 8
stored in any retrieval system of any nature, without the written permission of the copyright owner. www.apc.com
K – Factor Transformer
K-Factor Dry-Type Transformers - Type FHK
Figure 1
Application Distorted 3rd and 5th Resultant Harmonic Waveform
    

600 Volt Class

electrical components and circuitry
constantly changing, the demand is Fundamental Wave
forced upon the electrical power in-
dustry to produce and supply a clean
source of electrical energy. 3rd Harmonic

The Problem
The extensive utilization of solid state
power conversion technologies has
7th
created new problems for the power 5th Harmonic
industry and power engineer designer. Harmonic
This technology, called Switch Mode Resultant
Power Supply (SMPS), consists of Wave
various types of solid state switching
elements. These switching elements
        (Non-linear loads can produce additive 3rd order harmonic currents which may create
            overloaded neutral conductors.)
These switching devices are in
computers, copy machines, fax ma-
chines, tele-communications equip-
ment, solid-state drives and controls, What Are Harmonics (multiples of the 60 Hz fundamental
 !#$&      $& '*+++/49 frequency), which are all generated
numerous types of DC-Power Loads. latest edition. by the non-linear load. Figure 1 shows
These solid state elements continu- the resultants of a distorted 3rd and
ously switch on and off producing Harmonic 5th harmonic waveform. It is not un-
non-linear or non-sinusoidal wave Harmonic components are repre- common for portions of an industrial
shapes in the current supplied from sented by a periodic wave having a power system to have 15 to 25% of
the energy source. frequency that is an integral multiple Total Harmonic Distortion (THD).
of the fundamental frequency. THD is calculated as the square
While a linear load uses current from root of the sum of the squares of all
the AC source continuously over the In other words, harmonics are volt-
ages or currents at frequencies that are harmonics, divided by the normal 60
sinusoidal cycle, a non-linear load hertz value as shown in Equation 1
(such as the SMPS) uses current integer multiples of the fundamental
in large pulses from the AC source (60 Hz) frequency, e.g. 120 Hz, 180
which creates harmonic distortion. Hz, 240 Hz, 300 Hz, etc. Harmonics Equation 1
These non-linear current pulses may are designated by their harmonic RMS RMS 
 RMSN ] 
exceed the nameplate ampere rating number, or multiple of the fundamen- THD=
tal frequency. Thus, a harmonic with  RMS ] 
of the power source and may cause
transformers to run hotter than ex- a frequency of 180 Hz (three times
pected, even when these transformers the 60 Hz fundamental Frequency) This yields a root-mean-square
are supplying less than 50% of their is called the 3rd harmonic. (RMS) value of distortion as a per-
rated nameplate capacity. Harmonics superimpose themselves centage of the fundamental 60 hertz
on the fundamental waveform, dis- waveform.
With non-linear loads, overloaded
neutrals are also showing up in three- torting it and changing its magnitude. Therefore, THD is the percent of odd
phase panel boards serving single- For instance, when a sine wave volt- harmonics (3rd, 5th, 7th, ..., 25th, ...)
phase loads. In some cases the neutral age source is applied to a non-linear present in the load which can affect
conductor carries 180 Hertz currents, load connected from phase-to-neutral the transformer. This condition is
rather than 60 Hertz currents. This on a 3-phase, 4-wire wye circuit, the called a "Non-Linear Load" or "Non-
phenomenon is called triplen harmon- load itself will draw a current wave Sinusoidal Load".
ics. Triplens are multiples of three, made up of the 60 Hz fundamental
which do not cancel but are additive frequency of the voltage source plus
in the neutral conductor. 3rd and higher order odd harmonic

43
  (!&&+/##" #"&3!##"
! "  !# #  !#&&01 -#!"
$%$##&#"& "%2  1% 3  01 (!&&+#+&
"'!()*"& %   01%3  '!!#,"
(! & "  !# && (!"&##!&&+/ !&"&' 1!
!#'& 1!#"'!! )/"&#"4&
&!#!#+#,!! ## " &" ! &&' !# 
600 Volt Class

&&'#&-&. (! #"#  !  #&#"&+56788809  :: 

'!&&+/!&#

(A) 50% Non-Linear Load (K-4 9th harmonic plus 125% non-linear load which can
Rating) Beyond the 9th Harmonic the operate at a total (Ih(pu)2h2) K-factor
16.7% of the rated current at the percentages of the fundamen- load value of 20. See Table 1
3rd Harmonic tal current through the 25th (D) 150% Non-Linear Load (K-30
10.0% of the rated current at the Harmonic shall be equal to the Rating)
5th Harmonic reciprocal of the odd harmonic 50.0% of the rated current at the
7.1% of the rated current at the number involved times 1.0 3rd harmonic
7th Harmonic The FP Type FHK13 series trans- 30.0% of the rated current at the
5.6% of the rated current at the former is designed for 100% linear 5th harmonic
9th Harmonic load plus 100% non-linear load which 21.4% of the rated current at the
Beyond the 9th Harmonic the can operate at a total (Ih (pu)2h2) K- 7th harmonic
percentages of the fundamen- factor load value of 13.0. See Table 1 16.7% of the rated current at the
tal current through the 25th (C) 125% Non-Linear Load (K-20 9th harmonic
Harmonic shall be equal to the Rating) Beyond the 9th Harmonic the per-
reciprocal of the odd harmonic 41.7% of the rated current at the centages of the fundamental current
number involved times 0.5 3rd harmonic through the 25th Harmonic shall be
The FP Type FHK4 series transformer 25.0% of the rated current at the equal to the reciprocal of the odd
is designed for 100% linear load plus 5th harmonic harmonic number involved times
50% non-linear load which can oper- 17.9% of the rated current at the 1.50
ate at a total Ih (pu)2 h2 K-factor load 7th harmonic The FP Type FHK30 series trans-
value of 4.0. See Table 1 13.9% of the rated current at the former is designed for 100%linear
(B) 100% Non-Linear Load (K-13 9th harmonic load plus 150% non-linear load which
Rating) Beyond the 9th Harmonic the can operate at a total (Ih(pu)2h2) K-
33.3% of the rated current at the percentages of the fundamen- factor load value of 30. See Table 1
3rd harmonic tal current through the 25th 1RWH In these examples the amount of non-linear
20.0% of the rated current at the Harmonic shall be equal to the         -
5th harmonic reciprocal of the odd harmonic                 
    
14.3% of the rated current at the number involved times 1.25       
7th harmonic The FP Type FHK20 series transform-     
11.1% of the rated current at the er is designed for 100%linear load

Table 1 Examples of K-Factor Loads

K-4 K-13 K-20 K-30
Harmonic (h) Current (Ih) Ih (pu) Ih (pu) 2h2 Current (Ih) Ih (pu) Ih (pu) 2h2 Current (Ih) Ih (pu) Ih (pu) 2h2 Current (Ih) Ih (pu) Ih (pu) 2h2
1 00.000% 1.000 1.000 100.000% 1.000 1.000 100.000% 1.000 1.000 100.000% 1.000 1.000
3 16.667% 0.167 0.250 33.333% 0.333 1.000 41.667% 0.417 1.563 50.000% 0.500 2.250
5 10.000% 0.100 0.250 20.000% 0.200 1.000 25.000% 0.250 1.563 30.000% 0.300 2.250
7 7.143% 0.071 0.250 14.286% 0.143 1.000 17.857% 0.179 1.563 21.429% 0.214 2.250
9 5.556% 0.056 0.250 11.111% 0.111 1.000 13.889% 0.139 1.563 16.667% 0.167 2.250
11 4.545% 0.045 0.250 9.091% 0.091 1.000 11.364% 0.114 1.563 13.636% 0.136 2.250
13 3.846% 0.038 0.250 7.692% 0.077 1.000 9.615% 0.096 1.563 11.538% 0.115 2.250
15 3.333% 0.033 0.250 6.667% 0.067 1.000 8.333% 0.083 1.563 10.000% 0.100 2.250
17 2.941% 0.029 0.250 5.882% 0.059 1.000 7.353% 0.074 1.563 8.824% 0.088 2.250
19 2.632% 0.026 0.250 5.263% 0.053 1.000 6.569% 0.066 1.563 7.895% 0.079 2.250
21 2.381% 0.024 0.250 4.762% 0.048 1.000 5.952% 0.060 1.563 7.143% 0.071 2.250
23 2.174% 0.022 0.250 4.348% 0.043 1.000 5.435% 0.054 1.563 6.522% 0.065 2.250
25 2.000% 0.020 0.250 4.000% 0.040 1.000 5.000% 0.050 1.563 6.000% 0.060 2.250

44
K-Factor Transformer K-20, K-30, K-40: The higher num- Theory also states that for even har-
ber of each of these K-factor ratings monics, starting with the second or-
Ratings indicates ability to handle succes- der, when balanced the even harmonic
The K-Factor rating assigned to a sively larger amounts of harmonic will cancel in the common neutral.
transformer and marked on the trans- load content without overheating. Other odd harmonics add in the com-
former case in accordance with the Table 1 Gives examples of K-factor mon neutral, but their magnitude is
listing of Underwriters Laboratories, loads. considerably less than triplens. The
  <#  #   &- RMS value of the total current is
ity to supply harmonic content in its

600 Volt Class

Triplen Harmonics the square root of the RMS value of
load current while remaining within the individual currents squared. As
its operating temperature limits. A Triplen harmonic currents are phase
 XYX#  # shown in Equation 2
$=!#     
a transformer can supply its rated phases into the fourth wire neutral and
have frequencies in integer multiples Equation 2
KVA load output to a load of speci-
$ #   of three times the 60 hertz base fre-
quency (180Hz, 360Hz, 540Hz, etc). (&>      )/   3)/  2 )/
present, industry literature and com- 
)/

mentary refers to a limited number At each of these third multiple triplen

of K-factor ratings: K-1, K-4, K-9, frequencies, these triplen phase cur-
rents are in phase with each other !>?@7
K-13, K-20, K-30, K-40. In theory,
a transformer could be designed for XYX  
other K-factor ratings in-between zero sequence currents, are equal to
those values, as well as for higher three times their RMS phase values. The UL Approach for
values. The commonly referenced See Figure 2
ratings calculated according to ANSI/
Transformers Supplying
In a 3-phase, 4-wire system, single- Non-Sinusoidal Loads
IEEE C57.110-1998 are as follows:   !!    YX 5 5    "
K-1: This is the rating of any con- in each phase conductor and return with loads drawing non-sinusoidal
ventional transformer that has been in the common neutral. Since the currents shall be marked "Suitable
designed to handle only the heating ef- three 60 hertz currents are separated for non-sinusoidal current load with
fects of eddy currents and other losses by 120°, when balanced they cancel K-factor not to exceed x. (x= 4, 9,
resulting from 60 Hertz, sine-wave each other. The measured resultant 13, 20, 30, 40 or 50)
current loading on the transformer. current is equal to zero. See Figure 2.
Such a unit may or may not be de- B. Formulas to determine eddy
Figure 2 losses and total losses where the
signed to handle the increased heating Development of
of harmonics in its load current. transformer load losses (PLL) are to
Triplen Harmonic Current be determined as follows:
K-4: A transformer with this rating
has been designed to supply rated "3!)/#"> PLL=PDC(1+K(PEC))


KVA, without overheating, to a load ØC

where:
made-up of 100% of the normal 60 PDC = the total I2R losses
Hertz, sine-wave, fundamental cur-     
K= the K-factor rating at the trans-
rent plus: 16% of the fundamental   

 
former (4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40 or 50)
as 3rd harmonic current; 10% of the
fundamental as 5th; 7% of the funda- ØB
PEC= assumed eddy current losses
mental as 7th; 5.5% of the fundamen- calculated as follows:
"&3!##" 
tal as 9th; and smaller percentages )/ !"&#">3-!#"
for transformers rated
through the 25th harmonic. The "4" P5;<*;
300 KVA or less, and
indicates its ability to accommodate P*;
four times the eddy current losses of For transformers rated
a K-1 transformer. ØA, ØB, ØC
;<5;<*;
3rd Harmonic more than 300 KVA
K-9: A K-9 transformer can accom- Currents       P*; 
modate 163% of the harmonic loading
of a K-4 rated transformer. in which:
PAC = the impedance loss
K-13: A K-13 transformer can accom-
modate 200% of the harmonic loading !     "#$ %   C= 0.7 for transformers having a turn
of a K-4 rated transformer.   &      ratio greater than 4:1 and having one
%      '    or more windings with a current rating
            greater than 1000 amperes, or C=0.6
           for all other transformers
in the neutral.
PDC-I = the I2R losses for the inner winding

45
Multiplying Effect of Calculating K-Factor Loads
Cascading Shielded 1. List the KVA value for each load 4. Next, add-up the KVA-ILK values
Transformers category to be supplied. Next, as- for all loads or load categories to
sign an ILK value that corresponds be supplied by the transformer.
Having the presence of an upline trans- to the relative level of harmonics
former with an electrostatic shield may drawn by each type of load. See 5. Divide the grand total KVA-ILK
mean that other shielded transformers Table 2. value by the total KVA load to be

600 Volt Class

would not be required in the system. supplied. This will give an average
However, if a shielded transformer feeds 2. Multiply the KVA of each load ILK for that combination of loads.
another shielded transformer, there is an times the ILK rating that corre- (Total KVA-ILK) ÷ (Total KVA) =
effect of the attenuation ratio multiplying as sponds to the assigned K-factor average ILK
shown in Figure 3If the attenuation ratio is rating. This result is an indexed
100:1 in each of the transformers, the total KVA-ILK value: 6.Z \ &^$=!#  -
attenuation will be 100x100=10,000:1.
Obviously, cascading inherently multiplies KVA x ILK=KVA -ILK ing whose ILK is equal to or greater
the attenuation effectiveness of shielded than the calculated ILK.
transformers. The term cascading means 3. Tabulate the total connected load
that two or more transformers are con- KVA for all load categories to be Corresponding to this ILK is the K-
nected in series on the same system. supplied. factor of the transformer required.

Figure 3 Table 2 Typical Typical

Electrostatic Shield - Attenuation 100:1
Load K-Factor ILK
480 V 480 V
4160 V
Loads ##C'!' %  
8&##?#)' %  
@!"&4  %  
;&(8&#'#;&*4# %  
@F!"&4  %  
Shield
Attenuation
*+"( %  
100:1 8&##*#!'C'!' %2 0
208Y/120V 208Y/120V
G<7I&"& %2 0
Total Attenuation Total Attenuation 500:1
10,000:1 Most 120V Loads; Lighting, Office J& %2 0
Very Sensitive Loads Machinery, Personal Computers,
Electronic Controls "#)'8K" %2 0
(    ) )    <C;7&7;& %2 0
upline transformer and the attenuation ratios for (&#"#8K"'<EL  % 3 0992
    ) )  - U<7!""&' % 3 0992
ers. In most systems, only one shielded upline @"&?##&;#"F&;5
transformer is required.
 )&!;#&;&7#!&#% 3 0992
@"&?##&;#"7"&'#
('8K"5+&<"#C % 3 0992
@;"C %  :2
Estimating K-Factor Loads @"&?##&;#";#&;I'
For the most part, each designer or in-  ?#4?5)& %  :2
staller must make his/her own decision @"&?##&;#""&@#&
regarding what K-factor to assign to any  8"#&C+ %3 302
load or load category. The following table @"&?##&;#";#&I,#7# %3 302
is intended to assist in that determina- 7&&@#  %3 302
tion by presenting what we believe are I!C,<"#'A)'!5"
realistic, yet conservative, K-factors for
a number of loads and load categories  )# %2   9
based on their relative harmonic produc- ?!8*@'/
ing capabilities.

Table 3 Index of Load K-ratings

K-factor %  %2 %: % 3 %  %3 %2
ILK  0  229  0992 :2 302   9

47
 Examples:
Problem 1
;&#"&!4&&%#4&&&
C;' %A5C- C% >%A5C%A&"
*#!'&'!' 9 - 0  > 92
?##&##"  - 302 > 29
600 Volt Class

@#" 0 - :2 > 229

@4 0 - :2 > 229
@4 0 -  > 
(&     9 ::
(&%A5C%(&%A5>4'C%
9 :: >020>4'C%
(+&3!%#'!K"&!4'C%
020% 3!C%0992

Problem 2
;&#"&!"&%3&!#+!&+ 0%A5
% 3!:%A5##
1.*!4&+&% 3%A5C%"'!C%!#
!M%#'
%A5-C%>%A5C%
:-0992>0 :%A5C%
2.*4!%A5C%+!-C%'!&+
"&
(!C%%3& 302
%A5C%&C%Q%3>-"&%A5
0 : 302>2 %A5-"&%A5
3.(!&2 %A5%3&#"&+!
(!&&'!+&"-"&
&'!
For a transformer already partially loaded, any additional KVA loading must
take into consideration the K-factor of each of the new loads to be added.

48
  The following graph, taken from a draft of the IEEE 519
Application Guide (1996), shows the recommended derating rate
for a transformer supplying electronic loads:

Electronic load

Recommended derating rate for a transformer supplying electronic loads. For

example: 40% derating if the transformer supplies 40% of electronic loads.

 Standard UTE C15-112 suggests a transformer derating factor

based on the type of harmonic current encountered:

Typical values:
• «Rectangular» current (spectrum in 1/h(*)): k = 0.86
• Frequency converter type current (THD ≅ 50%): k = 0.80
(*) in fact, as is the case with all rectifiers (three-phase rectifiers, induction furnaces,
etc.) the current signal closely resembles a rectangle.

 Standard ANSI C57.110 recommends a derating factor known

as the « K factor », which is obtained as follows:

The K-factor, which is more restrictive, is widely used in North

America.

In the following example, a « K-factor » of 13 is obtained:

H-order harmonic Harmonic current Ih (%)

5 30
7 20
11 14
13 11
17 8
19 7
23 5

Note that a transformer sized according to this « K-factor » will be

30 to 60% more expensive depending on its rated capacity, which
may vary from 15 to 500kVA.
Oversizing is only possible if the harmonic pollution level is
established and given to the manufacturer before the transformer
is designed.

T6 -3/7-
 As a guideline, for a Special Losses ratio of 10% compared with
Ohmic Losses, the derating factor of power as a function of the
factor Kn, to allow for harmonics, is given in the table below:

Value of factor K K4 K9 K13 K20 K30 K40 K50

Derating factor 0,886 0,761 0,692 0,606 0,524 0,469 0,428

 Do not forget that there is another preventive solution that can

feasibly be used with transformers: it consists in using
transformers with special vector groups, which effectively do
away with some harmonic orders.

Hence:
th th
• a "Dyd" vector group stops 5 and 7 order harmonics,
rd
• a "Dy" vector group stops 3 order harmonics (the harmonics
circulate in each phase and return via the neutral point of the
transformer).
th
• a "Dz" vector group stops 5 order harmonics, which return via
the magnetic core.

A "Dyd" transformer prevents 5th and 7th order harmonics from spreading to the
upstream network.

Filtering harmonics

In applications using power electronic components and UPSs, 2

phases of the alternative network are, from a dielectric point of
view, very briefly short-circuited at each switchover.
As a result, the MV and LV waveforms are distorted, harmonics
appear at the switching points, and the dv/dt values at these points
are very high.
The presence of these voltage harmonics at the switching points
puts the transformer under significant dielectric stress.

These recurring switching points (with an oscillation frequency of

approximately 10 kHz) may lead to premature ageing of the
transformer, or to internal resonance if the natural frequencies of
the transformer windings are in line with the oscillations of the
switching points.

If the preventive measures mentioned in the introduction above

prove inadequate, the polluted equipment should be fitted with a
filtering mechanism.

Three types of filter can be used, depending on the type of

application originally causing the harmonics:
- the passive filter,
- the active filter,
- the hybrid filter.

T6 -4/7-
 The passive filter:

Typical applications:

- industrial installations containing a number of harmonic

component generators, the overall power of which exceeds 200
kVA (speed changers, UPSs, rectifiers, etc.),
- installations requiring reactive energy compensation,
- reduction of the voltage distortion rate to protect sensitive
receivers,
- reduction of the current distortion rate to prevent overloads.

Operating principle:

A loop circuit (LC) is tuned to each harmonic frequency and, at the

same time, to the harmonic component generator.
This branch circuit absorbs the harmonics and prevents them from
circulating in the power supply.

Harmonic component Filter Linear load

generator

Passive filter operating principle

The passive filter is usually tuned to a harmonic order similar to

that which needs to be eliminated. Several branches of filters can
be used at the same time if the distortion rate needs to be
significantly reduced over several orders.

The active filter:

Typical applications:

- tertiary installations containing a number of harmonic component

generators, the overall power of which does not exceed 200 kVA
(speed changers, UPSs, office equipment, etc.),
- reduction of the current distortion rate to prevent overloads.

T6 -5/7-
 Operating principle:

The active filter consists of a power electronics system, which is

installed in series with or parallel to the non-linear load. Its purpose
is to compensate for either the stress caused by harmonics, or the
harmonic currents generated by the load.
The figure below shows an example of an active filter
compensating for the harmonic current: i har = - i act

Active
compens.

Harmonic component Linear load

generator

The active filter injects anti-phase harmonics into the load supply to
cancel existing harmonics. As a result, the loop current is
sinusoidal.

The hybrid filter:

Typical applications:

- industrial installations containing a number of harmonic

component generators, the overall power of which exceeds 200
kVA (speed changers, UPSs, rectifiers, etc.),
- installations requiring reactive energy compensation,
- reduction of the voltage distortion rate to protect sensitive
receivers,
- reduction of the current distortion rate to prevent overloads,
- compliance with strict harmonic emission requirements.

Operating principle:

The above two types of filter can be combined in the same

equipment to produce a hybrid filter: see figure below.
.
This new filtering solution has all the advantages of existing
solutions, and is appropriate for a wide range of powers and
performance levels.

T6 -6/7-
 Active
comp.

Harmonic component Linear load

generator Hybrid filter

Hybrid filter operating principle

Filter selection criteria and guidelines:

- The passive filter both compensates for reactive energy and

has significant current filtering capacity.
The equipment in which the filter is installed must be sufficiently
stable, with very little load fluctuation.
If the reactive power supply is significant, the passive filter should
be turned off during low load periods.
Existing compensation batteries should be taken into consideration
when studying the possibility of installing a passive filter, as they
may subsequently have to be removed.

- The active filter filters harmonics over a wide frequency band. It

is suitable for all loads. However, its harmonic power is limited.

- The hybrid filter combines the best attributes of both passive

and active filters.

These criteria can be used to establish filter selection guidelines,

according to the application in question:

Application type Passive filter Active filter hybrid filter

Office building (computing, air   

conditioning, lighting, lifts)
Paper, cardboard, plastics   
industries
(conveyor systems, coilers,
uncoilers)
Water treatment industry   
(pumping, agitating)
Handling (lifting, elevators)   
Key:
 - Totally suitable
 - Totally suitable technically, but not cost- effective
 - Satisfactory

Whichever solution you choose, you should discuss your choice

carefully with your Schneider Electric representative before
ordering any equipment, to avoid potentially disastrous on-site
complications.

T6 -7/7-
Harmonic Mitigating Transformers 7400DB0301
July 2003

Methods of Addressing Harmonics with Transformers may be used to address harmonics generated by non-
Transformers sinusoidal (non-linear) loads by providing good source impedance,
combining sine waves within the transformer, and combining sine waves at
the common bus feeding different transformers.

Source Impedance Source impedance has the effect of attenuating the crest factor created by a
non-linear load. Once the voltage rises to a specific point, the control
circuitry in the power supply allows a capacitor to be charged. With low
source impedance, the current drawn by the capacitor is high and the
duration of the charging cycle is short. Higher impedance does not allow as
much current to be drawn, and extends the time it takes to charge the
capacitor. This is how the crest factor is reduced, as well as the harmonics.
An example of how this has been done for years is the use of line reactors
or drive isolation transformers that feed drives, and, more significantly, this
is also done every time an isolation transformer is used!

Combining Sine Waves Not only do transformers improve the source impedance for non-sinusoidal
loads, but they also combine sine waves within the windings for additional
harmonic attenuation. To take it one step further, two or more transformers
of different phase angle shift(s) can be used to achieve further combination
of sine waves providing for more harmonic mitigation. The phase shifts can
be accomplished using standard NEMA wiring configurations or minor
variations thereof. Either way, it is not new technology.

Combining Sine Wave Theory The theory of combining sine waves is accomplished two ways.
• By using the inherent phase angle displacement of the electrical wave
shapes within the transformer which are then combined at the nodes, or
connection points, of the windings within the transformer.
• By combining the sine waves at the common bus feeding two
transformers of different phase shift.
This bulletin will concentrate on single-phase, line-to-neutral, non-linear
loads. Three phase non-linear loads have been successfully addressed
for over 50 years by using line reactors, drive isolation transformers, or
active filters.

8 © 2003 Schneider Electric All Rights Reserved

7400DB0301 Harmonic Mitigating Transformers
July 2003

Cancellation of the Triplens (3rd, 9th, 15th…) “Cancellation” of the triplen harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th…) can be achieved if a
60º phase shift is created between the two wave shapes, and then
combined.
Figure 9: Two Single-phase Non-linear Wave Shapes With a 60º
Phase Angle Difference

3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, 13th, 15th, 17th, 19th Harmonics

0º 60º

Figure 10: The Combination of The (Figure 9) Wave Shapes

5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, 19th Harmonics

The resultant wave shape of Figure 10 will be referred to as wave shape “A”
throughout this paper.
The triplen harmonics are no longer part of the wave shape. More
importantly, none of the energy was removed from the wave shape. Rather,
the sine waves were simply combined. This is one step where some
mistakenly assume the triplen harmonics to be circulating in the delta
winding of a delta-wye transformer.
The “A” is found on the line side of either a standard delta-wye or a wye-
zigzag transformer that feeding single-phase, line-to-neutral non-linear
loads.
Figure 11: Delta–Wye/Wye–Zig-zag

© 2003 Schneider Electric All Rights Reserved 9

Harmonic Mitigating Transformers 7400DB0301
July 2003

Figure 12: Two “A” Wave Shapes With a 60º Phase Angle Difference

17th, 19th, 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, 19th
0º 60º

Figure 13: The Combination of Two (Figure 12) “A” Wave Shapes.

5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, 19th Harmonics

The Figure 13 combination is created with two “A” wave shapes and a 60º
phase shift so the new “B” wave shape can be more easily understood.
No harmonic cancellation takes place in the (“A”) + (“A”+60º) combination.
This applies to harmonic mitigation/attenuation via transformers in
two ways.
• The “B” wave shape combination (remember, no triplen harmonics
present) can be obtained through tiering of delta-wye transformers as is
commonly done in many commercial and industrial facilities. The “B”
wave shape is found on the source side of a delta-wye transformer that
is feeding another delta-wye transformer downstream that is serving
computers, fax machines, and other office equipment.
• The delta-zigzag transformer takes the single-phase, line-to-neutral non-
linear single hump sine waves and combines them to get the “B” wave
shape. Once again, no energy was removed from the wave shape. The
sine waves are combined to yield a new sine wave in which the triplen
harmonics are not present.

Figure 14: Delta – Zigzag

10 © 2003 Schneider Electric All Rights Reserved

7400DB0301 Harmonic Mitigating Transformers
July 2003

Cancellation of the Triplens (3rd, 9th, 15th…) When a 30º phase shift is achieved between an “A” and a “B” wave shape
(see Figure 15), and the two are combined (see Figure 16), “cancellation” of
the 5th, 7th, 17th, and 19th occurs.

Figure 15: “B” Wave Shape With No Phase Shift; “A” Wave Shape
Phase Shifted By 30º

5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, 19th Harmonics in both “B” and

0º 30º

B A

Figure 16: The Combination of The “B” And 30º Phase Shifted “A”
Wave Shapes.

11th, 13th Harmonics

A+B

The “A” wave shape is phase shifted 30º and the “B” wave shape is not. The
30º phase shift of the “A” wave shape occurs with either the standard Delta-
Wye transformer or a Wye-Zigzag transformer as noted in Figure 11. The
“B” wave shape occurs with a Delta-Zigzag transformer (see Figure 14),
which has no inherent phase shift (0º) between the primary and secondary.
This can also occur within facilities with tiered delta-wye transformers.

© 2003 Schneider Electric All Rights Reserved 11

Harmonic Mitigating Transformers 7400DB0301
July 2003

One Step Further Could additional transformer winding configurations and sine wave
combinations theoretically eliminate all load harmonics on the supply side of
the transformers? Theoretically, yes, though it is not at all realistic in real
world applications. That will be discussed later in this paper. Theoretically, if
two A+B wave shapes were combined with one of the wave shapes phase
shifted by 15º, all of the harmonics could be “cancelled” (as shown in
Diagram 17).
Figure 17: Combination of Two “A+B” Wave Shapes With One Of
The Two Phase Shifted By 15º

11th and 13th Harmonics 11th and 13th Harmonics

0º 15º

No Harmonics

While the additional harmonic mitigation achieved in this last step may
appear attractive, the additional benefit would be miniscule when compared
to the additional cost involved, especially when the chance of this actually
occurring in a realistic application is essentially zero.

Electromagnetic Flux Cancellation Some HMTs are provided with a zigzag secondary winding. The zigzag
winding has a beneficial affect on triplen harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th,…) that
have a similar phase angle.

Figure 18: Some HMTs Are Offered As Delta-Zigzag or Wye-Zigzag

Primary (either Delta or Wye) Secondary

H
2 H x a’
3 3 x
c
C b’
A
H C B b
1 a
B
H H c’
2 A 1
H3 x
2
Wye Delta Zigzag

The zigzag is accomplished by winding half of the secondary turns of one

phase of the transformer on one leg of the three-phase transformer, with the
other half of the secondary turns on an adjacent phase as in Diagram 5.
Another way to describe this is a’ and a are wound on the same leg of the
core, as are b’ and b, and c’ and c. With all of the triplen harmonics in phase

12 © 2003 Schneider Electric All Rights Reserved

 UPS with PFC
(Power Factor Correction)
 UPS components and operation

Components of a UPS The information presented below concerns double-conversion UPSs, the
technology most commonly used by APC by Schneider Electric for power ratings
greater than 10 kVA.

General diagram of a UPS

The various items in the diagram below have been assigned numbers that
correspond to the sections on the following pages.

Fig. 5.6. Components of a UPS.

Power sources and UPS inputs

Practically speaking, a UPS has one or two inputs:
• Normal AC input (or Mains 1), supplied by primary power,
• Bypass AC input (or Mains 2), supplied by standby power (generally speaking via
a separate cable from the same main low-voltage switchboard (MLVS).
Î AC sources, see p. 9.

UPS connection to both the primary and standby-power sources (UPS inputs
supplied by two separate circuits from the MLVS) is recommended because overall
system reliability is increased. However, if two separate circuits from the MLVS are
not available, it is possible to have both AC inputs (normal and bypass) supplied by
primary power (second cable).
Management of transfers between the two input lines is organised as follows.
• The UPS synchronises the inverter output voltage with that of the bypass line as
long as the latter is within tolerances. It is thus possible, if necessary, for the static
switch to transfer the load to the bypass AC input, without a break (because the two
voltages are synchronised and in phase) or disturbances (because the standby
power is within tolerances) for the load.
• When standby power is not within tolerances, the inverter desynchronises and
transfer is disabled. It can, however, by carried out manually.
APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 16
 UPS components and operation (Cont.)

Components of a UPS
Rectifier/charger (1)
Transforms the AC power from the primary-power source into DC voltage and
current used to:
• Supply the inverter,
• Charge and float charge the battery.
Inverter (2)
Using the DC power supplied by the:
• Rectifier during normal operation,
• Battery during autonomous operation,
the inverter completely regenerates a sinusoidal output signal, within strict amplitude
and frequency tolerances.

Battery (3)
Makes the UPS autonomous with respect to the utility in the event of:
• A utility outage,
• Utility-power characteristics outside specified tolerances for the UPS.
Battery backup times range from 6 to 30 minutes as standard and can be extended
on request. Depending on the duration of the backup time, the battery is housed in
the UPS cabinet or in a separate cabinet.

Static bypass (4)

A static switch is used to transfer the load from the inverter to the bypass without any
interruption* in the supply of power to the load (no break because the transfer is
performed by electronic rather than mechanical components). The switch is possible
when the frequencies upstream and downstream of the UPS are identical.
Transfer takes place automatically for any of the following reasons:
• Voluntary shutdown of the UPS,
• An overload exceeding the limiting capacity of the inverter (this transfer can be
disabled),
• An internal fault.
It can also be carried out manually.
* No-break transfer is possible when the voltages at the inverter output and on the bypass AC
input are synchronised. The UPS maintains synchronisation as long as the standby power is
within tolerances.

Manual bypass (5)

A manual switch is used to transfer the load to the bypass for maintenance
purposes. The switch is possible when the frequencies upstream and downstream of
the UPS are identical.
The shift to manual-bypass mode is carried out using manual switches.

Manual switches (6, 7, 8)

These devices isolate the rectifier/charger and inverter modules and/or the bypass
line for servicing or maintenance.

Battery circuit breaker (9)

The battery circuit breaker protects the battery against excessive discharge, and the
rectifier/charger and inverter against a battery short-circuit.

Upstream isolating transformer (10)

(optional equipment)
Provides UPS input/output isolation when the downstream installation is supplied via
the bypass.
It is particularly useful when the upstream and downstream system earthing
arrangements are different. May be installed in the UPS cabinet in the MGE Galaxy
PW range.

Voltage-matching transformer (11)

(optional equipment)
Adapts the voltage to the desired value.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 17

 UPS components and operation (Cont.)

Filters (12)
(optional equipment)
• Upstream of the rectifier/charger, when it is of the thyristor-based Graetz bridge
type (the case for MGE Galaxy PW and 9000 UPSs), a harmonic filter (see “Key
factors in UPS installation” p. 24) reduces the current harmonics resulting from the
switching of the rectifier thyristors. This reduces the voltage distortion on the
upstream busbars resulting from the flow of harmonic currents (the level required is
generally <5%). What is more, these UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric are
equipped with an oversized neutral conductor installed as standard to overcome the
consequences of third-order harmonics and their multiples which flow in the neutral
conductor.
• All the other UPSs of the MGE Galaxy and Symmetra ranges are equipped with a
PFC-type rectifier that eliminates the need for a filter (see “Key factors in UPS
installation” p. 24).
• Downstream, UPSs implementing new PWM-chopping techniques may be directly
connected to non-linear loads. This technique makes it possible for UPSs from APC
by Schneider Electric to maintain the THDU below 3%.

Built-in communication (13) (14)

In addition to the need for a user-friendly human/machine interface for effective
monitoring of UPS operation, it is today increasingly important for UPSs to
communicate with their electrical and computing environment (supervision systems,
building management systems (BMS), computer management systems, etc.).
UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric are designed with built-in capacity for total
communication and include:
• A user-friendly human/machine interface (HMI) with an advanced graphic display
and mimic panel. The interface is built up around self-monitoring and self-diagnostic
systems that continuously indicate the status of the various UPS components, in
particular the batteries.
For example, for the MGE Galaxy ranges:
- the Digibat system continuously monitors the status of the battery with full battery
management features,
- the B2000 or Cellwatch battery-monitoring system immediately detects and locates
battery faults and provides predictive monitoring.
For the Symmetra ranges:
- The rack-mountable (1U) APC battery management system, accessible via a web
browser, combines battery monitoring and testing with individual boost charging for
peak battery performance.
• A large selection of communication cards compatible with market standards:
- Network Management Card (Ethernet)
- Modbus – Jbus card (RS232 & RS485)
- Relay card (dry contacts) for indications
- Teleservice modem card
These cards can be used to implement supervision, notification, controlled shutdown
and Teleservice functions.
Î Human-machine interface and Communication: see “Key factors in UPS
installation” p. 49.

Upstream and/or downstream distribution and protection devices (15) (16)

(optional equipment)
The UPS can be supplied with the following equipment:
• Upstream LV circuit-breakers for the AC inputs (normal and bypass),
• Upstream LV switchboard with circuit-breaker protection for the AC inputs (normal
and bypass),
• Downstream LV switchboard with circuit-breaker protection for the different
outgoing circuits.
APC by Schneider Electric can offer a selection of UPSs and protection devices that
are perfectly coordinated in terms of ratings and performance.

Complete solutions
APC by Schneider Electric can provide complete solutions comprising all the
components listed above, including air-conditioning solutions for data centers, in
conjunction with Schneider Electric. For users, the result is a single partner and an
installation that offers optimum performance and reliability.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 18

 UPS components and operation (Cont.)

Main characteristics of UPS These characteristics are based on the main technical specifications presented in the
IEC 62040-3 / EN 62040-3 standards on UPS performance requirements.
components Certain terms used here differ from the common jargon and a number of new
features have not yet been assimilated by manufacturers. New terms or
characteristics used by the standard are indicated between parentheses and
preceded by an asterisk.
For example, the title of a section "input current during battery float charging", a
commonly used term, is followed by (*rated input current), the term used in the
standard.
Note that a number of numerical values are indicated as examples.
They are, for the most part, drawn from the technical characteristics of the
corresponding UPSs, indicated in chapter 4, or indicated simply for the purposes of
the example.

AC input power
Number of phases and system earthing arrangement
The AC-input supply (primary power) is three-phase + neutral. Single-phase inputs
are not used for the power levels dealt with here.
The system earthing arrangement is generally imposed by standards (IT, TT, TNS or
TNC).

Normal AC input
The normal AC input is supplied with utility power for the rectifier/charger, within the
specified tolerances.
• Example: 400 V rms ± 15% at a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz ± 5%, three-phase.
Bypass AC input
The bypass AC input is supplied with standby power. Practically speaking, this a
cable connected to a utility feeder in the MLVS other than the one supplying the
normal AC input.
In general, it supplies voltage with the same characteristics as that of the primary
power.
• Example: 400 V rms ± 15% at a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz ± 5%, and a short-circuit
current Isc2 = 12.5 kA. The short-circuit current is important information for the
downstream protection devices in the event of operation via the static or
maintenance bypass.
Supply of separate primary and standby power is recommended because it
increases overall system reliability, but is not mandatory. However, if two separate
circuits from the MLVS are not available, it is possible to have both AC inputs
(normal and bypass) supplied by primary power (second cable).

Rectifier/charger
Floating voltage
This is the voltage supplied by the rectifier/charger which keeps the battery fully
charged.
It depends on the batteries used and the manufacturer's recommendations.

Input current during battery float charging (* rated input current)

This is the current, under normal operating conditions, required to supply the inverter
at its rated power while float charging the battery.
) Example: for a 100 kVA MGE Galaxy PW with a battery backup time of 10
minutes, this current is I input float = 166 A while float charging the battery.

Input current during battery charging

This corresponds to the current required to supply the inverter at its rated power
while charging the battery. It is consequently higher than the previous current and is
used to size the charger input cables.
) Example: for the same UPS as above, the input current is I input float = 182 A, i.e.
higher than above because it is necessary to charge the battery.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 19

 UPS components and operation (Cont.)

Maximum input current

This is the input current with the UPS operating under worst-case conditions of
permitted overload, with the battery discharged. It is higher than the above input
current during battery charging (due to the overload current) but is limited in time (as
is the overload).
) Example: for the same UPS as above, the MGE Galaxy PW can accept a 25%
overload for ten minutes and a 50% overload for one minute. In the worst-case
situation with the battery charging, the input current can reach:
I input max. = 182 A x 1.25 = 227.5 A for ten minutes,
I input max. = 182 A x 1.5 = 273 A for one minute.
Beyond the above limits, the UPS initiates no-break transfer of the load to the bypass
line and automatically transfers back when the overload has ended or been cleared
by the corresponding protection devices.

Battery (* energy storage means)

Type
A battery is characterised by its type (vented or sealed lead acid, or nickel/cadmium)
and how it is installed. APC by Schneider Electric proposes sealed lead-acid
batteries mounted in cabinets.

Service life
This is defined as the operating period, under normal usage conditions, for which the
battery supplies at least 50% of the initial backup time.
) For example, MGE Galaxy PW is supplied as standard with sealed lead-acid
batteries with a service life of ten years or more. This type of battery, rated for 30
minutes of backup time, will contractually supply only 15 minutes at the end of the
specified service life.
It may supply more if it has been used under optimum conditions (notably concerning
the temperature). However, it is contractually guaranteed not to supply less, unless
used improperly.

Operating modes
The battery may be:
• Charging. It draws a charge current (I1 charge) supplied by the rectifier/charger.
• Float charging. The battery draws a low, so-called floating current (I1 floating),
supplied by the rectifier/charger, which maintains its charge by compensating for
open-circuit losses.
• Discharging. The battery supplies the inverter until its shutdown voltage is
reached.
When this voltage, set by the battery manufacturer, is reached, the battery is
automatically disconnected (UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric) to avoid damage
by deep discharge.

Rated voltage
This is the DC output voltage that the battery supplies to the inverter.
) Example: 450 V DC for the MGE Galaxy PW range.

Capacity
Battery capacity is expressed in ampere/hours.
) Example: for a 100 kVA MGE Galaxy PW equipped with a battery offering ten
minutes of backup time and a service life of five years, the capacity is 85 A/h.

Number of cells
Number of single battery cells making up the entire battery string.
) Example: the battery of a 100 kVA MGE Galaxy PW comprises, for a given type of
battery, 33 cells providing 13.6 V each, for a backup time of ten minutes.

Floating voltage
This is the DC voltage used to maintain the battery charge, supplied by the
rectifier/charger.
) Example: for a MGE Galaxy PW, the floating voltage is between 423 and 463 V
DC.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 20

 UPS components and operation (Cont.)

Backup time (* stored energy time)

This is the time, specified at the beginning of the battery service life, that the battery
can supply the inverter operating at full rated load, in the absence of the AC-input
supply.
) Example: MGE Galaxy PW offers as standard backup times of 8, 10, 15, 20, 30
and 60 minutes.
This time depends on the UPS percent load.
• For a UPS operating at full rated load (100% of rated power), the end of the battery
backup time is reached when the battery voltage drops to the shutdown voltage
specified by the manufacturer. This provokes automatic shutdown of UPSs from APC
by Schneider Electric.
• For a UPS operating at a lower percent load (e.g. 75%), the actual backup time
may be longer. However, it always ends when the battery shutdown voltage is
reached.

Recharge time (* rated restored energy time)

This is the time required by the battery to recover 80% of its backup time (90% of its
capacity), starting from the battery shutdown voltage. The rectifier/charger supplies
the power.
) Example: for a MGE Galaxy 5500 UPS, the recharge time is eight to ten hours,
depending on the battery and the backup time. Note that the probability of the battery
being called on to supply power twice within such a short period is low. This means
the indicated recharge time is representative of actual performance.

Maximum battery current (Ib)

When discharging, the battery supplies the inverter with a current Ib which reaches
its maximum value at the end of discharging. This value determines battery
protection and cable dimensions.
) Example: for a 100 kVA MGE Galaxy 5500, this current is Ib max = 257 A.

Inverter
Rated power (Sn)
(* rated output apparent power)
This is the maximum apparent power Sn (kVA) that the inverter can deliver to a
linear load at a power factor of 0.8, during normal operation under steady-state
conditions.
The standards also define this parameter for operation on battery power.
Theoretically speaking, it is the same if the battery is correctly sized.
) Example: a MGE Galaxy 5500 with a rated power (Sn) of 100 kVA.

Active output power (Pa)

(* rated output active power for linear or reference non-linear load)
This is the active power Pa (kW) corresponding to the apparent output power Sn
(kVA), under the measurement conditions mentioned above. This value may also be
indicated for a standardised reference non-linear load.
) Example: the previous UPS, a MGE Galaxy 5500 with a rated power of 100 kVA
supplies an active power of Pa = Sn x 0.8 = 80 kW.

Rated current (In)

This is the current corresponding to the rated power.
) Example: again for a 100 kVA MGE Galaxy 5500 UPS and an output voltage of
400 V, this current is:
Sn 100000
In = = = 144.3 A
Un 3 400 x 1732
,

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 21

 UPS components and operation (Cont.)

Apparent load power (Su) and percent load

This is the apparent power Sn (kVA) actually supplied by the inverter to the load,
under the selected operating conditions.
This value is a fraction of the rated power, depending on the percent load.
.Su ≤ Sn. and .Tc = Percent load (%) = Su / Sn..
) Example: for the UPS mentioned above, if the inverter supplies 3/4 of its rated
power (75% load), it delivers an apparent power of 75 kVA, which under standard
operating conditions (PF = 0.8) corresponds to an active load power of
Pa = Su x PF = 75 x 0.8 = 60 kW.

Load current (Iu)

This is the current corresponding to the load power, that is, to the percent load in
question. It is calculated from Pu as for the rated current, where the voltage is the
rated voltage Un (value regulated by the inverter).
) Example: for the UPS mentioned above (75% load)
Su 75000
Iu = = = 108.2 A
Un 3 400 x 1732
,
which is the same as:
.Iu = In x Tc. = 144.3 x 0.75 = 108.2 A

Efficiency (η)
This is the ratio of active power Pu (kW) supplied by the UPS to the load to the
power Pin (kW) that it draws at its input, either by the rectifier or from the battery.
.η= Pu / Pin.
For most UPSs, efficiency is optimum at full rated load and drops sharply with lower
percent loads. Due to their low output impedance and no-load losses, the efficiency
of MGE Galaxy UPSs is virtually stable for loads from 25 to 100%. The MGE Galaxy
range offers efficiency greater than 90% starting at 25% load, up to 93% at full rated
load, as well as an ECO mode which increases efficiency by 4%, i.e. up to 97%.
Practically speaking, for MGE Galaxy UPSs, an efficiency value of 0.93 can be used
for all input-power calculations for loads from 30 to 100%.
) Example: for a 100 kVA MGE Galaxy at 75% load, 0.93 efficiency corresponds to
a UPS active input power of
Pin = Pu / η = 60/0.93 = 64.5 kW.

Output voltage Un
Number of phases
The output can be three-phase (3ph-3ph UPS) or single-phase (3ph-1ph UPS),
depending on the situation. Note that the upstream and downstream system earthing
arrangements may be different.

Rated output voltage

In general, it is the same as that of the AC input. However, a voltage-matching
transformer may be installed.

Static characteristics
These are the tolerances (maximum permissible variations) for the amplitude and
frequency of the output voltage under steady-state conditions. Stricter than those
applying to utility power, they are measured for normal operation on AC-input power
and for operation in battery backup mode.
• Output voltage variation
The amplitude tolerance is expressed as a percentage of the nominal rms value and
may be adjustable.
) Example: for a MGE Galaxy, the voltage 400 V rms ± 1% may be adjusted to ±
3%.
The standards also stipulate a rated peak output voltage and the tolerance with
respect to the rated value.
• Output frequency variation
The tolerance is expressed as a percentage of the rated frequency.
) Example: for a MGE Galaxy, 50 or 60 Hz ± 0.1% during normal operation on
primary power and ± 0.5% in battery backup mode.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 22

 UPS components and operation (Cont.)

Frequency synchronisation with primary power

The inverter supplies an output voltage within the above tolerances, regardless of
the disturbances affecting the upstream power.
To that end, the UPS:
• Monitors the voltage parameters (amplitude, frequency, phase) for the primary-
power source to determine whether they are within specified tolerances,
• Reacts to any drift in parameters so as to:
- readjust the inverter (phase and frequency) to the standby power, as long as the
drift remains within tolerances, in view of load transfer, if necessary,
- transfer the load to battery power as soon as the drift goes outside tolerances.
The new IGBT and PWM chopping technologies used in UPSs from APC by
Schneider Electric allow an excellent adaptation to these variations.
) Example: for MGE Galaxy UPSs, the maximum variation in frequency
corresponding to the tolerance is 50 Hz x 0.5% = 0.25 Hz.
Frequency synchronisation with bypass AC power is possible from 0.25 to 2 Hz, in
0.25 Hz steps. Practically speaking, this signifies that frequency variations may be
monitored at dF/dt = 0.25 Hz/s and readjustment carried out within 0.25 to 1 second.

Dynamic characteristics
These are the tolerances under transient load conditions.
MGE Galaxy UPSs are capable of withstanding the following conditions.
• Load unbalance
For unbalance in the load voltage (phase-to-neutral or phase-to-phase) of:
- 30%, the output voltage variation is less than 0.1%,
- 100% (one phase at Pn and the others at 0), the output voltage does not vary more
than 0.2%.
• Load step changes (voltage transients)
For load steps from 0 to 100% or from 100 to 0% of the rated load, the voltage does
not vary more than:
± 2% on utility power;
+ 2% to -4 % on battery power.

Overload and short-circuit capacity

• Overloads
- 1.1 In for 2 hours,
- 1.5 In for 1 minute,
with no change in the output tolerances.
• Short-circuits
Beyond 1.65 In, MGE Galaxy inverters operate in current-limiting mode up to 2.33 In
for 1 second, corresponding to:
I peak max. = √2 x 1.65 In = 2.33 In.
Beyond this value, the inverter transfers the load to standby power or performs a
static shutdown (self-protection feature).

Total output-voltage distortion

UPSs must guarantee performance levels for all types of loads, including non-linear
loads.
) Example: MGE Galaxy UPSs limit the voltage total harmonic distortion (THDU) in
output power to the following levels for:
• 100% linear loads:
- THDU ph/ph < 1.5 %,
- THDU ph/N < 2%,
• 100% non-linear loads:
- THDU ph/ph < 2 %,
- THDU ph/N < 3%.
MGE Galaxy UPSs operate in compliance with the specified characteristics for all
types of loads.

General note. The standard specifies certain of the previously mentioned

performance levels for output power during normal operation and operation on
battery power. In general, they are identical.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 23

 UPS components and operation (Cont.)

Summary diagram for main

characteristics

Fig. 5.7. Diagram showing the main characteristics (see the list below).

Normal AC input
● Voltage Un + 10% to - 15%
● Frequency f + 4% to - 6%
Bypass AC input
● Voltage Un + 10% to - 15%
● Frequency f + 4% to - 6%
● Short-circuit current Isc2 (withstand capacity of the static bypass)
Rectifier/charger
● Floating voltage
● Input currents
- rated (battery float charging)
- maximum (battery charging)
Battery
● Backup time: standard 5, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 30, 60 minutes, longer times on request)
● Service life: 10 years or longer
● Maximum current Ib max.
Inverter
● Apparent output power:
- rated: Sn (kVA)
- load power: Su (kVA) = Sn x Tc%
● UPS percent load Tc% = Su / Sn
● Active output power:
- rated: Pn (kW) = Sn (kVA) x 0.8
- load power: Pu (kW) = Su (kVA) x PF = Sn x Tc% x PF = Un Iu PF
● Efficiency: η Pu / Pn = 93% (97% in ECO mode).
● Static characteristics (output-voltage tolerances under steady-state conditions)
- amplitude: Un ± 1% adjustable to ± 3%
- frequency: f ± 1% during normal operation, f ± 0.5% in battery backup mode
- inverter output voltage synchronised (frequency and phase) with that of the standby
power as long as the latter is within tolerances.
● Dynamic characteristics (tolerances under transient conditions)
- maximum voltage and frequency variations for load step changes from 0% to 100%
or 100% to 0%: Un ± 2%, f ± 0.5%
● Output voltage distortion
- 100% non-linear loads THDU < 2%
● Overload and short circuit capacity:
- overloads: 1.5 In for 1 minute
- short-circuits: current limiting to 2.33 In for 1 second
Load
● Load current (Iu)
● Power factor PF

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 24

 UPS components and operation (Cont.)

UPS operating modes Normal mode (on utility power, see fig. 5.8 on left-hand side)
The UPS draws the AC utility power required to operate via the rectifier/charger
which provides DC current.
Part of the utility power drawn is used to charge or float charge the battery:
• I1 floating, if the battery is already fully charged,
• I1 charge if the battery is not fully charged (i.e. charging following a recent
discharge).
The remaining current is supplied to the inverter with generates an output-voltage
sine-wave within the specified amplitude and frequency tolerances.

Battery backup mode (on battery power, see fig. 5.8 on right-hand side)
The battery steps in to replace primary power and supplies the power required by the
inverter for the load, with the same tolerances as in normal mode.
This takes place through immediate transfer (the battery is parallel connected) in the
event of:
• Normal AC-input failure (utility-power outage),
• Normal AC input outside tolerances (degradation of utility-power voltage).

Normal mode. Battery backup mode.

Fig. 5.8. Normal mode and battery backup mode.

Bypass mode (on static-bypass line, see fig. 5.9 on left-hand side)
A static switch (SS) ensures no-break transfer of the load to the bypass AC input for
direct supply of the load by standby power.
Transfer is automatic in the event of:
• An overload downstream of the UPS exceeding its overload capacity,
• An internal fault in the rectifier/charger and inverter modules.
Transfer always takes place for internal faults, but otherwise is possible only if the
voltage of the standby power is within tolerances and in phase with the inverter.
To that end:
• The UPS synchronises the inverter output voltage with that of the bypass line as
long as the latter is within tolerances. Transfer is then possible:
- without a break in the supply of power. Because the voltages are in phase, the
SCRs on the two channels of the static switch have zero voltage at the same time,
- without disturbing the load. The load is transferred to a bypass line that is within
tolerances.
• When standby power is not within tolerances, the inverter desynchronises and
operates autonomously with its own frequency. Transfer is disabled.
It can, however, by carried out manually.
Note 1. This function greatly increases reliability due to the very small probability of a
downstream overload and a standby-power failure occurring at the same time.
Note 2. To ensure correct operation of the bypass line, discrimination must be
ensured between the protection device upstream of the bypass AC input (on the
MLVS outgoer) and those on the UPS outgoing circuits (see information on
discrimination below).
APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 25
 UPS components and operation (Cont.)

Maintenance mode (on maintenance bypass, see fig. 5.9 right-hand side)
Maintenance is possible without interrupting load operation. The load is supplied with
standby power via the maintenance bypass. Transfer to the maintenance bypass is
carried out using manual switches.
The rectifier/charger, inverter and static switch are shut down and isolated from
power sources. The battery is isolated by its protection circuit breaker.

Bypass mode (static bypass). Maintenance mode (maintenance bypass).

Fig. 5.9. Bypass mode and maintenance mode.

UPS configurations Parallel UPS with redundancy

Chapter two is entirely devoted to a presentation of the various configurations. Below
is some additional information on parallel connection for redundancy.
It concerns MGETM GalaxyTM UPSs in particular. The modular SymmetraTM UPSs
also use parallel connection.
Î Configurations, see “Selection of the UPS configuration”

Types of parallel configurations

There are two types of parallel configurations.
• Integrated parallel UPS units
This upgradeable configuration can be started using a single UPS unit with an
integrated static bypass and manual maintenance bypass. For configurations with
more than two UPS units, a common maintenance bypass is housed in an external
cubicle (see fig. 5.10).
• Parallel UPS units with a centralised static-switch cubicle (SSC)
The static-switch cubicle comprises an automatic bypass and a maintenance bypass
that are common for a number of UPS units without a bypass (see fig. 5.11).
This configuration, less upgradeable than the previous due to the rating of the
bypass, offers greater reliability (SSC and UPS units are independent).
• Modular UPSs
UPSs of the SymmetraTM range are made up of dedicated and redundant modules
(power, intelligence, battery and bypass).
Modular design with plug-in power modules improves dependability, in particular
maintainability and availability, as well the upgradeability of the installation.

Redundancy
Redundancy in parallel configurations can be N+1, N+2, etc.
This means that N UPS units are required to supply the load, but N+1 or N+2 are
installed and they all share the load.
See the example below.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 26

 UPS components and operation (Cont.)

Example
• Consider a critical load with a 100 kVA rating.
• 2+1 redundancy
- 2 UPS units must be capable of fully supplying the load if redundancy is lost.
- Each UPS unit must therefore have a 50 kVA rating.
- 3 UPS units normally share the 100 kVA load, i.e. each supplies 33.3 kVA.
- The 3 UPS units normally operate at a percent load of 33.3 / 50 = 66.6%.
- Integrated parallel UPS units are each equipped with a static bypass. Transfer is
managed such that the three UPS units transfer to the bypass simultaneously, if
necessary.

Fig. 5.10. Integrated parallel UPS units with common maintenance bypass and 2+1
redundancy. Operation with all units OK (redundancy available).

• Loss of redundancy
- One UPS unit shuts down, the two remaining units operate at 100%.
- The faulty UPS unit can be serviced due to the maintenance bypass.

Fig. 5.11. Integrated parallel UPS units with common maintenance bypass and 2+1
redundancy. Operation following loss of redundancy.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 27

 Technology: Transformerless UPSs

Transformerless UPS Principle

technology
Originally all UPSs included an output transformer that was used to adjust the output
voltage to the required value, recreate a neutral and ensure galvanic isolation
between the upstream and downstream power systems (Fig. 5.12).
Today, technological progress and lower IGBT semi-conductor costs makes it
possible to eliminate this transformer (Fig. 5.13).

Normal Bypass Normal Bypass

AC input AC input AC input AC input

UPS UPS
Q1 Q1

Q4S Q4S
Rectifier Rectifier
charger charger

Battery QF1
Battery QF1
Static Manual
Static Manual bypass bypass Q3BP
bypass bypass Q3BP

Inverter
Inverter

K3N

K3N

Q5N

Q5N

Loads

Loads

Fig. 5.12. UPS with output transformer. Fig. 5.13. Transformerless UPS.

Advantages
This technology offers users a number of key advantages.
● Smaller footprint: less space required with no transformer
● Less weight: weight reduction by eliminating the transformer
● Higher efficiency: elimination of transformer losses
● Voltage regulation by signal modulation for better matching with the load. The
electronics act directly on the output voltage for a for faster and more precise voltage
regulation.

The trend
The use of transformerless UPSs began in the early 1990s for ratings up to a few
hundred kVA. Given their many advantages, they are now widely used up to higher
ratings, as shown in figure 5.14. The average power rating using the transformerless
technique has increased by a factor of 50 over the past 15 years.

P(kVA)

500

400

300

200

100

years
5
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Fig. 5.14. Average power ratings of transformerless UPSs.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 Edition p. 28

 Technology: Transformerless UPSs

Galvanic isolation
One of the reasons cited for using output transformers is to provide galvanic
isolation.
However, three-phase UPSs above a certain power rating are equipped with a
bypass to ensure continuity of power. The presence of a bypass means that a UPS,
with or without an output transformer, cannot provide galvanic isolation between the
source and the loads. For this reason, transformerless UPS technology is gradually
becoming the preferred solution for high ratings.
This aspect will be discussed below by comparing the use of the two technologies
depending on the system earthing arrangement encountered.

Use with computer Review of system earthing arrangements

loads
Earthing arrangements refer to the earthing of:
● the neutral point of the distribution system,
● the exposed conductive parts (ECPs) of the loads.
These ECPs are always interconnected, either all together or in groups. Each
interconnected group is connected to an earthing terminal by a protective conductor
(PE or PEN depending on whether or not it is combined with the neutral conductor or
separate).

Standard IEC 60364(1) uses 2 letters to identify the different earthing arrangements.
● The 1st letter describes the earthing of the transformer neutral point:
- T: earthed,
- I: not earthed.
● The 2nd letter describes the earthing of the ECPs of load equipment:
- T: earthed,
- N: connected to the neutral which is earthed.
In this case (N), a 3rd letter indicates the relationship between the neutral (N) and
protective (PE) conductors:
- C: single conductor used for both functions,
- S: separate conductors.
(1) Replaced by the Power Transformer Loading Guide IECI 60076-7 Ed. 1.

The standard thus defines the following systems:

● IT: Isolated neutral
● TT: Earthed neutral
● TN-C: Combined protective earthing and neutral conductor (PEN)
● TN-S: Separate earthed neutral (N) and protective earthing (PE) conductors.

Earthing arrangement for computer rooms

Systematic use of the TN-S system
The TN-S system is the earthing arrangement recommended by manufacturers and
standards for computer systems. This is because it provides single-phase distribution
while ensuring a reference potential for the ECPs with the protective conductor.

L1 Phases: L1, L2, L3

L2 Neutral: N
L3
N
Protective conductor: PE
PE Circuit breaker pole: x

ECPs ECPs Separate N and PE

3-ph loads ph-N loads

Fig. 5.15. TN-S system for computer rooms.

IT and TT systems are poorly suited to computer systems

● The IT system requires competent operating personnel and sophisticated
insulating monitoring to locate and clear insulation faults before a second fault with a
high tripping current can cause disturbances.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 Edition p. 29

 Technology: Transformerless UPSs

● The TT system is too sensitive to lightning overvoltages for sensitive computer

devices.
● The TN-C system(1) (combined earthed neutral and PE conductor) does not offer a
reliable reference potential like the TN-S system.
Single-phase loads, frequent in computer systems, cause H3 harmonics and their
multiples of 3 (H6, H9, etc.) in the neutral. The harmonics then flow in the PEN
conductor where they can cause:
- loss of PEN equipotentiality which spreads through the shielding and can affect
computer-system operation.
- high unbalance currents in cable ways and the building structure due to frequent
PEN connections to earth. The resulting electromagnetic radiation in the cable ways
can disturb sensitive devices.
(1)
The TN-C system may be used upstream of a TN-S system, but the contrary is not allowed
because it can result in upstream interruption of the protective conductor, thus creating a safety
hazard for people downstream.

Computer manufacturer recommendations: Recreate a network with an

earthed neutral at the entry to the computer room
Computer manufacturers recommend that the TN-S system with earthed neutral be
created as close as possible to the loads. This is generally done at the entry to the
computer room).
Use of the TN-S system without this measure, i.e. with the earthed neutral created
far upstream) can create a potential difference between earth and neutral due to the
upstream distribution.

) In conclusion, it is advised to create a TN-S system at the entry to the computer

room with the neutral earthed at this point to ensure clean and suitable electrical
distribution to the computer system.

This is generally done using PDUs (Power Distribution Units) that include an input
transformer, making it possible to obtain a reliable neutral reference potential and
ensuring galvanic isolation in all UPS operating modes (on normal AC input or
bypass).

In addition, this solution uses standard transformers that offer very high reliability,
exceeding that of UPS output transformers. This solution with an input transformers
is used widely in the USA where a 3-phase 480 V distribution system is brought to
the computer room entry to supply 480 V/208 transformer (fig. 5.16).

UPS A UPS B

. .
PDU A PDU A
Isolating
transformers
used to recreate
a TN-S system
with neutral
x x
x x

Blade server

Fig. 5.16. Example of transformers used at the PDU input to create a TN-S distribution system
with a neutral.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 Edition p. 30

 Technology: Transformerless UPSs

Comparison for IT or TT system upstream

different upstream
In this case, the system earthing arrangement must be changed to TN-S
earthing arrangements downstream of the UPS. Because the neutral cannot have two different references to
earth, galvanic isolation is required for all UPS operating modes (normal or bypass).
● For UPSs with an output transformer, a transformer is generally added at the input
to the bypass (see fig. 5.17).
This solution has two drawbacks:
- 4-pole protection devices must be used to wire and interrupt the neutral on the
bypass,
- the distance D2 from the UPS neutral lout and the loads can affect the neutral
potential because the isolating transformers are not located near the loads.
● Transformerless UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric can operate on 3 phases
without a neutral. This makes it possible to use a 3-phase, 3-wire distribution system
up to the PDU or equivalent and recreate the TN-S system as close as possible to
the application (see right side of fig. 5.17). This arrangement ensures a "clean"
reference potential for the PE.

) In addition to its advantages in terms of efficiency, footprint, weight and voltage

matching, transformerless technology is simple and economical.

Solution with output transformer Transformerless solution

IT or TT upstream - TN-S downstream IT or TT upstream - TN-S downstream

IT IT
TT TT

LVMS
LVMS
L1
L2 L1
L3 L2
N L3
PE N
PE

Normal AC Bypass AC
Bypass input input
transformer
UPS Q1
Normal AC BypassAC
input input
Q4S
UPS Rectifier
D1 charger
Q1

Battery QF1
Static
Q4S
bypass
Rectifier
charger
Q3BP
Inverter
Q3BP
Battery QF1
Static
bypass
K3N

Inverter

Output
transformer Q5N

K3N

Q5N Fixed and clean

reference for
Neutral Power Distribution Unit
Earthing transformer
terminal

LVS PE LVS
L1 L1
L2 L2
D2 L3 L3
N N
PE

Fig. 5.17. IT or TT upstream and TN-S downstream.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 Edition p. 31

 Technology: Transformerless UPSs (Cont.)

TN-C or TN-S system upstream

These two situations may be dealt with in the same manner. With a TNH-C system
upstream, it is possible to separate the neutral and the PE upstream of the UPS (by
separating the wires) and thus create the situation with TN-S both upstream and
downstream. In the diagrams below, the upstream TN-C simplifies the distribution.
Fir. 5.18 illustrates the only case for an upstream TN-C system.

To provide a reference potential, it is necessary to create a "clean" distribution

system by installing a transformer at the entry to the computer room (generally using
a PDU or equivalent). The greater the distance D1 between the upstream
transformer and the UPS output, the more this solution is required because the
neutral potential can be affected by the upstream distribution

) In this case, solutions using UPSs with or without a transformer are identical,
however transformerless technology offers advantages in terms of efficiency,
footprint, weight and voltage regulation accuracy.

Solution with output transformer Transformerless solution

TN-C upstream and TN-S downstream TN-C upstream and TN-S downstream

LVMS LVMS

L1 L1
L2 L2
L3 L3
N N

Normal AC Bypass AC Normal AC Bypass AC

input input input input

UPS UPS
Q1 Q1

Q4S Q4S
D1 D1 Rectifier/
Rectifier/
charger charger

Battery QF1 Battery QF1

Static Static
bypass bypass

Q3BP Q3BP
Inverter
Inverter

K3N K3N

Q5N Q5N

Fixed and clean Fixed and clean

reference for reference for
Neutral Power Distribution Unit
Neutral Power Distribution Unit
transformer
transformer

PE LVS
PE LVS
L1
L1 L2
L2 L3
L3 N
N

Fig. 5.18. TN upstream and downstream.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 Edition p. 32

 Technology: Transformerless UPSs (Cont.)

Results of the comparison

Solutions with an output transformer
● The transformer at the UPS output is of a specific type, more expensive and
requires more space.
● It is necessary to add a transformer at the bypass input, i.e. the installation
requires four-pole devices and a neutral cable, or an output transformer must be
installed.
● The added transformer is not located as close as possible to the loads.

Transformerless solutions
● The constraints caused by the UPS output transformer are avoided.
● A transformer is installed at the entry to the computer room, generally in a PDU.
There is no need for four-pole devices on the bypass or for upstream distribution of
the neutral.
A transformer must still be added, but there are advantages in terms of:
● UPS cost, i.e. no specific output transformer and no four-pole devices and neutral
on the bypass line,
● reduced footprint and weight,
● better output regulation for rapid load fluctuations.

) Given its many advantages, transformerless technology is rapidly becoming the

preferred solution for UPSs.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 Edition p. 33

 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)

Electromagnetic Electromagnetic disturbances

disturbances
All electromagnetic disturbances involve three elements.

A source
A natural source (atmosphere, earth, sun, etc.) or, more often, an industrial source
(electrical and electronic devices).
The source generates disturbances through sudden (pulse) variations in electrical
values (voltage or current), defined by:
• A wave form,
• A wave amplitude (peak value),
• A spectrum of frequencies,
• A level of energy.
A coupling mode
Coupling enables transmission of disturbances and may be:
• Capacitive (or galvanic), for example via transformer windings,
• Inductive, by a radiating magnetic field,
• Conducted, by a common impedance, via an earthing connection.
A victim
This is any device likely to be disturbed, and which malfunctions due to the presence
of the disturbances.

Examples
Sources
In low-voltage installations, sources include suddenly varying currents resulting from:
• Faults or short-circuits,
• Electronic switching,
• High-order harmonics,
• Lightning or transformer breakdown.
Frequencies may be low (< 1 MHz) for power frequencies and their harmonics or
high (> 1 MHz) for lightning.

Coupling
• Capacitive: transmission of a lightning wave via a transformer.
• Inductive: radiation of a magnetic field created by one of the above currents.
Radiation creates an induced electromotive force, that is an induced disturbing
current, in the loops of conductors made up of the cables supplying devices and the
earthing conductors of the devices.
As in indication, a radiation of 0.7 A/m can disturb a video monitor.
That corresponds to the field created 2.2 m around a conductor carrying a current of
10 A.
• Conducted (common impedance): increase in the potential of an earthing
connection.

EMC standards and Disturbances

recommendations
Emission, immunity, susceptibility
An electric device is installed in an environment that may be more or less disturbed
electromagnetically. It must be seen as both a source and possible victim of
electromagnetic disturbances.
Depending on the point of view, on may speak of:
• The emission level for a source,
• The compatibility level for an environment,
• The immunity and susceptibility levels for a victim.
These notions are discussed on the next page in the section on disturbance levels
defined by the standards.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 34

 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) (Cont.)

Disturbance levels
Standard IEC 6100-2-4 defines a number of disturbance levels for EMC:
• Level 0: no disturbance,
• Emission level: maximum level authorised for a user on a public utility or for a
device,
• Compatibility level: maximum disturbance level expected in a given environment,
• Immunity level: level of disturbance that a device can withstand,
• Susceptibility level: level starting at which a device or system malfunctions.
Consequently, for devices and equipment that are considered:
• Sources, limits (emission levels) must be set for disturbances emitted by devices
to avoid reaching compatibility levels,
• Victims, they must also withstand disturbance levels higher than the compatibility
levels, if they are exceeded, which is permissible on a transient basis. These higher
levels are the immunity levels.
EMC standards set these levels.
Î List of EMC standards, see the section on page 34 on EMC standards.

Fig. 5.19 EMC disturbance levels for disturbing/disturbed devices.

Measured values
Devices are subjected to tests.
Five major values are measured:
• CE - conducted emissions,
• RE - radiated emissions,
• ESD - electrostatic discharges,
• CS - conducted susceptibility,
• RS - radiated susceptibility.
The tests require major resources, namely a Faraday cage for conducted emissions
and susceptibility and an anechoic chamber for radiated emissions.
APC by Schneider Electric has a certified anechoic test chambers.

Fig. 5.20 Five major measurement values.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 35

 UPS standards

Scope and observance of Scope of standards

standards
Standards cover the following aspects:
• UPS design,
• Safety of persons,
• Performance levels,
• Electrical environment (notably harmonic disturbances and EMC),
• Ecological environment.
Standards on UPSs have become much more precise, notably with the creation of
the European EN standards and their harmonisation with a part of the previously
existing IEC standards.

Observance of standards and certification

Observance of standards guarantees the reliability and the quality of a UPS, its
compatibility with the loads supplied as well as with the technical, human and natural
environment.
Statement by a manufacturer of conformity with standards is not, in itself, a sufficient
indication of quality. Only certification by recognised organisations is a true
guarantee of conformity.
To that end, performance levels of UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric with
respect to standards are certified by organisations such as TÜV and Veritas.

CE marking
CE marking was created by European legislation.
It is mandatory for free circulation of goods in the EU.
Its purpose is to guarantee, through respect of the corresponding European
directives:
• That the product is not dangerous (Low-voltage Directive),
• That it does not pollute (Environment Directive) and its electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC Directive).
Before placing the CE marking on a product, the manufacturer must run or have run
checks and tests which ensure conformity of the product with the requirements in the
applicable directive(s).
It is NOT a certification standard or mark of conformity.
It does not signify that the product complies with national or international standards.
It is not a certification as defined by French law (law dated 3 June 1994).
What is more, the CE marking is placed on a product under the exclusive
responsibility of the manufacturer or the importer. It does not imply inspection by a
certified external organisation.
) Not all labels carry the same implications for manufacturers.
Conformity with standards and specified levels of performance must be certifiable by
an organisation. This is not the case for CE marking which authorises self-
certification.

Main standards governing UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric comply (certified by TÜV and Veritas) with the
main applicable international standards.
UPSs
Safety
• IEC 60950-1 / EN 60950-1
Information technology equipment - Safety - Part: General requirements
• IEC 62040-1/ EN 62040-1
Uninterruptible power systems (UPS) - General and safety requirements for UPS.
• IEC 62040-3 / EN 1000-3
Uninterruptible power systems (UPS) - Method of specifying the test and
performance requirements.
• IEC 60439
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies.
• LV directive: 2006/95/EC

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 36

 UPS standards (Cont.)

Electrical environment, harmonics and electromagnetic

compatibility (EMC)
Harmonics
• IEC 61000-2-2 / EN 61000-2-2
Compatibility levels for low-frequency conducted disturbances and signalling in
public low-voltage power supply systems.
(see Table 5-A on the next page)
• IEC 61000-3-2 / EN 61000-3-2
Limits for harmonic current emissions (equipment input current ≤ 16 A/ph).
• IEC 61000-3-4 / EN 61000-3-4
Limits for harmonic current emissions (equipment input current > 16 A/ph).
• IEC 61000-3-5 / EN 61000-3-5
Limitation of voltage fluctuations and flicker.
• EN 50160
Voltage characteristics of public networks.
(see Table 5-B on the next page).
• IEEE 519
Recommended practices and requirements for harmonic control in electrical power
systems.

EMC
• EN 50091-2
UPS - EMC.
• IEC 62040-2/ EN 62040-2
Uninterruptible power systems (UPS) - Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
requirements.
• EMC Directive 2004/108/EC
For equipment liable to cause or be affected by electromagnetic disturbances.

Quality
• Design , production and servicing in compliance with standard ISO 9001 - quality
organisation.

Ecological environment
• Manufacturing in compliance with standard ISO 14001.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 37

 UPS standards (Cont.)

Acoustic noise
• ISO 3746
Sound power levels.
• ISO 7779 / EN 27779
Measurement of airborne noise emitted by computer and business equipment.

Tables on harmonic-compatibility levels

Table 5-A. Compatibility levels for individual harmonic voltages in low voltage networks as
indicated in standards IEC 61000-2-2 / EN 61000-2-2.
Odd harmonics non multiple Odd harmonics multiple of 3 Even harmonics
of 3
Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic
order n voltage as a % order n voltage as a % order n voltage as a %
of fundamental of fundamental of fundamental
5 6 3 5 2 2
7 5 9 1.5 4 1
11 3.5 15 0.3 6 0.5
13 3 21 0.2 8 0.5
17 2 >21 0.2 10 0.5
19 1.5 12 0.5
23 1.5 >12 0.2
25 1.5 0.2
>25 0.2+0.5x25/n
Resulting THDU < 8% (for all harmonics encountered among those indicated).

Table 5-B. Compatibility levels for harmonic voltages according to the type of equipment as
indicated in standard EN 50160.
(1)
Order of the voltage Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
harmonic generated (sensitive systems and (industrial and public (for connection of
equipment) % of networks) % of major polluters) % of
fundamental fundamental fundamental
2 2 2 3
3 3 5 6
4 1 1 1.5
5 3 6 8
6 0.5 0.5 1
7 3 5 7
8 0.5 0.5 1
9 1.5 1.5 2.5
10 0.5 0.5 1
11 3 3.5 5
12 0.2 0.2 1
13 3 3 4.5
TDHU 5% 8% 10%
(1)
Class 2 corresponds to the limits of Table A of standards IEC 61000-2-2 / EN 61000-2-2.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 38

 Energy storage

Possible technologies Energy storage in UPSs

The energy-storage systems used by UPSs to backup the primary source must have
the following characteristics:
•Immediate availability of electrical power,
•Sufficient power rating to supply the load,
•Sufficient backup time and/or compatibility with systems providing long backup
times (e.g. an engine generator set or fuel cells).

Evaluation of the available technologies

The technical watch established by APC by Schneider Electric resulted in in-depth
See WP 65 Î examination of the following technologies:
•Batteries,
•Supercapacitors (ultracapacitors),
•Flywheels,
•Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES).
Î For more information, see WP 65 (White Paper 65: "Comparing Data Center
Batteries, Flywheels, and Ultracapacitors".

Battery and flywheel solutions are discussed below.

Batteries The battery solution

Batteries are by far the most commonly employed solution today for energy storage
in UPSs. They are the dominant solution due to low cost, proven effectiveness and
storage capacity, but nonetheless have a number of disadvantages in terms of size,
maintenance and the environment. At the power ratings under consideration, they
offer backup times in the ten-minute range, enough to ride through long outages and
wait for start-up of an engine generator set for extended runtime.
For its SymmetraTM PX range, APC by Schneider Electric also offers extended
runtime solutions based on fuel cells, with the FCXR (Fuel Cell eXtended Run)
product range. This solution significantly reduces the environmental impact and
floorspace requirements with respect to solutions combining batteries and an engine
generator set.

) Electrochemical energy storage using batteries, where applicable backed up by a

thermal engine generator set, is the commonly used solution to protect critical loads
using UPSs.

Fig. 5.21. Energy storage using a battery and an engine generator set for long backup times.

63APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 39

 Energy storage (Cont.)

Types of industrial batteries

Battery families
A battery is a set of interconnected cells.
Depending on the type of cell, there are two main families of batteries:
• Lead-acid batteries,
• Nickel cadmium batteries.
Cells may also be of the :
• Recombination type Æ sealed batteries
The gas recombination rate is at least 95% and they therefore do not require water to
be added during service life (hence the term "sealed"),
• Vented type Æ vented batteries
They are equipped with ports to:
- release to the atmosphere the oxygen and hydrogen produced during the different
chemical reactions,
- top off the electrolyte by adding distilled or demineralised water.

Batteries used in UPSs

The main types of batteries used in conjunction with UPSs are:
• Sealed lead-acid batteries, used 95% of the time because they are easy to
maintain and do not require a special room, these batteries can be installed in office
environments and in any position,
• Vented lead-acid batteries,
• Vented nickel-cadmium batteries.
Vented batteries impose greater constraints in terms of maintenance (checks on the
electrolyte level) and their position (only in the vertical position).
Lithium-polymer batteries are currently being studied for use in UPSs.
For use in conjunction with its UPS ranges, APC by Schneider Electric recommends
sealed lead-acid batteries, but nonetheless offers a wide selection of other types.
It offers all three types of battery for all the available service lives.
Capacity levels and backup times may be adapted to suit the user's needs.
The proposed batteries are also perfectly suited to UPS applications in that they are
the result of collaboration with leading battery manufacturers.
Î Battery selection, see ” Key factors in UPS installation” p. 46.

Installation modes
Depending on the UPS range, the battery capacity and backup time, the battery is:
• Sealed type and housed in the UPS cabinet,
• Sealed type and housed in one to three cabinets,
• Vented or sealed type and rack-mounted.
Cabinet mounting
This installation method (see fig. 5.15) is suitable for sealed batteries. It is easy to
implement and offers maximum safety.
Batteries installed on racks
• On shelves (figure 5.16)
This installation method is possible for sealed batteries or maintenance-free vented
batteries which do not require topping up of their electrolyte.
• Tier mounting (figure 5.17)
This installation method is suitable for all types of batteries and for vented batteries
in particular, as level checking and filling are made easy.

Fig. 5.22. Cabinet mounting. Fig. 5.23. Mounting on shelves. Fig. 5.24. Tier mounting.

63APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 40

 Energy storage (Cont.)

Constraints on batteries
Atmospheric constraints
The batteries supplied with UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric are designed to
operate under the following conditions:
• Optimum temperature range: 15°C to 25°C,
• Optimum relative humidity range: 5% to 95%,
• Atmospheric pressure: 700 to 1060 hPa (0.7 to 1.06 bars).
For other operating conditions, please consult us.

Access
Access must be provided for testing operations.
• Battery installed in UPS cabinet or other cabinet: comply with the clearances
indicated in the "Dimensions and weights" in chapter 4.
• Battery installed on racks: select an installation method suited to the type of
battery.
• Preliminary work: this aspect is important as it involves safety. It is discussed in ”
Key factors in UPS installation” p. 49.

Main battery parameters

Backup time
For a given battery, the backup time depends on:
• The power that must be supplied, a low value increases the available autonomy,
• The discharge conditions, a high discharge rate makes possible a lower shutdown
voltage and thus increases the backup time,
• Temperature, within the recommended operating limits, the backup time increases
with increasing temperature. Note, however, that a high temperature adversely
affects battery service life,
• Ageing, battery backup time decreases with the age of the battery.
APC by Schneider Electric offers a range of standard backup times (5, 6, 8, 10, 15 or
30 minutes and service lives (5 or 10 years or higher) and also caters to all specific
requirements.

Service life
A battery is considered to reach the end of its service life when its real backup time
has fallen to 50% of the specified backup time.
The service life of a battery is basically enhanced by:
• Providing protection against deep discharge,
• Correct charger settings, in particular the ripple factor of the charge or float current,
• An optimum operating temperature, maintained between 15°C and 25°C.

Recharge mode
The charge cycle takes place in two steps:
• Step 1, a constant current limited to 0.1 C10 (one tenth of the battery capacity for a
ten-hour discharge),
• Step 2, a constant voltage, at the maximum permissible value. The charge current
regularly decreases and reaches the floating value.

Fig. 5.25. Battery charge cycle.

63APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 41

 Energy storage (Cont.)

Battery management for MGETM GalaxyTM ranges

DigibatTM
TM TM
To manage the above parameters, all MGE Galaxy UPSs from APC by
Schneider Electric come as standard with the microprocessor-based DigibatTM
battery-monitoring system (dedicated DSP for real-time processing).
DigibatTM, an easy-to-use system, offers advanced and flexible functions as well as
physical and computer-aided protection for the battery. It provides a high level of
safety, true measurement of the backup time and optimises battery service life. For
example, for an MGE Galaxy 5000 UPS, the functions include:
• Automatic entry of battery parameters,
• Measurement of the real backup time remaining, taking into account the age of the
battery, the temperature and the load level,
• Estimate of remaining battery life (1),
• Battery test to preventively detect battery-function faults (1),
• Regulation of battery voltage with respect to the temperature to optimise battery
life,
• Automatic battery-discharge test at adjustable time intervals.
Protection includes:
• Protection against deep discharge (depending on the discharge rate) and battery
isolation using a circuit breaker which automatically opens when the backup time,
multiplied by two plus two hours, has elapsed,
• Limiting of the recharge current in the battery (0.05 C10 to 0.1 C10),
• Progressive audio alarm signalling the end of the backup time,
• Numerous automatic tests.
(1) APC by Schneider Electric exclusive patents.

TM
Fig. 5.26. Digibat

Temperature monitoring
TM TM
MGE Galaxy UPSs can also be equipped with the Temperature Monitoring
module used to:
• Optimise the charger voltage depending on the temperature in the battery room,
• Warn the user if preset permissible temperature limits are exceeded,
• Refine the estimate on battery backup time carried out by the standard system.
Natural ventilation of battery cabinets avoids battery temperature rise.
Environment Sensor is also a simple means to monitor temperature and humidity. It
can be used to launch shutdown when combined with software running the module.

Battery monitoring
APC by Schneider Electric also offers the B2000 and Cellwatch autonomous and
communicating battery-monitoring systems which immediately detect and locate all
battery faults. These systems monitor each battery block or cell and make possible
predictive maintenance.

63APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 42

 Energy storage (Cont.)

Flywheels Flywheel energy storage

Operating principle
A flywheel energy storage system is a “mechanical battery” that stores energy
kinetically in the form of a rotating mass. When required during a utility outage, the
energy stored by the rotating mass is converted to electrical energy through the
flywheel’s integrated electric generator.
The amount of energy stored in a flywheel is given by:
E = kMω2
where k depends on the shape of the rotating mass, M is the mass of the flywheel
and ω its angular velocity.

) Note that the energy stored is proportional to the square of the angular velocity.
This is one of the reasons that APC by Schneider Electric proposes flywheels
spinning at relatively high speeds. This reduces both the weight and the footprint of
the energy storage system.

UPS applications
Flywheel units can replace traditional UPS batteries or work in tandem with batteries
to provide highly reliable, instantaneous backup power for today’s mission-critical
applications (data centres, hospitals, broadcast studios, casinos airports and
manufacturing plants). They interface with the DC bus of the UPS, just like a battery,
receiving charging current from the UPS and providing DC current to the UPS
inverter during discharge.

UPS

AC input Critical
loads

Rectifier Inverter

Flywheel Battery
Fig. 5.27. Simplified diagram of a UPS with a flywheel energy storage connected in parallel with
a battery.

Flywheel energy storage systems have two applications depending on whether or

not the installation includes a genset.

Battery hardening for installations without gensets

For installations without gensets, a flywheel energy storage system can operate in
parallel with batteries. This flywheel application is often referred to as "battery
hardening".
In such a configuration, the flywheel is the first line of defence against power
anomalies – offering higher availability and saving the batteries for prolonged power
outages. By being first to provide the necessary energy to ride-through power
glitches, the flywheel system significantly increases battery life by absorbing over
98% of the discharges that would normally be supplied by batteries. Battery
hardening with flywheels offers a number of benefits.
• Fewer battery charge-discharge cycles, thereby extending battery life
• Less frequent battery replacement and associated lead acid disposal
• Higher availability of critical DC bus

63APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 43

 Energy storage (Cont.)

Battery replacement for installations with gensets

Gensets are generally able to take on the load within 10 seconds of a utility failure.
While UPS batteries can provide power during this transition, their reliability is always
in question. Are they fully charged? Has a cell gone bad in the battery string? When
was the last time they were checked?
By contrast, flywheel systems provide reliable energy storage instantaneously to
assure a predictable transition to the standby genset, all in a compact footprint.
A flywheel system providing 10 or 20 seconds of energy offer a number of
advantages over batteries for installations with gensets.
• Highly reliable and predictable energy storage:
- estimated 54,000 hour MTBF
- continuous monitoring gives highly predictable performance
• Environment-friendly alternative to batteries:
- no lead, no acid, small carbon footprint
• Lower TCO:
- 20 years useful life time
- low maintenance
- small size and light weight
- capable of operating at temperatures up to 40°C

Types of flywheels
UPS flywheels can be divided into several types depending on their speed, flywheel
material and motor generator configuration.

Flywheel speed
• Low speed flywheels
- Angular velocity <10 000 rpm
- Energy for high power requires heavy steel flywheels (heavy and bulky)
- Periodic maintenance and replacement to the mechanical bearings
- High amount of parasite energy losses
- Requires special concrete slab specifications for installation
• High speed flywheels
- 30 000 to 60 000 rpm (potentially up to 100 000 rpm)
- Much lighter for high power needs (energy stored through higher spinning velocity)
- Full magnetic levitation
- Lower periodic maintenance
- Smaller footprint and lighter weight
- Easy commissioning, start up and shutdown

As already mentioned, flywheels supplied with APC by Schneider Electric UPSs

operate at relatively high speeds (36 000 rpm when fully charge) and offer all the
corresponding advantages.

Flywheel materials
• Carbon fibre flywheels
Carbon fibber flywheels are typically made by winding great lengths of carbon-fibber
on a spindle. They are held together by an epoxy resin.
Imperfections in the process and gaps between the fibbers can lead to unbalancing
of the wheel over time due to the stresses applied as the wheel is spun from high
speed to low speed and back again, which occurs during every discharge event.
Once the carbon fibber flywheel becomes unbalanced, the entire flywheel module
much be replaced, a very costly and time consuming processes.
• Steel flywheels
The flywheels supplied with APC by Schneider Electric UPSs are made of aerospace
grade 4340 steel. The material properties are very well known, available from
numerous suppliers and this material is used in many high speed rotating
applications. Most important is the integrity of the material can be measured through
core samples and ultrasound to make sure it complies with the application
specifications. The same flywheel has been used not only in UPS applications, but
also in high-cycling, regenerating applications like in electric motors for cranes and
electric rail. These applications call on the flywheel to be charged and discharged up
to 20 times per hour. These applications prove the robustness of utilising aerospace
grade steel as the preferred flywheel material.

63APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 44

 Energy storage (Cont.)

Motor generator configuration

The other difference found in flywheel energy storage systems lies in the motor
generator configuration.

• Flywheels systems supplied by APC by Schneider Electric use a permanent

magnet type motor generator. The benefit of this is twofold:
- Higher efficiency of the motor generator when charging and discharging, providing
the high cycling capability of the flywheel
- The flywheel can generate its own power to maintain the flywheel levitation even if
control power is lost or a failure occurs in the power electronics.
• Other flywheel manufacturers use a synchronous reluctance motor that cannot
self generate power if a failure occurs in the power electronics.
- The unit therefore requires a back-up supply from a small UPS to provide backup
power to the magnetic bearings.

Installation
Flywheel cabinets
Flywheel energy storage systems are supplied in separate cabinets that connect to
the DC bus just like battery cabinets. Multiple flywheel cabinets can be installed in
parallel for higher power, longer run-time or redundancy.

Site preparation
Minimal site preparation is required for installation of flywheel cabinets. Before
installation, consideration must be given to a certain aspects.
• Wiring and cabling to UPS and other equipment
• Service access
• Clearances for cooling
• Floor mounting

Constraints on flywheels
Atmospheric constraints
The flywheel energy storage systems supplied with UPSs from APC by Schneider
Electric are designed to operate under the following conditions:
• Operating temperature: -20°C to 40°C (without derating)
• Minimum cold start temperature: 0°C
• Relative humidity: up to 95% (non-condensing)
For other operating conditions, please consult us.

Main flywheel parameters

Output power and backup time
The flywheel energy storage systems supplied with UPSs from APC by Schneider
Electric offer flexibility in selecting the best power level and runtime combination to
meet application requirements.
• Single units are available in 215kW and 300kW ratings.
• The 300kW model can deliver 160kW for ~18.75 seconds or 220kW for ~10
seconds, generally sufficient for battery hardening or genset startup applications.
• Multiple flywheel units can be paralleled for higher capacity, redundancy or
runtime.

Service life
• The service life of a flywheel energy storage time is typically much longer than that
of lead-acid batteries.
• The flywheel energy storage systems supplied with UPSs from APC by Schneider
Electric has a service of life of 20 years for operating temperatures up to 40°C and
frequent charge-discharge cycles.

63APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 45

 UPS / generator-set combination

Use of a generator Long backup times

An engine generator set is made up of an internal-combustion engine driving a
generator that supplies the distribution system. The backup time of an engine
generator set depends on the quantity of fuel available.
In some installations, the required backup time in the event of a utility outage is such
that it is preferable to use an engine generator set to back up utility power (figure
5.28).
This solution avoids using large batteries with very long backup times.
Though there is no general rule in the matter, a generator is often used for backup
times exceeding 30 minutes. Critical installations requiring very high availability
levels and with high down-time costs (e.g. data centres) systematically combine
UPSs and engine generator sets.
The battery backup time of the UPS must be sufficient for generator start-up and
connection to the electrical installation. Connection is generally carried out on the
main LV switchboard using an automatic source-changeover system. The time
required for changeover depends on the specific characteristics of each installation,
notably the start-up sequence, load shedding, etc.

Fig. 5.28. UPS / generator-set combination.

UPS / generator-set UPS / generator-set compatibility

combination
A number of factors must be taken into account when using an engine generator set
to provide long backup-time power to UPSs.

Load step changes

In the event of emergency conditions requiring connection of the installation to the
generator set, heavy loads can result in high inrush currents which can cause
serious generator-set operating problems. To avoid such phenomena, UPSs from
APC by Schneider Electric are equipped with a system ensuring gradual start-up of
the charger. The walk-in lasts approximately ten seconds. What is more, when utility
power returns, the charger may be stopped gradually via an auxiliary switch in order
to avoid disturbing the other loads.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 46

 UPS / generator-set combination (Cont.)

Fig. 5.29. Gradual start of the UPS rectifier during operation on generator power.

Capacitive currents
The generator can supply only relatively low capacitive currents (10 to 30 % of In).
When an LC filter is installed, the main difficulty lies in the gradual start-up of the
rectifier on generator power, when active power is equal to zero and the generator
supplies only the capacitive current for the filter. Consequently, the use of LC filters
must be correctly analysed to ensure that operation complies with manufacturer
specifications.
Use of compensated LC filters with a contactor solves this problem. For UPSs with a
PFC rectifier, compatibility is total.
Î LC filters and generators, see Ch. 1 p. 26.

Respective UPS and generator power ratings

A UPS equipped with a PFC rectifier has a high input power factor (greater than 0.9).
The engine generator set can therefore be used to maximum effectiveness.
For LC filters, compensated filters with a contactor solve the problem concerning
capacitive currents.
) Compatibility of power ratings between modern UPSs and engine generator sets
avoids all problems of derating.

Stability of generator frequency

During operation on engine generator set power, fluctuation in the generator
frequency may occur due to variations in the speed of the thermal motor for which
the regulation functions are not instantaneous. These variations are due to changes
in the load. Examples are start-up of the engine generator set itself (until it reaches
its rated speed), start-up of other loads supplied by the engine generator set
(elevators, air-conditioning systems), or shedding of loads.
This may create problems with line-interactive UPSs whose output frequency is
identical to that of the input. Generator frequency variations may lead to multiple
transfers to battery power (frequency outside tolerances) and returns to utility power
(when the inverter has stabilised the frequency, but the generator itself has not yet
stabilised), resulting in "hunting" phenomena (instability around the frequency set-
point).
With double-conversion UPSs, the regulation of the output power by the inverter
avoids this problem.
) Double-conversion UPSs are totally compatible with the frequency fluctuations of
engine generator sets. This is not the case for line-interactive UPSs.

Harmonics
The subtransient reactance X"d of a generator is generally higher than the short-
circuit voltage Uscx of a transformer (two to four times higher). Any harmonic
currents drawn by the UPS rectifier may have greater impact on the voltage
harmonic distortion on the upstream busbars. With PFC rectifier technology, the
absence of upstream harmonics avoids this problem.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 47

 UPS / generator-set combination (Cont.)

Review of inrush currents

On start-up, a number of loads cause major inrush currents (switching surges, start-
up peaks), which last a certain time.
For the UPS, these currents represent an apparent load Sa (kVA) that is greater than
Sn (kVA), which can be supplied under steady-state conditions.
The value of Sa to be taken into account in sizing UPS power is calculated on the
basis of these inrush currents.
Below are indications on these currents caused by common load devices.

Motors
Motors are generally of the three-phase asynchronous type (95% of all motors). The
additional power requirement corresponds to the start-up current defined by (fig. 5.30):
• Id (5 to 8 In, rated rms value) for a time td (1 to 10 seconds),
• Imax = 8 to 12 In, for 20 to 30 milliseconds.
The power drawn that must be taken into account (neglecting the peak effect of
Imax) is:
Sa (kVA) = Un Id 3 during td.

LV/LV transformers
Transformer switching produces current peaks with amplitudes that are damped
according to an exponential decay with a time constant (see fig. 5.31).
• i = I1st peak exp -t/τ where τ is a few cycles (30 to 300 ms).
• I1st peak = k In (where k is given, generally 10 to 20).
Indications generally include the number of cycles the phenomenon lasts and the
value of the various peaks as a percentage of I1st peak.
The corresponding inrush current is generally calculated on the basis of (see
example):
• Sa (kVA) = Un I1st peak 3 , i.e. Sa (kVA) = k Un In 3 during the number of cycles.
• Example of an inrush current damped in four cycles with:
1st peak (100%): k In (k from 10 to 20),
2nd peak 30 %: 0.3 k In,
3rd peak 15 %: 0.15 k In.
The total of the rms values of the currents corresponding to the various peaks (Ipeak
/ 2 ) (1) is:
k In (1 + 0,3 + 0,15 ) K In 1,45
= ≈ k In
2 2
This is roughly equivalent to the value of the first peak alone.
(1)
Considering the current peaks as sine waves; note that some manufacturers indicate an rms
value of Ipeak / 2.

Computer loads
Switch-mode power supplies are non-linear loads. The current for a single-phase
load has a wave form similar to that shown in figure 5.32. There can be a peak
during the first half wave of approximately 2 In. However, it is generally much lower
than this and can be neglected.

Fig. 5.30. Curve for direct on- Fig. 5.31. LV/LV transformer Fig. 5.32. Computer load
line starting of a three-phase switching current. starting current.
asynchronous motor.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 48

 Harmonics

Harmonics Origin of harmonics

The increasing use of computing, telecommunications and power-electronics devices
have multiplied the number of non-linear loads connected to power systems.
These applications require switch-mode power supplies which transform the voltage
sine wave into periodic signals of different wave forms. All these periodic signals of
frequency f are the product of superimposed sinusoidal signals with frequencies that
are multiples of f, known as harmonics (see the section "Characteristic harmonic
values" dealing with the Fourier theorem below, on page 40). Figure 5.32 illustrates
this showing the initial current (the fundamental) and the third-order harmonic.

This figure shows what happens when a third-

order harmonic (150/180 Hz) is superimposed
on the fundamental frequency (50/60 Hz). The
frequency of the resulting periodic signal is
that of the fundamental, but the waveform is
distorted.

Fig. 5.33. Example of harmonics.

The increased presence of harmonics is a phenomenon that concerns all electrical

installations, commercial and industrial, as well as residential. No modern electrical
environment is exempt from these disturbances caused by devices such as PCs,
servers, fluorescent tubes, air-conditioners, variable-speed drives, discharge lamps,
rectifiers, static power supplies, microwave ovens, televisions, halogen lamps, etc.
All these loads are termed "non-linear".

Consequences of harmonics
Harmonics disturb, increasingly severely, all sorts of activities, ranging from factories
producing electronic components and data-processing systems to pumping stations,
telecommunications systems, television studios, etc., because they represent a
significant part of the current drawn.
There are three types of negative consequences for users:

Impact on the electrical installation

Harmonics increase the value of the rms current with respect to that of the rated
sinusoidal current. The result is temperature rise (sometimes significant) in lines,
transformers, generators, capacitors, cables, etc. The hidden costs of accelerated
aging in such devices can be very high.

Impact on applications
Harmonic currents circulate in the source and line impedances, thus generating
voltage harmonics which lead to voltage distortion on the busbars upstream of the
non-linear loads (figure 5.34).
The distortion of the supply voltage (upstream THDU - Total harmonic distortion in
voltage) may disturb the operation of certain sensitive devices connected to the
these busbars.
What is more, for TNC systems where N and PE conductors are combined to form a
PEN conductor, the zero-sequence third-order harmonics cumulate in the neutral
conductor. This unbalance current in the neutral can disturb circuits interconnecting
low-current devices and may require oversizing of the neutral.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 49

 Harmonics (Cont.)

Fig. 5.34. Voltage distortion due to reinjection of harmonic currents by non-linear loads.

Impact on the available electrical power

Harmonics represent an outright loss of current (up to 30% more current consumed).
The user must pay more for less available power.

Precautions
General
There are a number of traditional solutions to limit harmonics:
• installation of tuned passive filters,
• installation in parallel of several cables with medium-sized cross sections,
• separation of non-linear loads and sensitive loads behind isolating transformers.
However, these solutions have two major disadvantages:
• limitation of harmonics is effective only in the existing installation (the addition or
removal of loads can render it ineffective),
• implementation is difficult in existing installations.
SineWave active harmonic conditioners (see chapter 3) avoid these disadvantages.
Much more effective than other solutions, they may be used with all types of loads
and can selectively eliminate harmonics ranging from the 2nd to the 25th order.
Î Elimination of harmonics, see “eliminate harmonic currents”

UPSs
• Due to the rectifier/charger, a UPS is a non-linear load for its power source. UPSs
from APC by Schneider Electric offer perfect control over upstream harmonics by
using "clean" PFC rectifiers or filters (MGE Galaxy PW and 9000).
Upstream of the UPS, the total voltage distortion remains within limits that are
acceptable for the other devices connected to the same busbars.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 50

 Harmonics (Cont.)

Characteristic harmonic Current values

values
Harmonic expansion of a periodic current
The Fourier theorem indicates that any periodic function with a frequency f may be
represented as the sum of terms (series) composed of:
• a sinusoidal term with frequency f, called the fundamental frequency,
• sinusoidal terms with frequencies that are whole multiples of the fundamental
frequency, i.e. the harmonics,
• a DC component, where applicable.
Application of the Fourier theorem to the currents of non-linear loads indicates that a
periodic current I(t), of whatever form at frequency f (50 or 60 Hz), is the sum of
harmonic sinusoidal currents defined by:
∞
I( t) = IH1 2 sin(ωt + ϕ1) + ∑ IHn
n= 2
2 sin(nωt + ϕn)

where
• IH1 is the rms value of the fundamental current at frequency f (50 or 60 Hz),
• ω = 2 π f is the angular frequency of the fundamental,
• ϕ1 is the phase displacement between the fundamental current and the voltage,
• IHn is the rms value of the nth harmonic, at frequency nf,
• ϕn is the phase displacement between the nth harmonic current and the voltage.
It is important to evaluate the harmonics (n ≥ 2) with regards to the fundamental (n =
1) to determine to what degree the function differs from the fundamental.
To that end, the values below are taken into account.

Current individual harmonic content

This value expresses the ratio in percent between of the rms value of the given
harmonic and that of the fundamental.
IHn
Ihn % = 100
IH1
All the harmonics present in a given current with the indication of their relative
importance (Ihn values) constitute the harmonic spectrum of the current. Generally
speaking, the influence of the orders above the 25th is negligible.

Current total harmonic distortion

This distortion is called THDI (Total Harmonic Distortion where I is for the current). It
expresses the ratio between the rms value of all harmonics (n ≥ 2) and that of the
fundamental. The THDI is also expressed in terms of the individual harmonics.
∞

∑ IH n
2
∞
⎡ IHn ⎤
2 ∞
THDI% = 100
n= 2
IH1
= 100 ∑ ⎢⎣ IH ⎥⎦
n= 2 1
= ∑ (Ih %)
n= 2
n
2

Note. Harmonic contents are sometimes expressed with respect to the complete signal Irms,
and not the fundamental (IEC documents). Here, we use the definition of the CIGREE, which
uses the fundamental.
For the low harmonic contents analysed in the following pages, the two definitions produce
virtually identical results.

Rms value of a current with harmonics

The rms value of an alternating current with a period T is:
1 T
∫ I( t) dt
2
Irms =
T 0
After calculation and using harmonic representation, this can be expressed as:
∞
Irms = ∑ IH
n =1
n
2

where IHn = rms value of the nth harmonic.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 51

 Harmonics (Cont.)

The rms value is also expressed as:

∞
Irms = IH12 + ∑ IH
n= 2
n
2
or:

∞ 2

∑
⎡ IHn ⎤
Ieff = IH1 1 + ⎢ ⎥ hence:
⎢⎣ IH1 ⎥⎦
n=2

∞
Irms = IH1 1 + ∑ Ih
n= 2
n
2
= IH1 1 + THDI2

• Ihn = Ihn% / 100 (individual level expressed as a value and not as a percentage).
• THDI = THDI% / 100 (distortion expressed as a value and not as a percentage).
The rms value of the current is that of the fundamental, multiplied by a coefficient
which is due to the harmonics and is a function of the distortion.
) One effect of harmonics is therefore to increase the rms value of the current,
which can lead to temperature rise and therefore require oversizing of conductors.
The lower the distortion, the less need for oversizing.

Example
Input current of a three-phase rectifier.
Harmonic distortion levels

Ih5 = 33%
Ih7 = 2.7%
Ih11 = 7.3%
Ih13 = 1.6%
Ih17 = 2.6%
Ih19 = 1.1%
Ih23 = 1.5%
Ih25 = 1.3%

THDI = 35%

Fig 5.35. Example of the spectrum of a harmonic current.

∞
THDI% = ∑ (Ih %)
n= 2
n
2

The value under the square root sign is:

332 + 2.72 + 7.32 + 1.62 +2.62 + 1.12 + 1.52 +1.32 = 1164
consequently THDI% ≈ 34% and THDI = 0.34.
Ieff = IH1 1+ THDI2 = IH1 1 + 0.34 2 = 1.056 x I1
The rms value of this current is therefore 5.6% higher than the rms value of the
fundamental, i.e. than the rated current containing no harmonics, with a
corresponding temperature rise.

Voltage values
At the terminals of a non-linear load, through which a distorted periodic AC current
flows, the voltage is also periodic with a frequency f and it is also distorted with
respect to the theoretical sinusoidal wave. The relation between voltage and current
is no longer governed by Ohm's linear law, because it is applicable only for
sinusoidal voltage and current. It is possible, however, to use a Fourier expansion for
the voltage and to define, similar to the current and with the same results, the
following values:

Voltage individual harmonic content

UHn
Uhn % = 100
UH1
The harmonic spectrum can also be calculated for the voltage.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 52

 Harmonics (Cont.)

Voltage total harmonic distortion

∞

∑ UH n
2
∞
⎡ UHn ⎤
2 ∞
THDU% = 100
n= 2
UH1
= 100 ∑ ⎢
n= 2 ⎣
⎥
UH1 ⎦
= ∑ (Uh )
n= 2
n
2

THDU for Total Harmonic Distortion, where U is for the voltage.

Rms value of a voltage with harmonics

∞
Irms = ∑ IH
n =1
n
2

Which, similar to the current, can also be expressed as:

∞
Urms = UH1 1+ ∑Uh
n=2
n
2
= IH1 1+ THDU2

) The rms value of the voltage is that of the fundamental, multiplied by a coefficient
which is due to the harmonics.

Power values
Power factor in the presence of harmonics
On the basis of the active power at the terminals of a non-linear load P (kW) and the
apparent power supplied S (kVA), the power factor is defined by:
P (kW )
λ=
S (kVA )
This power factor does not express the phase displacement between the voltage and
the current because they are not sinusoidal. However, it is possible to define the
displacement between the voltage fundamental and the current fundamental (both
sinusoidal), by:
P1(KW )
cos ϕ1 =
S1(kVA )
where P1 and S1 are the active and reactive power, respectively, corresponding to
the fundamentals.
Standard IEC 146-1 defines the distortion factor:
λ
ν=
cos ϕ1
When there are no harmonics, this factor is equal to 1 and the power factor is simply
the cos ϕ.

Power in the presence of harmonics

• Across the terminals of a balanced, three-phase linear load, supplied with a
phase-to-phase voltage u(t) and a current I(t), where the displacement between u
and i is ϕ, the apparent power in kVA, depending on the rms values U and I, is:
S = UI 3
The active power in kW is: P = S cos ϕ
The reactive power in kvar is: Q = S sin ϕ
Where:
S= P2 + Q2
• At the terminals of a non-linear load, the mathematical definition of P is much
more complex because U and I contain harmonics. It can however be expressed
simply as:
.P = S λ. (λ = power factor)
If U1 and I1 are the fundamentals displaced by ϕ1, it is possible to calculate the
corresponding apparent, active and reactive power by:
S1= U1 I1 3 P1 = S1 cos ϕ1 and Q1 = S1 sin ϕ1. The total apparent power is:

S = P12 + Q12 + D2
where D is the distortion power, due to the harmonics.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 53

 Non-linear loads and PWM technology

Non-linear load Importance of the UPS output impedance

performance of UPSs using
Equivalent diagram of an inverter output
PWM technology With respect to the load, an inverter is a perfect source of sinusoidal voltage V0 in
series with an output impedance Zs. Figure 5.36 shows the equivalent diagram of the
inverter output when a load is present.

The inverter output is a perfect voltage source Vc = impedance across the load terminals.
V0 in series with an output impedance Zs. Vs = impedance at the inverter output.
ZL = line impedance.
Zc = load impedance.
Fig. 5.36. Equivalent diagram of an inverter output.

Effects of different load types

• For a linear load, the impedances Zs, ZL, Zc are considered at the angular
frequency ω = 2 π f corresponding to the distribution frequency (f = 50 or 60 Hz),
giving
V0 = (Zs + ZL + Zc) I
• For a non-linear load, the harmonic currents drawn by the load flow through the
impedances. For the fundamental and each individual harmonic, the rms values of
the current and the voltage are related similarly and can be expressed as:
- for the fundamental: U1 = (Zs + ZL + Zc) I1
- for each harmonic order k: UK = [Zs(kf) + ZL(kf) + Zc(kf)] IK
The impedance values are considered at the frequency kf of the given order.
Voltage distortion decreases with the individual levels of the voltage harmonics UK /
U1.
These levels are related to those of the harmonic currents IK/ I1 by the equation:
[Zs(kf) + ZL(kf) + Zc(kf)] / (Zs + ZL + Zc).
) Consequently, for a given load current spectrum, the individual voltage harmonic
levels and the total distortion (THDU) decrease with the impedance of the source
and the cables at the given frequencies.

Consequences of non-linear loads

To reduce the effects of the harmonic currents (THDU at B and C), it is necessary, to
the greatest extent possible, to:
• reduce the line impedance,
• ensure a low source impedance at the various harmonic frequencies.
) Good behaviour on the part of a UPS supplying non-linear loads requires a low
output impedance at the various harmonic frequencies.
Below is a presentation of the advantages of the PWM (pulse width modulation)
chopping technique in this respect.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 54

 Non-linear loads and PWM technology (Cont.)

UPS operating principle

Chopping of the DC voltage by the inverter with filtering
An inverter is made up of a converter that transforms the DC power supplied by the
rectifier/charger or the battery into AC power. For example, on a single-phase UPS,
there are two ways to convert the DC power, using either a half bridge (see fig. 5.37)
or a full bridge (see fig. 5.38).
The square-wave voltage obtained between A and B is then filtered to produce a
sinusoidal voltage with a low level of distortion at the output.

The switches represented here to illustrate the principle are controlled IGBTs.
Fig. 5.37. Half-bridge DC/AC converter. Fig. 5.38. Full-bridge DC/AC converter.

Practically speaking, the switches shown in figures 5.37 and 5.38 are IGBTs for
which it is possible to control the relative on and off times.
By controlling the on and off times, it is possible to "distribute" the voltage over the
reference sinusoidal wave. This principle is known as PWM (pulse width modulation).
It is shown in a simplified manner, with five square-wave pulses, in figure 5.39. The
area of the voltage sinusoidal wave is equal to that of the square-wave pulses used
to generate it. These areas represent the power supplied by the inverter to the load
T
over a given time, i.e.
∫ VIdt
0
The higher the chopping frequency (the higher the number of square-wave pulses),
the better the regulation with respect to the reference wave. Chopping also reduces
the size of the internal filter required on the LC output (see fig. 5.40).

Fig. 5.39. DC/AC converter output voltage Fig. 5.40. Inverter output filter.
with five square-wave pulses per half-wave.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 55

 Non-linear loads and PWM technology (Cont.)

PWM inverters
PWM chopping
The PWM (pulse width modulation) chopping technique combines high-frequency
chopping (a few kHz) of the DC voltage by the inverter and regulation of the pulse
width for the inverter output, to comply with a reference sinusoidal wave.
This technique uses IGBTs (insulated gate bipolar transistors) offering the
advantages of voltage control and very short commutation times. Due to the high
frequency, the regulation system can react quickly (e.g. 333 nanoseconds for a
frequency of 3 kHz) to modify the pulse widths within a given period.
) Comparison with the reference voltage wave makes it possible to maintain the
inverter output voltage within strict distortion tolerances, even for highly distorted
currents.

Functional diagram of a PWM inverter

Figure 5.41 shows the functional diagram of a PWM inverter.
The output voltage is continuously compared to the reference voltage Vref which is a
sinusoidal wave with a very low level of distortion (< 1%).
The difference in the voltage ε is processed by a corrector, according to a transfer
function C(p), intended to ensure the performance and stability of control.
The voltage from the corrector is then amplified by the DC/AC converter and its
control system with a gain A. The Vm voltage supplied by the converter is filtered by
the LC filter to supply the output voltage Vs.
Practically speaking, it is necessary to take into account the impedance of the output
transformer when it exists, to obtain the total inductance L. Often, the inductance is
built into the transformer, which is why it is not included in diagrams.

Fig. 5.41. Functional diagram of a PWM inverter.

Output impedance of a PWM inverter

It is possible to represent the above DC/AC converter and filter as a series
impedance Z1 and a parallel impedance Z2 (see the left-hand side of fig. 5.42).
The diagram can be modified to display the output impedance Zs.
The equivalent diagram (right-hand side of fig. 42) shows:
Z2
• V'm = voltage measured under no-load conditions, i.e. V'm = Vm
Z1 + Z2
• Zs = impedance measured at the output with V'm short-circuited, i.e.:
Z1 Z 2
Zs =
Z1 + Z 2

Fig. 5.42. Equivalent diagram of an inverter as seen from the output.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 56

 Non-linear loads and PWM technology (Cont.)

Z2
The ratio is the transfer function of the filter, noted H(p).
Z1 + Z 2
To simplify, C(p) x A is replaced by µ(p) which represents the transfer function of the
correction and amplification.
It is thus possible to replace fig. 5.41 by the functional diagram in fig. 5.43.

Fig. 5.43. Transformed functional diagram of a PWM-chopping inverter equipped with an

output-voltage regulation system with modulated chopping frequency.

It is possible to show that the inverter output impedance Zs in this case is equal to:
Z1
Z' s ≈
µ (p)
(for further information, consult Schneider Electric Cahier Technique document no.
159).
This means that in the regulation pass band, the inverter output impedance is equal
to the filter series impedance divided by the correction and amplification gain.
Given the high gain in the regulation pass band, the output impedance is significantly
reduced compared to impedance Z1 of an inverter without this type of regulation.
Outside the regulation pass band, the inverter output impedance is equal to that of
the filter, but remains low because it corresponds to the impedance of a high-
frequency capacitor.
Consequently, the output impedance is a function of the frequency (see fig. 5.44).
) The free-frequency PWM (pulse width modulation) technique considerably limits
the output impedance.

Comparison of different Output impedance of various sources

sources
The curves in figure 5.44 show the output impedances for various sources with equal
output ratings as a function of the AC frequency. The impedances are plotted as a
percent of the load impedance Zc.
• Transformers and generators - the curve is a straight line corresponding to the
effect of the inductance L (the term which rapidly becomes dominant in the reactance
with respect to the resistance and which increases linearly as a function of the
frequency).
• Modern inverters implementing the PWM chopping technique with modulated
chopping frequency - at all harmonic frequencies, the Zs/Zc ratio is:
- less than that noted for other sources,
- low and virtually constant.

Conclusion
The PWM inverter is the source offering by far the lowest output impedance in the
presence of harmonics. It is clearly the best source on the market in terms of its
aptitude to minimise the voltage distortion caused by non-linear loads. It is five to six
times better than a transformer with an identical power rating.
) The new generation of UPSs implementing IGBTs and the PWM chopping
technique with frequency modulation are the best sources of sinusoidal voltage,
whatever the type of current drawn by the load.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 57

 Non-linear loads and PWM technology (Cont.)

Fig. 5.44. Output impedance of different sources depending on the frequency.

Free-frequency chopping Free-frequency chopping

Free frequency is an improvement to the PWM technique.
PWM chopping can use either of two techniques (fig. 5.45).

Fixed-frequency chopping
The chopping fronts occur at fixed, regular intervals corresponding to the chopping
frequency over one period.
The width of the pulses (square-wave pulses) can be modulated to conform to the
reference within the fixed time interval.
The two sine waves shown in the diagram correspond to the tolerance (< 1%)
around the reference sine wave.

Free-frequency chopping
The chopping fronts do not necessarily occur at fixed intervals. Chopping adapts to
the requirements of the regulation, i.e. the rate of change of the reference. The width
of the commutation fronts decreases (the chopping frequency increases) as the rate
of change of the reference sine wave increases. Conversely, the width of the
commutation fronts increases (the chopping frequency decreases) as the rate of
change of the reference decreases. On the whole, the average chopping frequency
is the same as that for the fixed-frequency technique (approximately 3 kHz). But
regulation is better because the commutation accelerates in the zones where the
rate of change is high (see fig. 5.46).
It can reach eight commutations per millisecond, i.e. a regulation time as low as 125
nanoseconds (compared to 300 ns for the fixed-frequency technique).
) The free-frequency technique increases the precision of the voltage regulation in
PWM inverters compared to the fixed-frequency technique.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 58

 Non-linear loads and PWM technology (Cont.)

The chopping frequency is fixed. The free chopping frequency increases where
Modulation takes place within fixed intervals, the rate of change of the reference is high.
whatever the rate of change of the reference Modulation therefore takes place within
sine wave. intervals that are shorter when the rate of
change of the reference sine wave increases.
Fixed frequency. Free frequency.
Fig. 5.45. PWM chopping with fixed-frequency and free-frequency regulation.

Free-frequency
switching

Quality
band with
variations
< 1%
Output voltage Up to 8 commutations
curve per millisecond
Fig. 5.46. Regulation employing free-frequency commutation.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 59

 PFC Rectifiers

Standard and PFC rectifiers

UPS units draw power from the AC distribution system via a rectifier/charger. With
respect to the upstream system, the rectifier is a non-linear load drawing harmonics.
In terms of harmonics, there are two types of rectifiers.

Standard rectifiers
These are three-phase rectifiers incorporating SCRs and using a six-phase bridge
with standard chopping of the current.
This type of bridge draws harmonic currents with orders of n = 6 k ± 1 (where k is a
whole number), mainly H5 and H7, and to a lesser degree H11 and H13.
Harmonics are controlled by using a filter.

"Clean" PFC (Power Factor Correction) rectifier

This type of rectifier comprises built-in IGBTs and a regulation system that adjusts
the input voltage and current to a reference sine wave. This technique ensures an
input voltage and current that are:
• perfectly sinusoidal, i.e. free of harmonics,
• in phase, i.e. an input power factor close to 1.
With this type of rectifier, no filters are required.

PFC rectifiers
Operating principle
The principle behind PFC rectifiers consists in forcing the current drawn to remain
sinusoidal. To that end, they use the PWM technique presented above.
The principle is that of a "voltage source" converter (see fig. 5.47), whereas the
SineWave active harmonic conditioner uses a "current source" converter.
The converter acts as a back-electromotive force (a "sinusoidal voltage generator")
on the distribution system and the sinusoidal current is obtained by inserting an
inductor between the utility power and the voltage source.
Even if other non-linear loads increase the voltage distortion on the distribution
system, the regulation can adapt to draw a sinusoidal current.
The frequency of low residual harmonic currents is the frequency of the modulation
and of its multiples. Frequency depends on the possibilities of the semiconductors
used.

Fig. 5.47. Operating principle of a clean "voltage generator" converter.

Implementation
Single-phase rectifier
Figure 5.48 shows the operation of a single-phase rectifier.
Voltage modulation is obtained by a controller that forces the current to follow a
sinusoidal current reference.
Transistor T and diode D make up the voltage modulator. The voltage u thus
changes between 0 and Vs according to whether transistor T is in the on or off state.
When transistor T conducts, the current in inductor L can only increase as the
voltage is positive and u = 0.
Therefore:
di e
= >0
dt L

PC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 60

 PFC Rectifiers (Cont.)

When transistor T is off, the current in L decreases, provided that Vs is greater than
V, so that:
di e − Vs
= >0
dt L
For this condition to be fulfilled, voltage Vs must be greater than the peak voltage of
V, i.e. the rms value of the AC voltage multiplied by 2
If this condition is fulfilled, the current in L can be increased or decreased at any
time. The variation of the current in L with time can be forced by monitoring the
respective on and off times of transistor T. Figure 5.49 shows the evolution of current
IL with respect to a reference value.

From the source viewpoint, the converter must

act like a resistance, i.e. current i must be
sinusoidal and in phase with e (cos ϕ = 1).
By controlling transistor T, the controller forces
IL to follow a sinusoidal current reference with
full-wave rectification. The shape of I is thus
necessarily sinusoidal and in phase with e.
What is more, to keep voltage Vs at its
nominal value at the output, the controller
adjusts the mean value of IL.

Fig. 5.48. Diagram of a clean, single-phase rectifier drawing a sinusoidal signal.

Fig. 5.49. Evolution of current IL with respect to the reference.

PC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 61

 PFC Rectifiers (Cont.)

Three-phase rectifier/charger
The basic circuit arrangement is shown in fig. 5.50. It is similar to that in fig. 5.48,
with the inductor placed upstream of the rectifiers; the operating principle is also the
same. The monitoring system controls each power leg and forces the current drawn
on each phase to follow the sinusoidal reference.

Fig. 5.50. Diagram of a clean, three-phase rectifier drawing a sinusoidal signal.

PC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 62

 Key factors in UPS installations

Contents

Introduction ..................................................................... 2
Using this guide .............................................................. 3
Overview of protection solutions .................................. 4
Protection solutions ..............................................................................4
Accompanying software and services ..................................................5
UPSs in electrical installations ...................................... 6
Function of each component in the installation.....................................6
Essential installation parameters ..........................................................7
Sources of information in setting up installation specifications .............8
Basic notions on installations with UPSs ..................... 9
Need for high-quality and high-availability power .................................9
Supply systems with UPSs ...................................................................10
UPS power quality ................................................................................11
UPS power availability ..........................................................................13
Selection of the configuration ...............................................................16
Power calculations.......................................................... 17
Elements required for power calculations .............................................17
Ratings of single-UPS configurations ...................................................19
Ratings of parallel-UPS configurations .................................................22
Control of upstream harmonics ..................................... 24
UPSs and upstream harmonic currents for different input rectifiers .....24
Filtering of upstream harmonics for Graetz bridge rectifiers .................25
Selection of a filter ................................................................................27
System earthing arrangements...................................... 30
Background information on system earthing arrangements .................30
Applications in UPS installations ..........................................................32
Protection ........................................................................ 35
Protection using circuit breakers ..........................................................35
Selection of circuit breakers .................................................................38
Cables ............................................................................. 43
Selection of cable sizes ........................................................................43
Example of an installation ....................................................................44
Energy storage ............................................................... 45
Storage technologies ............................................................................45
Selection of a battery............................................................................46
Battery monitoring ................................................................................47
Human-machine interface and communication ........... 49
Human-machine interface (HMI) ..........................................................49
Communication ....................................................................................49
Preliminary work ............................................................ 51
Installation considerations ....................................................................51
Battery room .........................................................................................52

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 1

 Overview of protection solutions

Power protection solutions

Fig. 1.1. APC by Schneider Electric products.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 4

 UPSs in electrical installations

Function of each component in the installation

Fig. 1.3. Functions of the components in installations with UPSs.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 6

 UPSs in electrical installations (cont.)

Essential installation parameters

Fig. 1.4. Main parameters for the components in installations with UPSs.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 7

 Basic notions on installations with UPSs
(cont .)

Supply systems with Purpose of UPSs

UPSs
UPSs (uninterruptible power supply) are designed to meet the needs presented
above. First launched in the 1970s, their importance has grown in step with the
development of digital technologies.
UPSs are electrical devices that are positioned between the distribution system and
sensitive loads. They supply power that is much more reliable than the distribution
system and corresponds to the needs of sensitive loads in terms of quality and
availability.
Î UPSs, see Technical review p. 4 "The UPS solution".

Types of UPSs
The term UPS covers products with apparent power ratings from a few hundred VA
up to several MVA, implementing different technologies.
That is why standard IEC 62040-3 and its European equivalent ENV 62040-3 define
three standard types (topologies) of UPS.
UPS technologies include:
• Passive standby,
• Interaction with the distribution system,
• Double conversion.
For the low power ratings (< 2 kVA), the three technologies coexist. For higher
ratings, virtually all static UPSs (i.e. implementing semiconductor components, e.g.
IGBTs) implement the double-conversion technology.
Rotary UPSs (with rotating mechanical parts, e.g. flywheels) are not included in the
standards and remain marginal on the market.
Î Types of UPSs, see Technical review p. 9 "Types of static UPSs".

Double-conversion static UPSs

This is virtually the only type of UPS used in high-power installations due to their
unique advantages over the other types:
• complete regeneration of the power supplied at the output,
• total isolation of the load from the distribution system and its disturbances,
• no-break transfer (where applicable) to a bypass line.
• The operating principle (fig. 1.6) is presented below.
• during normal operation, a rectifier/charger turns the AC-input power into DC
power to supply an inverter and float charge a battery.
• the inverter completely regenerates a sinusoidal signal, turning the DC power back
into AC power that is free of all disturbances and within strict amplitude and
frequency tolerances.
• if the AC-input power fails, the battery supplies the power required by the inverter
for a specified backup time.
• a static bypass can transfer the load without a break in the supply of power to a
bypass line to continue supplying the load if need be (internal fault, short-circuit
downstream, maintenance). This "fault-tolerant" design makes it possible to continue
supplying power to the load in "downgraded mode" (the power does not transit the
inverter) during the time required to re-establish normal conditions.
Î Double-conversion UPSs, see Technical review p. 14 "Components and
operation".

Fig. 1.6. Double-conversion static UPS

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 10

 Basic notions on installations with UPSs
(cont .)

Power quality of UPSs Power quality of double-conversion UPSs

By design, double-conversion solid-state UPSs supply to the connected loads a
sinusoidal signal that is:
• high quality because it is continuously regenerated and regulated (amplitude ± 1%,
frequency ± 0.5%),
• free of all disturbances from the distribution system (due to the double conversion)
and in particular from micro-outages and outages (due to the battery).
This level of quality must be ensured, whatever the type of load.

Voltage quality for linear loads

What is a linear load?
A linear load supplied with a sinusoidal voltage draws a sinusoidal current having the
same frequency as the voltage. The current may be displaced (angle ϕ) with respect
to the voltage (fig. 1.7).

Examples of linear loads

Many loads are linear, including standard light bulbs, heating units, resistive loads,
motors, transformers, etc. They do not contain any active electronic components,
only resistors (R), inductors (L) and capacitors (C).

UPSs and linear loads

For this type of load, the UPS output signal is very high quality, i.e. the voltage and
current are perfectly sinusoidal, 50 or 60 Hz.

Purely resistive load Load with inductor and/or capacitor

Fig. 1.7. Voltage and current for linear loads.

Voltage quality for non-linear loads

What is a non-linear load?
A non-linear (or distorting) load supplied with a sinusoidal voltage draws a periodic
current that has the same frequency as the voltage, but is not sinusoidal.
The current drawn by the load is in fact the combination (fig. 1.8) of:
• a sinusoidal current called the fundamental, at the 50 or 60 Hz frequency,
• harmonics, which are sinusoidal currents with an amplitude less than that of the
fundamental, but a frequency that is a multiple of the fundamental and which defines
the harmonic order (e.g. the third order harmonic has a frequency 3 x 50 Hz
(or 60 Hz) and the fifth order harmonic has a frequency 5 x 50 Hz (or 60 Hz)).
The harmonic currents are caused by the presence of power-electronic components
(e.g. diodes, SCRs, IGBTs) which switch the input current.

Examples of non-linear loads

Non-linear loads include all those that have a switch-mode power supply at their
input to supply the electronics (e.g. computers, variable-speed drives, etc.).

Voltage and current drawn by a single-phase

Effect of harmonics (H3 and H5 in this switch-mode power supply (computers).
example).
Fig. 1.8. The current drawn by non-linear loads is distorted by the harmonics.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 11

 Basic notions on installations with UPSs
(cont .)

Harmonic spectrum of the current drawn by a non-linear load

The harmonic analysis of a non-linear current consists in determining (fig. 1.9):
• the harmonic orders present in the current,
• the relative importance of each order, measured as the percentage of the order.
rms value of harmonic k
Hk% = distortion of harmonic k =
rms value of the fundamental

Voltage and current harmonic distortion

Non-linear loads cause both current and voltage harmonics. This is because for each
current harmonic, there is a voltage harmonic with the same frequency. The 50 Hz
(or 60 Hz) sinusoidal voltage of the UPS is therefore distorted by the harmonics.
The distortion of a sine wave is presented as a percentage:
rms value of all the harmonic k
THD* % = total distortion =
rms value of the fundamental
* Total Harmonic Distortion.
The following values are defined:
• TDHU % for the voltage, based on the voltage harmonics,
• TDHI % for the current, based on the current harmonics (fig. 1.9).
The higher the harmonic content, the greater the distortion.
Practically speaking, the distortion in the current drawn by the load is much higher
(THDI approximately 30%) than that of the voltage at the input (THDU approximately
5%).

Harmonic distortion levels

H5 = 33%
H7 = 2.7%
H11 = 7.3%
H13 = 1.6%
H17 = 2.6%
H19 = 1.1%
H23 = 1.5%
H25 = 1.3%

THDI = 35% (see calculation ch. 5, p. 41)

Harmonic spectrum and corresponding THDI.

Input current of a three-phase rectifier.
Fig. 1.9. Example of the harmonic spectrum of the current drawn by a non-linear load.

Î Non-linear loads, see "Elimination of harmonics in installations" and

Technical review p. 38 "Harmonics".

UPSs and non-linear loads

Harmonics affect the sinusoidal voltage at the UPS output. Excessive distortion can
disturb the linear loads connected in parallel on the output, notably by increasing the
current they draw (temperature rise).
To maintain the quality of the UPS output voltage, it is necessary to limit its distortion
(THDU), i.e. limit the current harmonics that produce voltage distortion.
In particular, it is necessary that the impedance (at the UPS output and in the cables
supplying the load) remain low.

Limiting the distortion of the output voltage

Due to the free-frequency chopping technique employed, the impedance at the
output of UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric is very low, whatever the frequency
(i.e. whatever the harmonic order). This technique virtually eliminates all distortion in
the output voltage when supplying non-linear loads. The quality of the output voltage
is thus constant, even for non-linear loads.
Practically speaking, installation designers must:
• check UPS output values for non-linear loads and, in particular, make sure that the
announced level of distortion, measured for standardised non-linear loads as per
standard IEC 62040-3, is very low (THDU < 2 to 3%),
• limit the length (impedance) of the output cables supplying the loads.
Î UPS performance for non-linear loads, see Technical review p. 43.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 12

 Power calculations

Elements required for Installation considerations

power calculations
Type of load supplied
Linear loads (cos ϕ) or non-linear loads (power factor).
These characteristics determine the power factor at the UPS output.

Maximum power drawn by the load under steady-state conditions

For a load, this is the power rating. If a number of loads are connected in parallel on
the UPS output, it is necessary to calculate the total load when all the loads operate
at the same time. Otherwise, it is necessary to use diversity to calculate the most
unfavourable operation in terms of the power drawn.

In-rush currents under transient conditions or for a short-circuit

downstream
The overload capacity of a UPS system depends on the time the overload lasts.
If this time limit is exceeded, the UPS transfers the load to the Bypass AC input, if its
voltage characteristics are within tolerances. In this case, the load is no longer
protected against disturbances on the distribution system.
Depending on the quality of the Bypass AC power, it is possible to:
• use the Bypass AC input to handle current spikes due to switching of devices or
downstream short-circuits. This avoids oversizing the system,
• disable automatic transfer (except for internal faults), while maintaining the
possibility of manual transfers (e.g. for maintenance).
UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric operate in current-limiting mode. By spacing
switching of devices over time, it is generally possible to handle in-rush currents
without having to transfer to the Bypass AC power. If the in-rush current exceeds the
limiting threshold (e.g. 2.33 In for MGE Galaxy 9000 UPSs) for a few periods (but
less than one second), the UPS current limits for the necessary time. This
downgraded operating mode may be acceptable, for example, for a cold start (on
battery power, utility power absent).

Power of a UPS
Rated power of a UPS
This rating, indicated in the catalogues, is in the output power. It is indicated as
an apparent power Sn in kVA, with the corresponding active power Pn in kW, for a:
• linear load,
• load with a cos ϕ = 0.8.
However, last-generation UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric can supply
loads with a cos ϕ = 0.9 leading.

Calculation of the rated power

Pn (kW) = 0.8 Sn (kVA). rated active power
This calculation depends on the output voltage of the UPS and the current drawn by
the load, where:
Sn (kVA) = UnIn 3 in three-phase systems
Sn (kVA) = VnIn in single-phase systems
For a three-phase UPS, U and I are rms line values, for a single-phase UPS, V is a
phase-to-neutral voltage, where:
Un = phase-to-phase voltage
Vn = phase-to-neutral voltage
Un = Vn 3
For example, if Un = 400 volts, Vn = 230 Volts.

Power and type of load

The two tables below present the equations linking the power, voltage and current,
depending on the type of load (linear or non-linear).
The following symbols are used:
• instantaneous voltage u(t) and current i(t) values,
• the corresponding rms values U and I,
• ω = angular frequency = 2 π f where f is the frequency (50 or 60 Hz),
• ϕ = displacement between the voltage and the current under sinusoidal conditions.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 17

 Power calculations (Cont.)

Linear loads
Three-phase Single-phase
Sinusoidal voltage u(t) = U 2 sin ωt between phases v(t) = V 2 sin ωt phase to neutral

U=V 3
Displaced sinusoidal current i(t) = I 2 sin (ωt - ϕ) phase current

Current crest factor 2

Apparent power S (kVA) = UI 3 cos ϕ S (kVA) = VI
Active power P (kW) = UI 3 cos ϕ = S (kVA) cos ϕ P (kW) = VI cos ϕ = S (kVA) cos ϕ
Reactive power Q (kvar) = UI 3 sin ϕ = S (kVA) sin ϕ Q (kvar) = VI sin ϕ = S (kVA) sin ϕ

S= P 2 +Q 2

Non-linear loads
Sinusoidal voltage u(t) = U 2 sin ωt between phases v(t) = V 2 sin ωt phase to neutral
The regulated UPS voltage remains sinusoidal
(low THDU), whatever the type of load. U=V 3
Current with harmonics i(t) = i1(t) + Σihk(t) total phase current
i1(t) = I1 2 sin (ωt - ϕ1) fundamental current

ik(t) = Ihk 2 sin (kωt - ϕk) k-order harmonic

I= I12 + I22 + I32 + I4 2 + .... rms value of the total current

C = peak current value / rms value Current crest factor

I12 2 2 2
+ I2 + I3 + I4 + ....
THDI = Current total harmonic distortion
I1

Apparent power S (kVA) = UI 3 S (kVA) = VI

Active power P (kW) = λ UI 3 = λ S (kVA) P (kW) = λ VI = λ S (kVA)
Power factor P(kW )
λ=
S(kVA)

UPS percent load

This is the percentage of the rated power that is effectively drawn by the load.
Sload (kVA )
Load (%) =
Sn (kVA )

) Recommendation: take into account growth in loads

It is advised to leave a margin (excess power) when setting the rated power,
particularly if a site expansion is planned. In this case, make sure the percent
load on the UPS is still acceptable after the expansion.

UPS efficiency
This factor determines the power drawn by the UPS on the upstream
distribution system, i.e. the consumption. It may be calculated as:
PUPSoutput (kW )
η (%) =
PUPSinput (kW )
For a given power rating, a high level of efficiency:
• reduces power bills,
• reduces heat losses and, consequently, ventilation requirements.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 18

 Power calculations (Cont.)

It is possible to calculate the efficiency at full rated load, i.e. with a 100% load.
Pn (kW )
ηn (%) =
PUPSinput (kW )
The rated active power of the UPS is obtained by multiplying the rated
apparent power Sn (kVA) by 0.8 (if λ > 0.8) or by λ (if λ< 0.8).
The efficiency can vary significantly depending on the percent load and the
type of load.
The installation designer must therefore pay attention to two aspects of
efficiency.

) Recommendation 1: check the efficiency for non-linear loads

The presence of non-linear loads tends to reduce the power factor to values
below 0.8. It is therefore necessary to check the efficiency value for
standardised non-linear loads. This check is recommended by standards IEC
62040-3 / EN 62040-3.

) Recommendation 2: check the efficiency at the planned percent load

Manufacturers generally indicate the efficiency at full rated load. However, its value
may drop if the percent load is lower (1). Attention must therefore be paid to UPSs
operating in an active-redundancy configuration, where the units share the total load
and often operate at 50% of their full rated load, or less.
(1) A UPS is optimised to operate at full rated load. Even though losses are at their
maximum at full rated load, the efficiency is also at its maximum. In a standard UPS,
losses are not proportional to the percent load and the efficiency drops sharply when
the percent load drops. This is because a part of the losses is constant and the
relative percentage of this part increases when the load decreases. To obtain high
efficiency at low load levels, the constant losses must be very low.
Due to their design, UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric have very low constant
losses and as a result, the efficiency is virtually stable for loads from 30 to 100%.
Î UPS efficiency, see Technical review p. 20.

Ratings of single-UPS Single-UPS configurations

configurations
These configurations comprise a single, double-conversion UPS unit (see fig. 1.17).
The overload capacity at the UPS output is indicated by a diagram (the example
below is for the MGE Galaxy 9000 range).
In the event of an internal fault or an overload exceeding UPS capacity, the system
automatically transfers to the Bypass AC input. If transfer is not possible, UPSs from
APC by Schneider Electric current limit for overloads greater than the maximum
value (e.g. 2.33 In peak for one second for Galaxy 9000, which corresponds to a
maximum sine wave with an rms value of 2.33 / 2 = 1.65 In). Beyond one second,
the UPS shuts down.
A set of disconnection switches is available to isolate the UPS for maintenance in
complete safety.

Fig. 1.17. Single double-conversion static UPS unit and example of an overload curve.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 19

 Power calculations (Cont.)

Power levels under steady-state conditions

A UPS is sized using the apparent rated output power Sn (kVA) and an output power
factor of 0.8. These conditions correspond to an active rated power of Pn (kW) = 0.8
Sn (kVA).
In real-life situations, a UPS supplies a number of loads with an overall power factor
λ that is often not 0.8 due to the presence of non-linear loads and means to improve
the power factor;
• If λ ≥ 0.8, the UPS is still limited to Pn (kW),
• If λ < 0.8, the UPS is limited to λ Sn (kW) < Pn (kW).
Consequently, selection of the power rating in kVA must take into account the active
power supplied to the loads.
The active power is determined by following the four steps below.

1 - Apparent and active power drawn by the loads

The first step is to evaluate the power requirements of the load.
The table below must be drawn up for the k loads to be supplied.
Load Apparent rated Input power factor λ Active rated power
power (kVA) (or cos ϕ) (kW)
Load 1 S1 λ1 P1 = λ 1 S1
Load 2 S2 λ2 P2 = λ 2 S2
…
Load i Si λi Pi = λ i S i
…
Load k Sk λk P k = λk S k
Total S λ P = λS
(1) S is not the sum of (2) λ must be (3) P = λ S = Σ λi S i
Si. measured or
calculated.
(1) S is not the sum of Si because:
- it would be necessary to calculate the vectoral sum if all the loads were linear, using the
angles of the different cos ϕ,
- some of the loads are not linear.
(2) λ must be measured on site or evaluated on the basis of past experience.
(3) P = λ S = Σ λi S i because the active power is added (no displacement).

2 - Rated apparent power of the UPS (Sn)

The second step is to select a UPS with an apparent-power rating sufficient to cover
the load requirements (in kVA).
Under the given conditions, the suitable rated apparent power for the UPS is:
Sn(kVA) > S. where S = P / λ.
In the UPS range, select the UPS with a rated power Sn (kVA) just above S. If
reserve power is required and the selected rating is too close to S, select the next
highest rating.

3 - Check on the active power

The third step is a check to ensure that the selected power rating can cover
the load requirements in kW under the stipulated operating conditions.
For the selected rating, the UPS will supply the rated active power
Pn (kW) = 0.8 Sn (kVA)
• If λ ≥ 0.8, make sure that Pn (kW) > P, i.e. that the UPS can supply the additional
power required, otherwise select the next highest rating.
• If λ < 0.8, the power supplied by the UPS is sufficient because Pn (kW) > λ Sn
(kVA), i.e. the selection is correct.

4. - Percent load
The fourth step is a check to ensure that the percent load is acceptable now and in
the future, given the desired operating conditions.
The percent load is:
Load = S / Sn(kVA) .
It must be sufficient to cover any increases in the load or if there are plans to expand
the system to become redundant.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 20

 Power calculations (Cont.)

Power levels under transient conditions

Load in-rush currents
It is necessary to know the in-rush current of each load and the duration of the
transient conditions. If a number of loads risk being turned on at the same time, it is
necessary to sum the in-rush currents.

Necessary checks
It is then necessary to check that the planned UPS power rating can handle the in-
rush currents. Note that the UPS can operate for a few periods in current-limiting
mode (e.g. 2.33 In for one second for an MGE Galaxy 9000). If the UPS cannot
handle the in-rush currents, it is necessary to decide whether it is acceptable to
transfer to the Bypass AC input when the transient conditions occur. If transfer is not
acceptable, it is necessary to increase the power rating.
Î Review of in-rush currents, see Technical review p. 37.

Example
The example below is simply to illustrate the point and does not correspond to
a real situation. The purpose is to indicate the required steps. The installation
is made up of three 400 V three-phase loads connected in parallel:
• Computer system - S1 = 4 x 10 kVA (4 identical 10 kVA loads), λ = 0.6 for all the
loads, in-rush current 8 In over four periods 50 Hz (80 ms) for each load,
• Variable-speed drive - S2 = 20 kVA, λ = 0.7, in-rush current 4 In over five periods
(100 ms),
• Isolation transformer - S3 = 20 kVA, λ = cos ϕ = 0.8, in-rush current 10 In over six
periods (120 ms).

Rated apparent output

power Sn(kVA)
Active power
Pn(kW) = 0.8 Sn(kVA)

Power factor λ at UPS

output for all loads

Maximum active output

Total power consumed by power (that the UPS can
the loads 4 x 10 kVA 20 kVA 20 kVA supply to the loads)
P (kW) = 54 kW λ1 = 0.6 λ2 = 0.7 cos ϕ = 0.8 λ Sn (kVA)
Fig. 1.18. Example of an installation.

Power levels under steady-state conditions

1 - Apparent and active power drawn by the loads
Below is the table that should be drawn up.
Load Rated apparent Input power factor Rated active power
power (kVA) (kW)
Computer system 40 0.8* 32*
Variable-speed drive 20 0.7 14
LV/LV transformer 20 0.8 16
Total S λ = 0.68 P = 54 kW
measured or estimated
* average of new top of the range systems with power factor 0.9 and older equipment
with power factor between 0.7 and 0.8.
2 - Rated apparent power of the UPS
S = 54 / 0.68 = 79.4 kVA
A Galaxy PW UPS with a sufficient rating should be selected. The 80 kVA rating
would not be sufficient, i.e. the 100 kVA rating should be selected or higher if a site
extension is planned.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 21

 Power calculations (Cont.)

3 - Check on the active power

• The UPS can supply the loads 100 x 0.68 = 68 kW > 54 kW.
4 - Checks on the percent load and rated current
• The percent load is therefore 79.4 / 100 = 79.4%.
• Rated current of the UPS - Sn (kVA) = UI 3 , i.e. I = 100 / (400 x 1.732) = 144 A.
In-rush currents under transient conditions
The loads should be started up one after the other to avoid combining the in-rush
currents. It is necessary to check that the UPS can handle the in-rush currents.
The rated currents are calculated as S (kVA) = UI 3 , i.e.:
• Computer system - In = 10 / (400 x 1.732) = 14.4 A, i.e. 8 In ≈ 115 A for 80 ms
• Variable-speed drive - In = 20/(400 x 1.732) = 28.8 A, i.e. 4 In ≈ 115 A for 100 ms
• Transformer - In = 20 / (400 x 1.732) = 28.8 A, i.e. 10 In = 288 A for 120 ms
• A 100 kVA MGE Galaxy PW UPS has an overload capacity of 120%, i.e. 151 A x
1.2 = 173 A for 1 minute and 150%, i.e. 151 A x 1.5 = 216 A for 1 minute
• Operation in current-limiting mode at 2.33 In, i.e. 335 A for one second.
If the four computer loads (10 kVA each) are started one after the other, the 20%
overload capacity of the UPS is sufficient (173 A -1mn > 115 A - 80 ms).
If the four loads are started simultaneously, the in-rush current would be
4 x 115 = 460 A > 335 A. The system would current limit for 80 ms.
For the variable-speed drive, the overload capacity is sufficient. For the isolation
transformer (288 A for 120 ms), the overload capacity is again sufficient.

Ratings of parallel-UPS Parallel-UPS configurations

configurations
Purpose of parallel connection
Parallel connection of a number of identical units is the means to:
• increase the power rating,
• establish redundancy that increases the MTBF and availability.
Types of parallel connection
Two types of UPS units can be connected in parallel.
• Integrated parallel UPS units - each UPS unit includes an automatic bypass and
a manual maintenance bypass. The manual bypass may be common to the entire
system (in an external cubicle).
• Parallel UPS units with an SSC - the static-switch cubicle comprises an
automatic bypass and a maintenance bypass that are common for a number of
parallel units without bypasses (see fig. 1.19).
True modular parallel systems are also available, made up of dedicated and
redundant modules-power, intelligence, battery and bypass, all engineered into a
design that is easily and efficiently serviceable. Power modules can be easily added
as demand grows or as higher levels of availability are required.
There are two types of parallel configurations:
• Without redundancy - all the UPS units are required to supply the load. Failure of
one unit means the entire system shuts down (not recommended),
• With redundancy N+1, N+2, etc. - the number of UPS units required for the load
is equal to N. All the UPS units (N+1, N+2, etc.) share the load. If one UPS unit shuts
down, the remaining units (at least equal in number to N) continue to share the load.
Î Typical configurations and characteristics, see Ch. 2.

Fig. 1.19. UPS system with parallel-connected units and a static-switch cubicle (SSC).

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 22

 Power calculations (Cont.)

Power levels in redundant parallel configurations

In a redundant parallel configuration made up of identical units, the units share the
load. The power rating of each unit does not depend on the level of redundancy, but
must be calculated to continue supplying the load even if redundancy is completely
lost.
Active redundancy:
• improves availability,
• increases the overload capacity,
• reduces the percent load on each UPS unit.
The power level is determined by following the same four steps as for a single-UPS
configuration.

1 - Apparent and active power drawn by the loads

The same type of table is used as that for a single UPS (see Ch1 p. 20).
The result is the apparent power S that must be supplied to the load.

2 - Rated apparent power of the UPS units (Sn) in the configuration

Consider a level of redundancy N + K (e.g. 2 + 1), which means:
- N units (e.g. 2) are required to supply the load,
- K units (e.g. 1 extra unit) ensure redundancy.
Each UPS unit must be sized to enable the system as a whole to operate without
redundancy, i.e. with N operational units and K units shut down.
In this case, the N units must each have an apparent power rating Sn (kVA) such
that:
Sn(kVA) > S / N.
Select in the UPS range the power rating Sn (kVA) just above S/N. If reserve power
is required or the selected rating is too close to S, select the next highest rating.

3 - Check on the active power

For the selected rating, the UPS will supply the active rated power
Pn (kW) = 0.8 Sn (kVA)
• if λ ≥ 0.8, make sure that Pn (kW) > P, i.e. that the UPS can supply the additional
power required, otherwise select the next highest rating.
• if λ < 0.8, the power supplied by the UPS is sufficient because Pn (kW) > λ Sn
(kVA), i.e. the selection is correct.

4 - Percent load
With redundancy, the UPS units share the load according to the equation
S / (N+K). The percent load for each unit when there is redundancy is therefore:
TL = S / (N + k) Sn(kVA) .
In a non-redundant system, it is calculated as:
TL = S / N Sn(kVA).
It must be sufficient to cover any increases in the load.

Example
This example will use the results from the last example and we will suppose that the
loads are critical, i.e. redundancy is required.
• The total load is 54 kW with an overall power factor for all the loads of 0.68, i.e. S
= 54 / 0.68 = 79.4 kVA.
• If 2+1 redundancy is used, two units must be capable of supplying the load. Each
must will have to supply S / 2 = 79.4 / 2 = 39.7 kVA.
• An MGE Galaxy PW UPS with a sufficient rating should be selected. The 40 kVA
rating would not be sufficient, i.e. the 50 kVA rating should be selected or higher if a
site extension is planned.
• If redundancy is not available, the two UPS units must be capable of supplying the
load.
• This is the case because 2 x 50 x 0.68 = 68 kW > 54 kW.
• During operation, the percent load will be:
- with redundancy, i.e. with 3 UPS units sharing the load: 79.4 / 3 x 50 = 52.9%,
- without redundancy, i.e. with only 2 UPS units sharing the load: 79.4 / 2 x 50 =
79.4%.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 23

 Control of upstream harmonics

UPSs and upstream Role of the input rectifier

harmonics
UPS units draw power from the AC distribution system via a rectifier/charger. With
respect to the upstream system, the rectifier is a non-linear load that causes
harmonics. In terms of harmonics, there are two types of rectifiers.

Standard rectifiers
These are three-phase rectifiers incorporating SCRs and using a six-phase bridge
(Graetz bridge) with standard chopping of the current.
This type of bridge draws harmonic currents with orders of n = 6 k ± 1 (where k is a
whole number), mainly H5 and H7, and to a lesser degree H11 and H13.
Harmonics are controlled by using a filter (see fig. 1.20).

PFC-type transitor-based controlled active rectifiers

These transistor-based active rectifiers have a regulation system that adjusts the
input voltage and current to a reference sine wave. This technique ensures an input
voltage and current that are:
• perfectly sinusoidal, i.e. free of harmonics,
• in phase, i.e. with a power factor close to 1.
With this type of rectifier, no filters are required.
Î Clean transitor-based rectifiers, see Ch. 4.

All high-power UPS ranges from APC by Schneider Electric (except MGE Galaxy
PW and and MGE Galaxy 9000) use PFC type controlled active rectifier technologies
and therefore do not generate harmonics.

Fig. 1.20. Input rectifier and harmonics.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 24

 Control of upstream harmonics (Cont.)

Filtering of upstream Goals of harmonic filtering

harmonics for UPSs with
Graetz bridge rectifiers This section concerns only the MGE Galaxy PW and MGE Galaxy 9000 ranges and
UPSs with conventional Graetz bridge rectifiers.

A "clean" upstream system

The goal is to ensure a level of voltage distortion (THDU) on the busbars supplying
the UPS that is compatible with the other connected loads.
The UTE recommends limiting the THDU to:
• 5% when the source is a generator,
• 3% when the source is a transformer to take into account 1 to 2% of THDU which
may already be present on the HV distribution system.
This recommendation may differ for each country.
Practically speaking, solutions for voltage distortion (THDU) must be implemented in
a manner specific to the country where the installation is located.
Easy combination with an engine generator set
The goal is to make possible a UPS/engine generator set combination with no risk of
increasing the level of harmonics when the load is transferred to the generator. This
risk exists because the generator has a source impedance lower than that of a
transformer, which increases the effects of harmonics.
High power factor at the rectifier input
The goal is to increase the input power factor (generally to a level higher than 0.94).
This reduces the consumption of kVA and avoids oversizing the sources.
Installation complying with standards
The goal is to comply with standards concerning harmonic disturbances and with the
recommendations issued by power utilities.
• Standards on harmonic disturbances (see table 1.2)
- IEC 61000-3-2 / EN 61000-3-2 for devices with an input current ≤ 16 A/ph.
- IEC 61000-3-4 / EN 61000-3-4 for devices with an input current > 16 A/ph.
• Standards and recommendations on the quality of distribution systems, notably:
- IEC 61000-3-5 / EN 61000-3-5,
- EN 50160 (Europe),
- IEEE 519-2 (United States),
- ASE 3600 (Switzerland),
- G5/3 (U.K.), etc.
Î Standards on harmonics, see "UPS standards" in Technical review p. 29.

Table 1.2. Example of harmonic-current limitations as per guide IEC 61000-3-4 / EN 61000-3-
4 for devices with an input current > 16 A/ph (stage 1, simplified connection).
Harmonic % of H1 (fundamental)
H3 21.6%
H5 10.7%
H7 7.2%
H9 3.8%
H11 3.1%
H13 2.0%
H15 0.7%
H17 1.2%
H19 1.1%
H21 ≤ 0.6%
H23 0.9%
H25 0.8%
H27 ≤ 0.6%
H29 0.7%
H31 0.7%
≥ H33 ≤ 0.6%
Even orders ≤ 0.6% or ≤ 8/n (n even order)

Types of harmonics filters

Harmonics filters eliminate certain orders or all orders, depending on their
technology. The following types are available.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 25

 Control of upstream harmonics (Cont.)

Passive LC filters
• non-compensated
• compensated
• non-compensated with contactor
Double-bridge rectifier
Phase-shift filter
THM active filter (Active 12-pulse technology).

Filtering and parallel connection

When a number of UPS units are connected in parallel and depending on the type of
filter used, it is possible to install:
• an individual filter on each UPS unit,
• a common filter for the entire parallel configuration.
The goal is to achieve a balance between cost and effectiveness, taking into account
the acceptable levels of harmonic distortion.
The comparison tables for the various solutions (Ch. 1, p. 28) are helpful in making a
selection.

Combination of LC filters and generator

The generator can supply only relatively low capacitive currents (10 to 30% of In).
When an LC filter is installed, the main difficulty lies in the gradual start-up of the
rectifier on generator power, when active power is equal to zero and the generator
supplies only the capacitive current for the filter. Consequently, the use of LC filters
must be correctly analysed to ensure that operation complies with manufacturer
specifications. Below is a method for selection of LC filters, using as an example a
generator derating curve, similar to those provided by manufacturers.

Fig. 1.21. Derating curve for a generator, as a function of the installation power factor.

The curve in the figure above, provided as one example among many, shows the
power derating as a function of the operating point, for a given generator. For a
purely capacitive load (λ = 0), the power available is equal to only 30% of the rated
power (point A). If we assume an apparent power rating such that Pn generator = Pn
rectifier, the meaning of points A, B, C, D, E and F is the following:
A: reactive power corresponding to the capacitive current of a non-compensated
filter,
B: reactive power corresponding to the capacitive current of a compensated filter,
C: operating point at start-up with a non-compensated filter with contactor,
D: operating point at the rated load with a non-compensated filter,
E: operating point at the rated load with a compensated filter,
F: operating point at the rated load, without a filter or with a phase-shift filter.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 26

 Control of upstream harmonics (Cont.)

Example
Consider a non-compensated filter with a 300 kVA generator and a 200 kVA MGE
Galaxy PW UPS.
The power rating of the rectifier, taking 87% as the efficiency value (1 / 0.87 = 1.15),
is 1.15 times that of the inverter, i.e. 200 x 1.15 = 230 kVA.
The capacitive current of the non-compensated filter is 230 x 30% (1) = 69 kVA.
The reactive power that the generator can handle (point A) is 300 x 0.3 = 90 kVA.
The filter is therefore compatible with the generator.
(1) The value of 30% has been determined experimentally.

Selection of a filter Selection parameters for a filter

Overall effectiveness - reduction in distortion (THDI and THDU)
The effectiveness depends on the harmonic orders filtered and the degree to which
they are attenuated or eliminated. It is measured by the THDI at the rectifier input.
The impact on the THDI determines the level of the THDU. It is necessary to check
the performance at the planned percent load, given that many UPS systems operate
at percent loads between 50 and 75%.
Improvement in the power factor λ
The filter improves the power factor (generally to a level higher than 0.92).
Compatibility with an engine generator set
It is also necessary to check the performance with the planned source(s), either a
transformer or an engine generator set. This is because the generator has an output
impedance lower than that of a transformer, which increases the effects of
harmonics.
Suitable for parallel-UPS configurations
Depending on the type of filter, it is possible to install one on each UPS unit or set up
a single filter for overall elimination of harmonics.
Efficiency
Consumption of the filters can slightly modify the efficiency of the installation as a
whole.
Flexibility for set-up and upgrades
Filters are generally specific to a UPS and may be factory-mounted or installed after
installation. The SineWave conditioner provides overall elimination of harmonics and
great flexibility in the configuration.
Dimensions
It is necessary to check whether the filter can be installed in the UPS cabinet or in a
second cabinet.
Cost
It impacts on the effectiveness of the filter and must be weighed against the
advantages obtained.
Compliance with standards
It is necessary to determine compliance with standards, in particular IEC 61000-3-4,
in terms of the individual harmonic levels indicated in the texts.

Comparison table of solutions

The following tables list the elements for comparison, with a general comment on
use of each type of solution.
Table 1.3 presents individual solutions for single-UPS configurations. These
solutions may also be used in parallel configurations.
Table 1.4 presents overall solutions for entire configurations.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 27

 Control of upstream harmonics (Cont.)

Table 1.3. Comparison of individual harmonic-filtering solutions.

Type of filter LC non- LC compensated LC with contactor Double bridge Built-in THM
Criterion compensated
Diagram

Fig. 1.22a Fig. 1.22b Fig. 1.22c Fig. 1.22d Fig. 1.22e
Reduction in distortion
THDI at 100% load 7 to 8% 7 to 8% 7 to 8% 10% 4%
THDI at 50% load 10% 10% 10% 15% 5%
Harmonics eliminated H5, H7 H5, H7 H5, H7 H5, H7, H17, H19 H2 to H25
Power factor
λ at 100% load 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.85 0.94
λ at 50% load 1 1 1 0.8 0.94
Compatibility with * ** ** ** ***
generator
Efficiency of filter *** *** *** * **
Flexibility, upgradeability * * * * ***
Cost *** *** *** * **
Dimensions *** *** *** * ***
Connection in parallel with * * * * **
UPS

Fig. 1.22f Fig. 1.22g Fig. 1.22h Fig. 1.22i Fig. 1.22j
Compliance with guide no no no no yes
IEC 61000-3-4
General comment Solution suitable for Solution suitable for Solution suitable for Solution suitable for Solution suited to
installations without installations with an installations installations with sensitive installations
an engine generator engine generator set. comprising an engine gensets or with changing load
set. The added inductor generator set with a levels. The most
load reduces the power rating lower effective and the most
capacitive power that than that of the UPS. flexible solution. Does
must be supplied by The LC line is not depend on the
the engine-generator switched in by the percent load or the
set. contactor at a preset type of upstream
value corresponding source.
to an inverter percent
load that is
acceptable for the
engine generator set.

*** Excellent ** Good * Sufficient

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 28

 Control of upstream harmonics (Cont.)

Table 1.4 Comparison of overall solutions.

Type of filter SineWave Phase-shift filter

Criterion
Diagram AC input

SW

UPS UPS UPS

Load

Fig. 1.23a Fig. 1.23b Fig. 1.23c Fig. 1.23d

Reduction in distortion
THDI at 100% load 4% < 10% < 5% < 4%
THDI at 50% load 5% 35% with 1 UPS shut 19% with 1 UPS shut 12% with 1 UPS shut
down down down
Harmonics eliminated H2 to H25
Power factor
λ at 100% load 0.95 0.8
λ at 50% load 1 0.8
Compatibility with *** **
generator
Efficiency of filter *** **
Flexibility, upgradeability *** *
Cost *** ***
Dimensions *** *
Compliance with guide yes yes
IEC 61000-3-4
General comment Solution suited to sensitive installations or Solution cannot be modified. Suited to installations with more than
with changing load levels. The most effective two parallel-connected UPS units.
and the most flexible solution. Does not
depend on the percent load or the type of
upstream source.

*** Excellent ** Good * Sufficient

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 29

 System earthing arrangements

Background information Protection of persons against electrical contact

on system earthing
International standards require that electrical installations implement two types of
arrangements protection of persons against the dangers of electrical currents.

Protection against direct contacts

The purpose of this form of protection is to avoid "direct" contact between persons
and intentionally live parts (see fig. 1.24).
It includes the points listed below.
• isolation of live parts using barriers or enclosures offering a degree of protection
at least equal to IP2X or IPXXB.
• opening of the enclosure (doors, racks, etc.) must be possible only using a key or
a tool, or following de-energising of the live parts or automatic installation of a
screen.
• connection of the metal enclosure to a protective conductor.
Protection against indirect contacts and system earthing arrangements
The purpose of this form of protection is to avoid "indirect" contact between persons
and exposed conductive parts (ECP) that have become live accidentally due to
an insulation fault. The fault current creates in the exposed conductive parts (ECP)
a potential that may be sufficient to cause a dangerous current to flow through the
body of the person in contact with the exposed conductive parts (see fig. 1.24).
This protection includes the points listed below.
• mandatory earthing of all exposed conductive parts (ECP) that may be accessed
by the user.
The protective conductor is used for connection to the earth. It must never be
interrupted (no breaking devices on the protective conductor).
The interconnection and earthing techniques for the exposed conductive parts (ECP)
determine the system earthing arrangement (SEA) for the installation.
• disconnection of the supply when the potential of the ECPs risks reaching
dangerous levels. Interruption is carried out by a protection device that depends on
the selected system earthing arrangement (SEA). It often requires residual-current
devices (RCD) because the insulation-fault currents are generally too low to be
detected by standard overcurrent protection devices.

Fig. 1.24. Direct and indirect contacts.

Types of system earthing arrangements (SEA)

There are three types of system earthing arrangements (SEA).
• Isolated neutral (IT).
• Earthed neutral (TT).
• Exposed conductive parts connected to the neutral (TN with TN-C and TN-S).
The first two letters indicate how the neutral and the ECPs of the loads are
connected.

First letter Second letter Third letter (for TN)

Connection of the neutral Connection of the ECPs Type of protective
conductor
T = earthed neutral T = exposed conductive parts C = Common neutral and
earthed protective conductor (PEN)
I = isolated neutral N = exposed conductive parts S = Separate neutral (N) and
connected to the neutral protective conductor (PE)
IT, TT or TN systems TN-C or TN-S

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 30

 System earthing arrangements (Cont.)

System earthing arrangements (SEA)

Isolated neutral (IT)
● The source neutral is: E.g. Phase-to-ECP fault in a load.
- either isolated from the earth (isolated Uo is the phase-to-neutral voltage in the
neutral), distribution system (230 V).
- or connected to the earth via a high ● Current of the first fault
impedance res (impedant neutral). RA= 10 Ω and Zres= 3500 Ω (approximately),
● The exposed conductive parts (ECP), all Id = Uo / (RA + Zres) = 66 mA.
protected by the same breaking device, are
earthed (earth electrode resistance RA).
● Voltage of the first fault
Ud = Uo x RA / (RA + Zres) = 0.66 V.
This potential is not dangerous.
L1 The fault must be detected by an IMD
L2
L3
(insulation monitoring device), located by a
N fault-locating device and repaired.
● Current of the second fault
PE A second fault occuring before the first fault
has been repaired results in the flow of a
phase-to-phase or phase-to-neutral short
Zres circuit. It must be cleared by the overcurrent
RA Ud protection devices within the time limits set by
Id
the standards.

Fig. 1.25. IT system.

Earthed neutral (TT)

● The source neutral is earthed. E.g. Phase-to-ECP fault in a load.
● The exposed conductive parts (ECP), all Uo is the phase-to-neutral voltage in the
protected by the same breaking device, are distribution system (230 V).
earthed (earth electrode resistance RA). ● Fault current
E.g. RA = 10 Ω and RB = 5 Ω
L1 Id = Uo / (RA + RB) = 15.3 A
L2 ● Fault voltage
L3
N
Ud = Uo x RA / (RA + RB) = 153 V
This potential is dangerous (> 50 V).
PE The fault must be cleared by the protection
devices within the times set by the standards.
The fault current is low and must therefore be
detected by a residual-current protection
device (RCD) that actuates the protective
RB Id RA Ud device immediately upstream. The operating
current of the RCD and the time required to
clear the fault are set by the standards.
Fig. 1.26. TT system.

Exposed conductive parts connected to the neutral (TN)

● The source neutral is directly earthed. ● Impedance of the fault loop
● The installation ECPs are connected to the Zb = ZABCDEF (part of circuit ABCDEF)
neutral and consequently to the earth via the Zb ≈ ZBCDE ≈ 2 ZDE because ZBC = ZDE (BC and
protective conductor (PEN). This arrangement DE are identical, the fault impedance is
transforms all insulation faults into phase-to- negligible)
neutral short-circuits. E.g. A load supplied by a 50 mm² copper cable
that is 50 metres long (phase and PE).
● The potential of the protective conductor is 2
Zb = 2 ρ L / S where ρ = 22.5 Ω. mm /m
maintained close to that of the earth by -3
numerous connection points. Zb = 2 x 22.5 10 x 50 / 50 = 45 mΩ.
● Fault voltage
A voltage drop of 20% is permissible for the
phase-to-neutral voltage Uo, i.e. UBE = 0.8 Uo.
In that ZBC = ZDE, the potential of the ECPs
L1
L2 rises to Ud = UBE / 2 = 0.8.Uo / 2 = 92 V
B
L3 ● Fault current
A -3
Id E PEN Id = 0.8 Uo / Zb = 0.8 x 230 / 45 10 = 4089 A
F Breaking is carried out by the overcurrent
D protection devices within the times set by the
standards. The fault current depends on the
C impedance of the fault loop.
Care must be taken to ensure that at all
Ud points in the system, the fault current is
greater than the operating threshold of the
protection devices.
Fig. 1.27. TN-S system (the basic principle is identical for the TN-C system).
APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 31
 System earthing arrangements (Cont.)

Comparison of system earthing arrangements (SEA)

Type of SEA IT (isolated neutral) TT (earthed neutral) TN-S (ECP to neutral) TN-C (ECP to neutral)
Operation ● Signalling of first insulation ● Disconnection for the first ● Disconnection for the first ● Disconnection for the first
fault. insulation fault. insulation fault occurs insulation fault.
● Location and elimination of ● Separate neutral (N) and ● Common neutral and
the first fault. protective conductor (PE). protective conductor (PEN).
● Disconnection for the
second fault.
Protection of persons ● Interconnection and ● Earthing of ECPs ● Interconnection and ● Interconnection and
earthing of ECPs. combined with use of earthing of ECPs and neutral earthing of ECPs and neutral
● First fault: residual-current devices imperative. imperative.
- very low current, (RCD). ● first fault: ● First fault:
- monitoring/indication by an ● First fault: - fault current, - fault current,
IMD. - leakage current is - interruption by overcurrent - interruption by overcurrent
● Second fault: dangerous, but too low to be protection devices (e.g. protection devices (e.g.
- potentially dangerous detected by the overcurrent circuit breaker). circuit breaker).
current, protection devices,
- interruption by overcurrent - detection by the RCDs
protection devices (e.g. combined with breaking
circuit breaker). devices.
Specific equipment Insulation-monitoring device Residual-current devices For long distances, RCDs
(IMD) and fault-locating (RCD). must be used.
device.
Advantages and ● Solution offering the best ● Easiest solution to design ● High installation costs for ● Reduced installation costs
disadvantages continuity of service (the first and install. high power ratings. (one less conductor).
EMC fault is signalled). ● Mandatory use of RCDs. ● Difficult to design ● Difficult to design
● Requires competent ● Different earth electrodes (calculation of the loop (calculation of the loop
surveillance personnel (distant sources). impedances). impedances).
(location of the first fault). ● Highly sensitive to ● Flow of high fault currents. ● Flow of high fault currents.
● High EMC performance, lightning strikes. ● High EMC performance, ● Low EMC performance,
very low currents in the earth low current in the PE during high currents in the PEN
cable. normal operation. (connections between
ECPs).
Use ● Installations requiring ● Commercial and ● Large commercial ● Large commercial
continuity of service, e.g. residential premises, public premises, tall buildings, etc. premises, tall buildings, etc.
hospitals, airports, industrial lighting, schools, etc. ● Industries without ● Industries without
processes, ships. continuous processes (IT continuous processes (IT
● Installations and premises system). system).
where there is a risk of fire or ● Supply of computer ● Supply of computer
explosion, i.e. mines, etc. systems. systems.
ECP = Exposed conductive parts.

Applications in UPS Specific aspects in systems with UPSs

installations
Implementation of the above protection systems in installations comprising a UPS
requires a number of precautions for a number of reasons:
• The UPS plays two roles:
- a load for the upstream system,
- a power source for the downstream system,
• When the battery is not installed in a cabinet, an insulation fault on the DC system
can lead to the flow of a residual DC component. This component can disturb
operation of certain protection devices, notably RCDs used for the protection of
persons.

Protection against direct contact

All APC by Schneider Electric UPS installations satisfy the applicable requirements
because the equipment is installed in cabinets providing a degree of protection IP
20. This is true even for the battery when it is housed in a cabinet.
When the battery is not installed in a cabinet (generally in a special room), the
measures presented at the end of this chapter should be implemented.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 32

 System earthing arrangements (Cont.)

Protection against indirect contact

Selection of a system earthing arrangement
A basic protection measure required by the standards is the creation of a
standardised system earthing arrangement both upstream and downstream of the
UPS. The two systems can be the same or different if certain precautions are taken.
In an existing installation to which the UPS is added, the upstream system is already
determined. Selection of the downstream system, either the same or a different one,
depends on its compatibility with sensitive loads.
The table on the previous page provides the necessary elements to compare the
various standardised system earthing arrangements.
) Caution, local regulations may prohibit certain types of system earthing
arrangements.

Selection of the breaking devices

Above and beyond the interconnection and earthing of the exposed conductive parts
in compliance with a standardised system earthing arrangement, the protection of
persons must be ensured by breaking devices selected according to the system
earthing arrangement. These devices must cause tripping of the overcurrent
protection devices in the event of an insulation fault.
Tripping may:
• be directly provoked by suitable settings on the overprotection devices (circuit
breakers, fuses),
• or require (mandatory for the IT system) use of residual-current devices (RCD) that
may or may not be built into the circuit breaker.
The RCDs are required to detect the insulation-fault currents that are often too low to
trip standard overcurrent protection devices.
) Check local requirements concerning the safety of electrical installations.
Types of systems for UPSs
The possible systems depend on:
• the existing or selected system upstream of the UPS,
• the system downstream of the UPS for which selection may be determined by:
- reuse of the same system as upstream,
- the presence of isolation transformers upstream or downstream which make it
possible to change the system earthing arrangement,
- the loads (e.g. computer systems require a TN-C or TN-s system),
- the organisation of the downstream distribution system, with static transfer switches
(STS),
• certain requirements imposed by standards, e.g. the protective conductor PE or
PEN must never be interrupted to ensure flow of the fault current. A TN-C system
(non-interrupted PEN) can be installed upstream of a TN-S system (separate N and
PE conductors), but not the contrary.

UPSs are increasingly designed without transformers, offering advantages in terms

of weight, size and efficiency. Transformerless technology also makes it possible to
modulate the voltage for improved adapatation to all types of loads, in particular non-
linear loads with harmonics.
Transformerless technology has an impact on the use of system earthing
See WP 98 Î arrangements. For more information see White Paper - WP 98: "The Elimination of
Isolation Transformers in Data Center Power Systems").
Many different cases may be encountered depending on the upstream and
downstream earthing arrangements and the type of UPS. Your APC by Schneider
Electric representative has a complete set of diagrams for all system earthing
arrangements and UPS ranges concerned.

The MGE Galaxy PW and MGE Galaxy 9000 ranges are designed with isolation
transformers. All the other ranges use transformless technology with the neutral
recreated electronically.
The following pages show some examples for MGE Galaxy PW and MGE Galaxy
5000, 7000 and 9000 UPSs. For other cases, contact your APC by Schneider
Electric representative to obtain the applicable diagram.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 33

 System earthing arrangements (Cont.)

Output transformer No output transformer

(MGE Galaxy PW and 9000) (MGE Galaxy 5000 and 7000))

Separate Normal and Bypass AC inputs. Common Normal and BP

inputs.
Fig. 1.28. Standard diagrams.

Identical systems upstream and downstream

Same system upstream and downstream Same system upstream and downstream
IT or TT or TN-S. IT or TT or TN-S.
Distributed neutral on the two lines. Distributed neutral on the bypass line only.

Same system upstream and downstream Same system upstream and downstream
TN-C IT or TT or TN-S.
Distributed neutral.
MGE Galaxy PW and 9000 MGE Galaxy 5000 and 7000
Fig. 1.29. A few examples with the same system upstream and downstream.

Different systems upstream and downstream

Change in earthing systems Change in earthing systems

to IT or TT or TN-S downstream. to IT or TT or TN-S downstream.
Distributed neutral on the two lines. Distributed neutral on the two lines.

Change in earthing systems Change in earthing systems

to TN-C downstream. to TN-C downstream.
MGE Galaxy PW and 9000 MGE Galaxy 5000 and 7000
Fig. 1.30. A few examples with different systems upstream and downstream.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 34

 Protection

Protection using circuit The protection system for installations with UPS units presented here will implement
circuit breakers. Below is a presentation of the main characteristics of circuit
breakers breakers and their trip units. The part number mentioned as examples pertain to
Schneider Electric circuit breakers. Other characteristics, such as limiting thermal
stress and current, are among the strong points of the Compact NSX range of circuit
breakers, but will not be discussed here.
Î For further information, see the Schneider Electric low-voltage and medium-
voltage distribution catalogue and the "Electrical installation guide".

Trip units
Technology
There are two types of trip units:
• thermal-magnetic,
• electronic.
Construction
• built-in (thermal-magnetic only).
• interchangeable.
Comparison
Thermal-magnetic trip units are simple and inexpensive.
Electronic trip units offer more precise and comprehensive settings for better
adaptation to installations and their requirements.
The table below sums up the characteristics of both types of trip units for circuit-
breakers from 1 to 630 A and should enable you to solve most of the problems
commonly encountered (from 1 to 400 kVA).
Figure 1.31 presents the characteristic curves for the trip units.

Protection Symb. Definition Availability

Overload protection Ir Overload current setting. All trip units.
(thermal or long
delay) (1)
Long delay (2) tr Applies a long tripping delay (e.g. Electronic trip units (e.g.
for motor starting). Micrologic 2, 5, 6).
Short-circuit Im Short-circuit current setting. On All trip units.
protection or electronic trip units, Isd is a function
(magnetic or short Isd of Ir (generally 2 to 10 Ir).
delay) (3)
Short delay (4) tm Applies a short tripping delay (e.g. Electronic trip units (e.g.
or for time discrimination with Micrologic 5, 6).
tsd downstream circuit breaker).
Short-circuit Ii Instantaneous short-circuit setting. Electronic trip units (e.g.
protection, Depends exclusively on trip-unit Micrologic 5, 6 ).
instantaneous trip rating (e.g. protection of static
(5) switches).

(1) Ir is the thermal protection threshold (sometimes written Ith) of thermal-magnetic trip units or
the long-delay protection threshold of electronic trip units. These thresholds are defined by an
inverse time curve that depends on the selected setting.
(2) tr is the time delay of the long-delay thermal protection for a given value of Ir.
(3) Im is the magnetic threshold of thermal-magnetic trip units and Isd the short-delay threshold
of electronic trip units.
(4) tm is the time delay (adjustable or fixed) of the magnetic protection of thermal-magnetic trip
units and tsd the time delay (generally adjustable) of the short-delay protection of electronic trip
units.
(5) Ii is the instantaneous tripping threshold.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 35

 Protection (Cont.)

Fig. 1.31. Circuit-breaker time/current curves (Icu is the ultimate breaking capacity).

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 36

 Protection (Cont.)

Discrimination, cascading, current limiting

Discrimination
Discrimination results from correct circuit-breaker selection and setting such that, if a
fault occurs, it trips only the first upstream circuit breaker.
Discrimination thus limits the part of the installation affected by the fault to a strict
minimum. There are a number of types of discrimination summed up in the table
below and illustrated on the previous page.

Current limiting
When a high fault current hits the circuit breaker, the breaker contacts separate
under the electrodynamic forces, an arc is created and its resistance limits the short-
circuit energy.

Cascading
When a short-circuit occurs downstream of the installation (see fig. 1.32), the fault
current also flows through the upstream circuit breaker which current limits, thus
attenuating the current applied to the downstream circuit breaker. The breaking
capacity of the latter is thus reinforced.

Discrimination Concerns Principle

Current All types of trip The fault current is lower than the upstream
discrimination units threshold setting.
Ir upstream > Ir downstream and Im or Isd
upstream > Im or Isd downstream
Time discrimination Electronic trip Delays upstream tripping by the long-time
units only (Ir) and short-time (Im or Isd) delay.
(e.g. Micrologic)
Energy Compact NSX Arc pressure upstream is not sufficient to trip
discrimination and NS the upstream circuit breaker, but it is
sufficient to trip the downstream circuit
breaker.
Zone-selective Compact Delays upstream tripping if the short-circuit
interlocking NSX 100 to is also detected downstream.
Masterpact with A pilot wire connects the upstream and
Micrologic trip downstream trip units.
units

Fig. 1.32. Upstream/downstream discrimination and cascading.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 37

 Protection (Cont.)

Selection of Rating
circuit breakers
The selected rating (rated current) for the circuit breaker must be the one just above
the rated current of the protected downstream cable.

Breaking capacity
The breaking capacity must be selected just above the short-circuit current that can
occur at the point of installation.

Ir and Im thresholds
The table below indicates how to determine the Ir and Im thresholds to ensure
discrimination, depending on the upstream and downstream trip units.

Remark.
Time discrimination must be implemented by qualified personnel because time
2
delays before tripping increase the thermal stress (I t) downstream (cables, semi-
conductors, etc.). Caution is required if tripping of CB2 is delayed using the Im
threshold time delay.
Energy discrimination does not depend on the trip unit, only on the circuit breaker.

Ir and Im thresholds depending on the upstream and downstream trip units

Type of downstream Ir upstream / Ir Im upstream / Im Im upstream / Im
circuit downstream downstream ratio downstream ratio
ratio
downstream trip unit all types magnetic electronic
distribution > 1.6 >2 > 1.5
asynchronous motor >3 >2 > 1.5

Special case of generator short-circuits

Figure 1.33 shows the reaction of a generator to a short-circuit.
To avoid any uncertainty concerning the type of excitation, we will trip at the first
peak (3 to 5 In as per X"d) using the Im protection setting without a time delay.

Fig. 1.33. Generator during a short-circuit.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 38

 Protection (Cont.)

Example
Consider the example used to determine the UPS power rating (Ch. 1 p. 21) with a
number of parallel-connected 400 V three-phase loads, namely:
• Computer system - S1 = 4 x 10 kVA, λ = 0.6, in-rush current 8 In over four periods
(80 ms),
• Variable-speed drive - S2 = 20 kVA, λ = 0.7, in-rush current 4 In over five periods
(100 ms),
• Isolation transformer - S3 = 20 kVA, λ = 0.8, in-rush current 10 In over six periods
(120 ms).
The three loads represent 54 kW with a power factor of 0.68.
In chapter 1, p. 21, an MGE Galaxy PW was selected, with a power rating of 100
kVA, I = 100 / (400 x 3 ) = 144 A.

630 kVA transformer 400 kVA generator

Determine CB1 and CB2

Rated apparent output

power
100 kVA
In = 144 A

Power factor at UPS

Determine the most output for all loads
powerful CB3 for λ = 0.68
discrimination
Maximum active output
Total power consumed by power (that the UPS can
the loads 40 kVA 20 kVA 20 kVA supply to the loads)
P (kW) = 54 kW λ = 0.6 λ = 0.7 cos ϕ = 0.8 λ Sn (kVA) = 68 kW
Fig 1.34. Example of an installation.

The goal is to select circuit breakers CB1 and CB2, and the most powerful circuit
breaker CB3 compatible with discrimination requirements, given that the upstream
installation includes the following:
• 20 kV / 400 V transformer with a power rating of 630 kVA,
• 400 V engine generator set with a power rating of 400 kVA,
• Transformer to MLVS link, five meters of aluminium cable 4 x 240 mm2 per phase,
• Busbars to circuit breaker link, four meters using three copper bars 400 mm² per
phase.

Calculation of CB1 and CB2 ratings and breaking

capacities
The breaking capacity depends on the short-circuit currents downstream of CB1 and
CB2 at the level of the main low-voltage switchboard (MLVS). Most often, this
upstream short-circuit value is supplied by the utility. It can also be calculated. It is
necessary to determine the sum R of the resistances upstream and the sum X of the
reactances upstream of the considered point.
The three-phase short-circuit current is calculated as:
U
Isc 3-ph =
3 R2 + X 2
U is the phase-to-phase no-load voltage (load voltage + 3 to 5%).
R = Σ Rupstream and X = Σ Xupstream
In this example, we simply indicate the general method with a number of
simplifications to shorten the calculations.
Î For more detailed information, see the Cahier Technique document no. 158
"Calculation of short-circuit currents" from Schneider Electric.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 39

 Protection (Cont.)

Upstream system
Ra, Xa

Sources
Rtr Xtr

Source output to MLVS cable link

Rc, Xc
General circuit breaker
Rd, Xd
MLVS busbars
Rb, Xb

Fig. 1.35. Calculation of short-circuit current for CB1 and CB2.

It is necessary to calculate the resistances and reactances upstream of CB1 and

CB2 in figure 1.34.

Distribution system upstream of the transformer

• Psc = upstream short-circuit power = 500 MVA = 500 x 106 VA
• U20 = phase-to-phase no-load voltage on the transformer secondary winding = 400
V, + 3%, i.e. 410 V
• Rup = resistance upstream ≈ 15% Xup, negligible given Xup
• Xup = reactance upstream with respect to transformer secondary winding
U20 2 410 2
Xup = = = 0.288 mΩ
Psc 500 x 10 6
Rup ≈ 0 and Xup = 0.33 mΩ.

Transformer
• Sn = rated apparent power 630 kVA
• In = rated current = 630 / U 3 = 630 103 / (400 x 3 ) = 909 A
• Usc = transformer short-circuit voltage = 4%
• Pcu = transformer copper losses in VA
Pcu
Rtr = transformer resistance = ≈ 20% Xtr, negligible given Ztr
3 In2
U20 2 2 3
Xtr ≈ Ztr = transformer impedance = x Usc = 410 x 0.04 / 630 10 = 10.7 mΩ
Sn
Rtr ≈ 0 and Xtr = 10.7 mΩ.

Cables linking the transformer to the MLVS

• Length 5 meters
• Cross-section 240 mm²
• ρ = resistivity at the normal temperature of the conductors
2 2
copper: ρ = 22.5 mΩ.mm /m, aluminium: ρ = 36 mΩ.mm /m
• Xc = conductor reactance (typically 0.08 mΩ/m) = 0.08 x 5 = 0.4 mΩ
L
Rc = cable resistance (copper) = ρ = 22.5 x 5 / (4 x 240) = 0.12 mΩ
S
Rc = 0.12 mΩ and Xc = 0.4 mΩ.

General circuit breaker

Typical values
Rd ≈ 0 et Xd = 0.15 mΩ.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 40

 Protection (Cont.)

Busbars
• Xb = busbar reactance (typically 0.15 mΩ/m) = 0.15 x 4 = 0.6 mΩ
• Rb = busbar resistance = ρ L / S= 22.5 x 4 / (3 x 400) = 0.075 mΩ (negligible)
Rb ≈ 0 and Xb = 0.6 mΩ.

Transformer Isc at the level of CB1 and CB2

• R = Total upstream resistance = 0.12 mΩ
• X = Total upstream reactance = 0.33 + 10.7 + 0.4 + 0.15 + 0.6 =12.18 mΩ
R can be neglected, given X.
U U 410
Isc 3-ph = ≈ = = 19.4 kA
2
3 R +X 2 3 X 3 x 12.18 x 10 − 3
Note. A rough estimate is provided by the short-circuit current on the transformer
terminals, assuming that the upstream short-circuit power is infinite.
ISCT = on transformer terminals = In / Usc = 20 In = 20 x 909 = 18.2 kA

Generator Isc at the level of CB1 and CB2

• rated apparent power of the generator = 400 kVA
• rated current of the generator = 400 / U 3 = 400 103 / (400 x 3 ) = 577 A
• X"d = short-circuit voltage of the generator = 10%
It is decided to trip at 5 In (see fig. 1.33).
ISCG = on the generator terminals = 5 In = 5 x 577 = 2.9 kA

Continuous current of CB1

This is the current at the UPS input. It is necessary to multiply the UPS rating by 1.2
to take into account the efficiency, i.e. 120 kVA.
3
Iinput = 120 / U 3 = 120 10 / (400 x 3 ) = 173 A

Continuous current of CB2

This is the continuous current of the loads supplied via the bypass, i.e. 54 kW with a
power factor of 0.68 for an apparent power S = 54 / 0.68 = 67.5 kVA.
3
Iload = 67.5 / U 3 = 120 10 / (400 x 3 ) = 97 A

Energising current of the largest load

The loads must be energised at different times. The highest inrush current is that of
the 20 kVA transformer, i.e. In = 28.8 A and 10 In = 288 A - 120 ms.

Calculation of the maximum static-switch current

This is the short-circuit current at the level of CB3, which is practically that of CB2.

Selection parameters
The table below sums up the various values calculated.
Parameter Value
transformer short-circuit current 19.4 kA
generator short-circuit current 2.9 kA
rectifier current (UPS input) 173 A
continuous load current downstream of the UPS 97 A
energising current of the largest load 288 A - 120 ms
maximum static-switch current 19.4 kA

Characteristics of CB1 and CB2

Characteristic D1 D2
Breaking capacity > 19.4 kA, i.e. 25 kA > 19.4 kA, i.e. 25 kA
Continuous current > 173 A, i.e. 200 A > 97 A, i.e. 125 A
Ir threshold > 173 A +20% > 97 A + 20%
Im threshold > 173 A + 20% and > 288 A +20% and
< 2.9 kA - 20% < 2.9 kA - 20%
20% represents here the typical tolerance range of circuit-breaker settings.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 41

 Protection (Cont.)

Characteristics of the most power circuit breaker CB3

possible
Sources

Incomer circuit breakers (input)

Static bypass
Negligible impedance

Outgoing circuit breakers (output)

Isc at CB3 ≈ Isc at CB2

Fig. 1.36. Calculation of the short-circuit current at CB3.

Operation with bypass power

• Breaking capacity
The highest short-circuit current downstream of CB3 is virtually that of CB2 because
it is assumed that the outgoing circuits are near the UPS.
Consequently, the breaking capacity of CB3 is also 25 kA.
• The rating is determined by the largest load, i.e. the 4 x 10 kVA of the computer
system with a continuous current of:
3
Iload = 40 / U 3 = 40 10 / (400 x 3 ) = 57 A
A 60 A device should be selected.
• Settings
A majority of the loads is of the distribution type, i.e. the Ir threshold of CB3 must be
less than 97 A / 1.6, i.e. < 61 A.
The Im threshold must be less than 1847 / 2, i.e. < 900 A.

Operation without bypass power

In this case, the short-circuited UPS limits its current to 2.33 In for one second.
For APC by Schneider Electric UPSs of the MGE Galaxy range, experimental results
have determined that the highest rating of CB3 must be less than 0.5 In to ensure
discrimination.
This is the case for the circuit breaker for the computer loads.
60 A < 0.5 x 144= 72 A

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 42

 Cables

Selection of cable sizes Cable temperature rise and voltage drops

The cross section of cables depends on:
• permissible temperature rise,
• permissible voltage drop.
For a given load, each of these parameters results in a minimum permissible cross
section. The larger of the two must be used.
When routing cables, care must be taken to maintain the required distances between
control circuits and power circuits, to avoid any disturbances caused by HF currents.

Temperature rise
Permissible temperature rise in cables is limited by the withstand capacity of cable
insulation.
Temperature rise in cables depends on:
• the type of core (Cu or Al),
• the installation method,
• the number of touching cables.
Standards stipulate, for each type of cable, the maximum permissible current.

Voltage drops
Maximum values
The maximum permissible voltage drops are:
• 3% for AC circuits (50 or 60 Hz),
• 1% for DC circuits.
Selection tables
The tables below indicate the voltage drop in percent for a circuit made up of 100
meters of copper cable. To calculate the voltage drop in a circuit with a length L,
multiply the value in the table by L/100.
If the voltage drop exceeds 3% on a three-phase circuit or 1% on a DC circuit,
increase the cross section of the conductors until the value is within tolerances.

Voltage drop for 100-meter cables

• Sph - the cross section of the conductors
• In - rated current of the protection devices on the circuit
Three-phase circuit (copper conductors)
50-60 Hz - 400 V three phase, cos ϕ = 0.8, balanced 3-ph + N system
2
Sph (mm ) 10 16 25 35 50 70 95 120 150 185 240 300
In (A) 10 0.9
16 1.2
20 1.6 1.1
25 2.0 1.3 0.9
32 2.6 1.7 1.1
40 3.3 2.1 1.4 1.0
50 4.1 2.6 1.7 1.3 1.0
63 5.1 3.3 2.2 1.6 1.2 0.9
70 5.7 3.7 2.4 1.7 1.3 1.0 0.8
80 6.5 4.2 2.7 2.1 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.7
100 8.2 5.3 3.4 2.6 2.0 2.0 1.1 0.9 0.8
125 6.6 4.3 3.2 2.4 2.4 1.4 1.1 1.0 0.8
160 5.5 4.3 3.2 3.2 1.8 1.5 1.2 1.1 0.9
200 5.3 3.9 3.9 2.2 1.8 1.6 1.3 1.2 0.9
250 4.9 4.9 2.8 2.3 1.9 1.7 1.4 1.2
320 3.5 2.9 2.5 2.1 1.9 1.5
400 4.4 3.6 3.1 2.7 2.3 1.9
500 4.5 3.9 3.4 2.9 2.4
600 4.9 4.2 3.6 3.0
800 5.3 4.4 3.8
1000 6.5 4.7
For a three-phase 230 V circuit, multiply the result by 3 .
For a single-phase 208/230 V circuit, multiply the result by 2.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 43

 Cables (Cont.)

DC circuit (copper conductors)

2
Sph (mm ) 25 35 50 70 95 120 150 185 240 300
In (A) 100 5.1 3.6 2.6 1.9 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.4
125 4.5 3.2 2.3 1.6 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.5
160 4.0 2.9 2.2 1.6 1.2 1.1 0.6 0.7
200 3.6 2.7 2.2 1.6 1.3 1.0 0.8
250 3.3 2.7 2.2 1.7 1.3 1.0
320 3.4 2.7 2.1 1.6 1.3
400 3.4 2.8 2.1 1.6
500 3.4 2.6 2.1
600 4.3 3.3 2.7
800 4.2 3.4
1000 5.3 4.2
1250 5.3

Special case for neutral conductors

In three-phase systems, the third-order harmonics (and their multiples) of single-
phase loads add up in the neutral conductor (sum of the currents on the three
phases).
For this reason, the following rule is applied - neutral cross section = 1.5 x phase
cross section.

Calculation example
Consider a 70-meter 400 V three-phase circuit, with copper conductors and a rated
current of 600 A.
Standard IEC 60364 indicates, depending on the installation method and the load, a
2
minimum cross section. We shall assume that the minimum cross section is 95 mm .
It is first necessary to check that the voltage drop does not exceed 3%.
The table for three-phase circuits on the following page indicates, for a 600 A current
2
flowing in a 300 mm cable, a voltage drop of 3% for 100 meters of cable, i.e. for 70
meters:
3 x 70/100 = 2.1%, less than the 3% limit.
A identical calculation can be run for a DC current of 1000 A in a 10-meter cable with
a cross section of 240 mm². The voltage drop for 100 meters is 5.3%, i.e. for ten
meters:
5.3 x 10/100 = 0.53%, less than the 1% limit.

Example of an installation

Fig. 1.37. Connection of cables.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 44

 Energy storage

Storage technologies Energy storage in UPSs

UPSs require an energy-storage system to supply the inverter with power if utility
power fails or is no longer within tolerances.
The stored energy must have the following characteristics:
• electricity that is immediately available to ride through micro-breaks, short voltage
drops and utility outages,
• sufficient power level to supply the entire load, i.e. a rating equivalent to that of the
UPS system itself,
• backup time, generally about ten minutes, suited to the needs of the loads and to
any other sources available (e.g. an engine generator set for long backup times).

Fig. 1.38. Simplified diagram of a UPS with backup energy storage.

Available technologies

The various technologies currently available are the following:

• batteries:
- sealed lead-acid,
- vented lead-acid,
- nickel cadmium,
• ultracapacitors,
• flywheels:
- traditional units turning at low speeds (1500 rmp) and combined with engine
generator sets,
- medium-speed (7000 rpm) or high-speed (30 to 100 000 rpm) units.

Comparison of technologies
Batteries are by far the most commonly employed solution today.
They are the dominant solution due to low cost, proven effectiveness and storage
capacity, but nonetheless have a number of disadvantages in terms of size,
maintenance and the environment.
Ultracapacitors do not yet offer the necessary performance levels.
Flywheels operating at high speeds constitute a possible technology in terms of their
power ratings (40 to 500 kW), for short backup times (12 seconds to 1 minute).
Figure 1.39 shows the fields of application for the different technologies.
Î For more information, see White Paper WP 65: "Comparing Data Center
See WP 65 Î Batteries, Flywheels, and Ultracapacitors".

Fig. 1.39. Characteristics in terms of power ratings and backup times.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/20112 edition p. 45

 Energy storage (Cont.)

The table below compares the different solutions in terms of their capacity to meet
the energy-storage requirements of static UPSs.

Criteria for comparison Technology

Sealed lead-acid Vented lead-acid Ni/Cad batteries Ultracapacitors Flywheels
batteries batteries
Power **** **** **** * ***

Backup time *** **** * * **

5 minutes up to 5 minutes up to 5 minutes up to a few seconds a few dozen
several hours several hours several dozen seconds
minutes
Purchase price **** *** ** * *
low low to medium high cost multiplied by 2 cost multiplied by 8
or 3 compared to compared to
batteries, for 10 batteries, for 10
seconds of backup seconds of backup
time time
Implementation / installation / start-up *** ** * **** **
Requires a special room no yes yes no yes
Temperature * * ** **** ***
Service life ** ** *** **** ***
Footprint ** ** ** **** ***
Maintenance *** ** * **** *
Frequency / time required low medium high none long servicing times
Maturity of the technology for UPSs **** **** **** ** ***

**** excellent *** good ** fair * poor

Flywheels
APC by Schneider Electric offers flywheel energy storage systems on request.
This solution is suitable to complement batteries in that it may be used to ride
through short disturbances without calling on battery power, thus preserving the
battery.
Use without a battery is possible, but the backup time is only a dozen seconds. For
certain applications, such a short backup time is insufficient to start an engine
generator set.

Selection of a battery Types of batteries

The batteries most frequently used in UPSs are:
• sealed lead-acid, also called gas-recombination batteries,
• vented lead-acid,
• nickel cadmium.
Lithium-polymer batteries are currently being studied for use in UPSs. Solutions
using this technology should be available in two to three years.
Î Types of batteries, see Ch. 5 p. 32 "Energy storage - Types of batteries".

For use in conjunction with its UPS ranges, APC by Schneider Electric recommends
sealed lead-acid batteries.
Selection of a battery depends on the following factors:
• operating conditions and requirements (special room, battery cabinet, racks, etc.),
• required backup time,
• cost considerations.

Backup time
APC by Schneider Electric offers:
• standard backup times of 5, 10, 15 or 30 minutes,
• custom backup times that can reach a number of hours.
Selection depends on:
• the average duration of power-system failures,
• any available sources offering long backup times (engine generator set, etc.),
• the type of application.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/20112 edition p. 46

 Energy storage (Cont.)

The following general rules apply.

• Computer systems
Battery backup time must be sufficient to cover file-saving and system-shutdown
procedures required to ensure a controlled shutdown of the computer system.
Generally speaking, the computer department determines the necessary backup
time, depending on its specific requirements.
• Industrial processes
The backup-time calculation should take into account the economic cost incurred by
an interruption in the process and the time required to restart.
• Applications requiring long backup times
An engine generator set can back up a battery if long outages occur, thus avoiding
the need for very large batteries. Generally speaking, use of an engine generator set
becomes feasible for backup times greater than 30 minutes to one hour. The
combination must be carefully studied to optimise the generator rating and ensure
correct operation.
Î Combination with an engine generator set, see Ch. 5 p. 35 "Engine generator set".

Service life
APC by Schneider Electric offers batteries with service lives of 5 or 10 years, or
longer.
Î Battery service life, see Ch. 5 p. 33.

Comparison between types of batteries

Sealed lead-acid batteries (gas-recombination)
These are the most commonly used batteries for the following reasons:
• no maintenance,
• easy implementation,
• installation in all types of rooms (computer rooms, technical rooms not specifically
intended for batteries, etc.).

Vented batteries
This type of battery (lead-acid or Ni/Cad) offers certain advantages:
• long service life,
• long backup times,
• high power ratings.
Vented batteries must be installed in special rooms complying with precise
regulations (see Ch. 1 p. 51 "Preliminary work") and require appropriate maintenance.

UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric include advanced battery-monitoring systems.

Battery monitoring
Battery monitoring on MGETM GalaxyTM UPSs

DigiBatTM
The DigiBatTM battery-monitoring system is an assembly of hardware and software,
installed as standard on UPSs of the MGE Galaxy range from APC by Schneider
Electric and offering the following functions:
• automatic entry of battery parameters,
• optimised battery service life,
• protection against excessive discharges,
• regulation of the battery floating voltage depending on the temperature,
• limitation of the battery current,
• continuous evaluation of available power taking into account the battery age, the
temperature and the percent load,
• forecast of battery service life,
• periodic, automatic tests on the battery, including a check on the battery circuit, an
open-circuit test, a partial-discharge test, etc.
Î DigiBat, see Ch. 5 p. 34 "Battery Management".

APC by Schneider Electric 01/20112 edition p. 47

 Energy storage (Cont.)

Environment sensor unit

Battery operating parameters and particularly the temperature affect battery life.
The Environment Sensor, easy to install and combined with a Network Management
card (SNMP/Web), makes possible monitoring of temperature/humidity and the
status of two contacts via SNMP or the web. It also initiates equipment shutdown if
necessary.

Detection and prevention of battery failure for

MGETM GalaxyTM UPSs
In spite of the advantages of sealed lead-acid batteries, over time, all batteries will
fail due to ageing. Without rigorous monitoring, the true integrity and capacity of a
battery remains unknown.
Battery-monitoring techniques have a major impact on reliability and can be used to
define the best strategy for replacement, resulting in a better level of protection.
APC by Schneider Electric also offers continuous, cell by cell, battery-monitoring
systems with software and communication capabilities. These systems can be
implemented by the user or integrated in the Teleservice offer.

B2000 battery-monitoring system

The B2000 system offers continuous, overall monitoring of the main battery
parameters. That includes the voltage, current, temperature and any drift detected
during charge and discharge cycles. It issues an alarm when tolerance levels are
overrun. Automatic recording of discharges, whether planned or unplanned, is also
available for data analysis.
The monitoring system can help detect possible problems before the battery fails and
thus enhance availability of UPS energy.

Cellwatch battery-monitoring system

General battery maintenance may not be sufficient to ensure correct operation,
notably for mission-critical applications where there is no room for error.
Between periodic tests (generally once every three months), a cell may suddenly fail.
A valve-regulated sealed lead-acid cell can fail in just a few days after a periodic test.
The cause is the chemical reactions that take place in the cell following charge and
discharge cycles. These cycles occur even if the protection system is not in
operation. What is more, corrosion can affect the entire connection system of the
battery string, inside or outside of the cell.
It was therefore necessary to do more than simply check the voltage. The research
carried out showed that the internal resistance or the impedance of the cell is a good
indicator of its status, in that it reveals both deterioration and any physical problems.
The Cellwatch monitoring system uses this system based on cell impedance to
monitor each cell. It provides reliable monitoring of the service life of each cell.

APC battery management system for SymmetraTM UPSs

The APC battery management system, available for UPSs of the Symmetra range
from APC by Schneider Electric, ensures your batteries are optimally charged and
ready for use. This browser-accessible, 1U rackmountable system combines battery
monitoring and testing with individual boost charging for peak battery performance.
Integration into your preferred building management system or use of a Web browser
provides visibility of the health and status of your batteries. This system makes it
possible to solve battery problems before they affect availability.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/20112 edition p. 48

 Human-machine interface and
communication

Human-machine interface General characteristics

(HMI)
The human-machine interface on the UPS must be user-friendly, easy to use and
multi-lingual (adjustable to the user's language).
It is generally made up of a mimic panel, a status and control panel, and an
alphanumeric display. A password-protected personalisation menu may be available
for entry of installation parameters and access to detailed information.

Example
The HMI typically offers the functions listed below.

On and Off buttons

• delayed to avoid erroneous operations.
• with an option for a remote EPO (emergency power off).
• independent with respect to the rest of the display
Status LEDs that clearly identify:
• normal operation (load protected),
• downgraded operating mode (malfunction),
• dangerous situations for the load (load not protected),
• operation on battery power.
Alarms
• alarm buzzer and buzzer reset button.
• battery shutdown warning.
• general alarm.
• battery fault.
A screen providing:
• access to measurements
- input power (voltage, current, frequency).
- battery (voltage, charge and discharge currents, remaining backup time,
temperature).
- inverter output (phase-to-neutral voltage, current, frequency, active and apparent
power, crest factor).
• access to history logs
- log containing time-stamped events.
- curves and bargraphs of the measured values.

Communication High availability for critical applications requires

communicating protection equipment

The UPS system, essential for mission-critical equipment, must include

communication features that keep operators continously informed, wherever
they may be, of any risk of compromising the operating security of the system
so that they can take immediate action.
To ensure power availability, the UPS communication features provide the
following four essential functions:
) Supervision / monitoring of all installed UPSs via software.
) Notification via the network and the Internet.
) Controlled shutdown (local or remote, automatic or manual) of protected
applications.
) Teleservice via a modem and telephone line to a support centre.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 Edition p. 49

 Human-machine interface and
communication (Cont.)

APC by Schneider Electric solutions

Communication cards
• Network Management Card (Ethernet)
- Web monitoring
- Email notification
- SNMP MIB & Traps
- Server protection with Network Shutdown Module
- Supervision with Enterprise Power Manager or ISX Central
- Environment monitoring with Environment Sensor (T°, H%, Inputs)
• Modbus – Jbus card (RS232 & RS485)
- Monitoring
• Teleservice card (Modem)
- Alerts
- Monitoring
- Diagnostics
- Reporting
• Relay card (contacts)
- Indications

Management software
• Enterprise Power Manager & ISX Central (software & server)
Software solutions to manage all installed UPSs via IP networks, web
compatible and accessible from any web browser.
• NMS Integration kits (Network Management System)
Integration in NMSs such as HP OpenView, IBM Tivoli, CA Unicenter, etc.
• Network Shutdown Module
- Software module for safe system shutdown.

Fig. 1.40. The communication cards combined with supervision software offer a wide range of
functions.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 50

 Preliminary work

Installation considerations The main elements that must be taken into account for the UPS installation are the
following:
• plans for site modifications, any preliminary work (notably for a battery room),
taking into account:
- the dimensions of equipment,
- operating and maintenance conditions (accessibility, clearances, etc.),
- temperature conditions that must be respected,
- safety considerations,
- applicable standards and regulations,
• ventilation or air-conditioning of rooms,
• creation of a battery room.

Dimensions
Layout of UPS cabinets and enclosures should be based on precise plans.
The physical characteristics of UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric that may be
used to prepare the plans are presented in chapter 4.
They indicate, for each range:
• the dimensions and weights of:
- UPS and centralised-bypass cabinets;
- battery cabinets,
- any auxiliary cabinets (autotransformers, transformers, filters, etc.),
• minimum clearances required for cabinets and enclosures to ensure optimal
ventilation and sufficient access.

Ventilation, air-conditioning
Ventilation requirements
UPSs are designed to operate within a given temperature range (0 to 40°C for UPSs
from APC by Schneider Electric ) that is sufficient for most operating conditions
without modifications.
However, UPSs and their auxiliary equipment produce heat losses that can, if no
steps are taken, increase the temperature of a poorly ventilated room.
What is more, the service life of a battery is heavily dependent on the ambient
temperature. The service life is optimal for temperatures between 15° C and 25° C.
This factor must be taken into account if the battery is installed in the same room as
the UPS.
A further consideration is the fact that UPSs may be installed in the same room as
computer equipment which often has more severe requirements concerning
operating-temperature ranges.

Selecting a type of ventilation

For all the above reasons, a minimum amount of ventilation is required, and where
applicable air-conditioning, to avoid any risk of excessive temperature rise in the
room due to the heat losses.
Ventilation can be by:
• natural convection,
• forced exchange by a ventilation system,
• installation of an air-conditioning unit.
Selection depends on:
• the heat losses that must be evacuated,
• the size of the room.
The thermal characteristics of UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric are indicated in
chapter 4 and may be used to calculate ventilation needs. They mention for each
range:
• the heat losses of cabinets and any filters installed,
• the volume of air output by a ventilation system.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 51

 Preliminary work (Cont.)

IP degree of protection and noise level

Degree of protection (IP)
UPSs must operate in an environment that is compatible with their degree of
protection (IP 20 for UPSs from APC by Schneider Electric), defined by standard IEC
60529/EN 60529. The presence of dust, water and corrosive substances must be
avoided.

Noise level
UPSs must produce a low level of noise, suited to the room where they are installed.
Measurement conditions for the level of noise indicated by the manufacturer must
comply with standard ISO 3746 (measurement of noise).

Battery room Where possible and if desired, the battery should be installed in a cabinet.
Battery-cabinet dimensions are indicated for each UPS range, depending on the
rated power.
However, for very high-power UPSs, batteries are generally installed in special
rooms (electrical room).
Batteries must be installed in compliance with international standards, local
regulations and standard IEC 60364.

Battery installation method

The criteria determining the battery-installation method are the following:
• available floor space,
• the weight that the floor can handle (kg/m2),
• ease of access and maintenance.
The following three methods are used.

Battery installed directly on floor

This is the most simple arrangement. However, a large battery room is required,
given:
• the large amount of floor space occupied by the battery,
• the insulated flooring (duck board), which is mandatory if the voltage exceeds 150
volts.

Battery on racks
The battery cells are installed on a number of different levels, off the floor.
When determining the height between each rack, it is necessary to take into account
the space required to check battery levels and fill the battery cells easily. A minimum
height of 450 mm is recommended.

Battery on tiers
This installation method is similar to the preceding. It is the most convenient method
for checking battery levels.

Battery-room features
Whatever the installation method selected, the battery installation must comply with
the following requirements (the numbers indicate the elements shown in figure 1.40).

Floor and walls (1)

• The floor must slope to an evacuation trough which leads to a holding tank.
• Protection coating against acid on the floor and walls, up to a height of at least 0.5
meters.
For example, asphalt for lead-acid batteries, PVC or chlorine-based paint for alkaline
batteries.

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 52

 Preliminary work (Cont.)

Ventilation (2)
• calculation of throughput
The volume of air to be evacuated depends on the maximum load current and the
type of battery. In installations comprising a number of batteries, the quantities of air
that must be evacuated are cumulative.
- vented batteries
d = 0.05 x N x Im, where
d - throughput in cubic meters per hour,
N - number of battery cells,
Im - maximum load current in amperes.
- sealed battery
The ventilation conditions in a general-purpose room are sufficient.
• safety
An automatic device must stop battery charging if the ventilation system fails.
• location
Air must be drawn out from the top of the battery room.

Layout of cells (3)

Layout must inhibit simultaneous contact with two bare parts presenting a voltage
greater than or equal to 150 V. If the above condition cannot be met, terminal shields
must be installed and connections must be made using insulated cables.

Service flooring (4)

If the voltage exceeds 150 V, special flooring is required. It must offer sure footing,
be insulated from the floor and offer at least one meter of walkway around the
battery.

Battery connection (5)

Connections must be as short a possible.

Battery-protection circuit breaker (6)

The circuit breaker is generally installed in a wall-mounted enclosure.

Fire-fighting equipment (7)

Authorized fire extinguishers include power, CO2 or sand.

Safety equipment (8)

The safety equipment must include protective glasses, gloves and a source of water.

Inspection equipment (9)

• Hydrometer.
• Filling device.
• Thermometer.
Sensors (10)
• Hydrogen detector.
• Temperature sensor.

Fig. 1.41. Layout of battery room

APC by Schneider Electric 01/2012 edition p. 53

Power Supply with High PFC
and Lower Harmonic
 Appendix A Power Supply Specifications
950 W AC-Input and DC-Input Power Supplies

Figure A-3 DC Power Entry Module (PEM)

Catalyst 6503 DC PEM

79980
Captive installation screws

950 W Power Supply Specifications

Table A-3 lists the specifications for the 950 W AC-input power supply.

Table A-3 950 W AC-Input Power Supply Specifications

Specification Description
AC-input type Autoranging input with power factor correction (PFC)
Note Power factor correction is a standard feature on all Catalyst 6500
series AC-input power supplies. PFC reduces the reactive
component in the source AC current allowing higher power
factors (typically 99 percent or better) and lower harmonic
current components.
AC-input voltage • Low-line (120 VAC nominal)—90 VAC (min) to 132 VAC (max)
• High-line (230 VAC nominal)—170 VAC (min) to 264 VAC (max)
AC-input current • 12 A @ 120 VAC
• 6 A @ 230 VAC
AC-input frequency 50/60 Hz (nominal)

Catalyst 6500 Series Switches Installation Guide

A-6 OL-5781-08
 Appendix A Power Supply Specifications
8700 W AC-Input Power Supply

Note Because of the form-factor difference, when you install an 8700 W power supply in a Catalyst 6506,
Catalyst 6509, or Catalyst 6509-NEB chassis you must relocate the system ground connection from the
chassis ground pad connection to the two system ground studs located on the 8700 W power supply
faceplate. Installing an 8700 W power supply in the other Catalyst 6500 series chassis does not require
that you move the chassis system ground connection to the power supply.

The 8700 W power supply cannot be installed in the Catalyst 6503, Catalyst 6503-E, and
Catalyst 6504-E switch chassis.

Figure A-18 8700 W AC-Input Power Supply

System ground studs

Cable
retention
device

AC power
connection 1
AC power
connection 2
AC power
connection 3
Power 182076
NC RELAY
switch o INPUT
OK
FAN
OK
OUTPUT
FAIL

1
Status LEDs 2 3
220VAC
1 2 3 DEFAULT
NO RELAY
CISCO SYSTEMS, INC.

Remote power on/off

Captive installation feature relay switch
screw Remote power on/off
feature terminal block

8700 W Power Supply Specifications

Table A-38 lists the specifications for the 8700 W AC-input power supply.

Table A-38 8700 W AC-Input Power Supply Specifications

Specification Description
AC-input type 3 AC-inputs per power supply. High-line input with power factor
correction (PFC) included.
Note Power factor correction is a standard feature on all Catalyst 6500
series AC-input power supplies. PFC reduces the reactive
component in the source AC current allowing higher power
factors (typically 99 percent or better) and lower harmonic
current components.
AC-input voltage • Low-line (120 VAC nominal)—90 VAC (min) to 132 VAC (max)
(One-phase) • High-line (230 VAC nominal)—170 VAC (min) to 264 VAC (max)

Catalyst 6500 Series Switches Installation Guide

OL-5781-08 A-55
 Item Specification

Software compatibility Cisco NX-OS Software Release Cisco NX-OS Software Release 4.0 Cisco NX-OS Software Release
6.1(2) and later and later 4.1(2) and later
Physical specifications ● (H x W x D): 1.6 x 3.95 x 22 in. ● (H x W x D): 8.51* x 4 x 17.5 in. ● (H x W x D): 8.51* x 4 x 17.5 in.
(4.1 x 10 x 55.9 cm) (21.6* x 10.1 x 44.5 cm) (21.6* x 10.1 x 44.5 cm)
● Weight: 5 lb (2.27 kg) ● Weight: 18 lb (8.2 kg) ● Weight: 23 lb (10.5 kg)
* *
The height of the power supply unit The height of the power supply unit
is not uniform along the entire depth. is not uniform along the entire depth.
The height at the front and rear are The height at the front and rear are
8.51 and 4.2 in. (21.6 and 10.7 cm) 8.51 and 4.2 in. (21.6 and 10.7 cm)
respectively. respectively.
Input voltage range 90 to 264 VAC 90 to 264 VAC 170 to 264V AC
Input frequency range 47 to 63 Hz 47 to 63 Hz 47 to 63 Hz

Input current 16A maximum at nominal line voltage 16A maximum at nominal line voltage 24A maximum at nominal line voltage
(each input) (110 or 220 VAC) (110 or 220 VAC) (220 VAC)
Power supply input International Electrotechnical IEC 320-C20 ● IEC 60309 for INT
receptacles Commission (IEC) 320-C20 ● NEMA L6-30 for US
Power cord rating 16A 16A 24A
British thermal units ● 11,400 BTUs per hour at 3000W ● 23,000 BTUs per hour at 6000W ● 28,500 BTUs per hour at 7500W
(BTUs) ● 5560 BTUs per hour at 1400W ● 16,500 BTUs per hour at 4200W ● 14,200 BTUs per hour at 3750W
● 11,500 BTUs per hour at 3000W
● 9900 BTUs per hour at 2400W
● 4950 BTUs per hour at 1200W
Output holdup time 20 milliseconds (ms) minimum
Cooling fan Integrated Integrated

Environmental ● Operating temperature: 32 to 104°F (0 to 40°C)

conditions ● Storage temperature: -40 to 185°F (-40C to 85°C)
● Relative humidity operating, noncondensing: 10 to 90%
● Relative humidity nonoperating, noncondensing: 10 to 95%
Certifications 80+ Platinum Certification 80+ Silver Certification
Regulatory compliance ● EMC compliance
● FCC Part 15 (CFR 47) (USA) Class A
● ICES-003 (Canada) Class A
● EN55022 (Europe) Class A
● CISPR22 (International) Class A
● AS/NZS CISPR22 (Australia and New Zealand) Class A
● VCCI (Japan) Class A
● KN22 (Korea) Class A
● CNS13438 (Taiwan) Class A
● CISPR24
● EN55024
● EN50082-1
● EN61000-3-2
● EN61000-3-3
● EN61000-6-1
● EN300 386
Environmental ● NEBS criteria levels
standards ● SR-3580 NEBS Level 3 (GR-63-CORE, issue 3, and GR-1089-CORE, issue 4)
● Verizon NEBS compliance
● Telecommunications Carrier Group (TCG) Checklist
● Qwest NEBS requirements
● Telecommunications Carrier Group (TCG) Checklist
● ATT NEBS requirements
● ATT TP76200 level 3 and TCG Checklist
● ETSI

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. This document is Cisco Public Information. Page 6 of 9
IEC 61000-3-2 Harmonic
Limits
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– 12 – IEC 61000-3-2:2014 © IEC 2014

3.22
variable speed drive
VSD
equipment, based on power electronics, which enables the speed and/or torque of a motor to
be continuously controlled

4 General

The objective of this standard is to set limits for harmonic emissions of equipment within its
scope, so that, with due allowance for the emissions from other equipment, compliance with
the limits ensures that harmonic disturbance levels do not exceed the compatibility levels
defined in IEC 61000-2-2.

Professional equipment that does not comply with the requirements of this standard may be
permitted to be connected to certain types of low voltage supplies, if the instruction manual
contains a requirement to ask the supply utility for permission to connect. Recommendations
concerning this aspect are contained in IEC/TR 61000-3-4 or IEC 61000-3-12.

5 Classification of equipment

For the purpose of harmonic current limitation, equipment is classified as follows:

Class A:

– balanced three-phase equipment;

– household appliances, excluding equipment identified as Class D;
– tools, excluding portable tools;
– dimmers for incandescent lamps;
– audio equipment.

Equipment not specified in one of the three other classes shall be considered as Class A
equipment.

NOTE 1 Equipment that can be shown to have a significant effect on the supply system may be reclassified in a
future edition of the standard. Factors to be taken into account include:
– number of pieces of equipment in use;
– duration of use;
– simultaneity of use;
– power consumption;
– harmonic spectrum, including phase.

Class B:

– portable tools;
– arc welding equipment which is not professional equipment.

Class C:

– lighting equipment.

Class D:

Equipment having a specified power according to 6.2.2 less than or equal to 600 W, of the
following types:

– personal computers and personal computer monitors;

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ELOT EN 61000-3-2 : 2014-08

IEC 61000-3-2:2014 © IEC 2014 – 13 –

– television receivers;
– refrigerators and freezers having one or more variable-speed drives to control compressor
motor(s).
NOTE 2 Class D limits are reserved for equipment that, by virtue of the factors listed in note 1, can be shown to
have a pronounced effect on the public electricity supply system.

6 General requirements

The following restrictions apply even to equipment to which no harmonic current limits apply as
defined in Clause 7.

The requirements and limits specified in this clause are applicable to the power input terminals
of equipment intended to be connected to 220/380 V, 230/400 V and 240/415 V systems
operating at 50 Hz or 60 Hz. Requirements and limits for other cases are not yet considered.

A simplified test method is permitted for equipment that undergoes minor changes or updates,
provided that, in previous full compliance tests, it has been shown to have current emissions
below 60 % of the applicable limits and the THD of the supply current is less than 15 %. The
simplified test method consists of verifying that the updated equipment has an active input
power within r20 % of that of the originally tested product, and that the THD of the supply
current is less than 15 %. Products that fulfill these requirements are deemed to comply with
the applicable limits, but in case of doubt the result of a full compliance test according to
Clauses 6 and 7 takes precedence over this simplified method.

6.1 Control methods

Asymmetrical controls according to IEC 60050-161, 161-07-12 and half-wave rectification

directly on the mains supply may only be used in the following circumstances:

a) where they are the only practical solution permitting the detection of unsafe conditions, or
b) where the controlled active input power is less than or equal to 100 W, or
c) where the controlled appliance is a portable equipment fitted with a two-core flexible cord
and is intended for use for a short period of time, i.e. for a few minutes only.

If one of these three conditions is fulfilled, half-wave rectification may be used for any purpose,
whereas asymmetrical controls may only be used for the control of motors.

NOTE 1 Such equipment includes, but is not limited to, hair dryers, electrical kitchen appliances and portable
tools.

Symmetrical control methods which are prone to produce harmonics of low order (n d 40) in the
input current may be used for the control of the power supplied to heating elements provided
that the full sine-wave input power is less than or equal to 200 W, or that the limits of Table 3
are not exceeded.

Such symmetrical control methods are also allowed for professional equipment provided that
either

a) one of the above conditions is fulfilled, or

b) the relevant limits are not exceeded when tested at the supply input terminals and in
addition both the following conditions are fulfilled:
1) it is necessary to control precisely the temperature of a heater whose thermal time
constant is less than 2 s, and
2) there is no other technique economically available.

Professional equipment whose primary purpose, considered as a whole, is not for heating, shall
be tested against the relevant limits.
WEBPORT pour client/for customer SCHNEIDER ELECTRIC INDUSTRIES SAS le/the 26/01/2016 à/at 09:21
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IEC 61000-3-2:2014 © IEC 2014 – 19 –

V A
400 0,4

d65°
300 0,3
Ip+
t90°
200 0,2
d60°

100 0,1
+0,05Ip(abs)

0 0

–0,05Ip(abs)
–100 –0,1
d60°

–200 –0,2

t90°
–300 d65° Ip– –0,3

–400 –0,4
V A
IEC 1461/14

NOTE I p(abs) is the higher absolute value of I p and I p-

Figure 2 – Illustration of the relative phase angle

and current parameters described in 7.3 b)

7.1 Limits for Class A equipment

For Class A equipment, the harmonics of the input current shall not exceed the values given in
Table 1.

Audio amplifiers shall be tested according to Clause C.3. Dimmers for incandescent lamps
shall be tested according to Clause C.6.

7.2 Limits for Class B equipment

For Class B equipment, the harmonics of the input current shall not exceed the values given in
Table 1 multiplied by a factor of 1,5.

7.3 Limits for Class C equipment

a) Active input power !25 W
For lighting equipment having an active input power greater than 25 W, the harmonic
currents shall not exceed the relative limits given in Table 2.
However, the limits given in Table 1 apply to incandescent lighting equipment that has built-
in dimmers or consists of dimmers built in an enclosure.
For discharge lighting equipment that has built-in dimmers or consists of independent
dimmers or dimmers built in an enclosure, the following conditions apply:
– the harmonic current values for the maximum load condition derived from the
percentage limits given in Table 2 shall not be exceeded;
– in any dimming position, the harmonic current shall not exceed the value of current
allowed in the maximum load condition;
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– 20 – IEC 61000-3-2:2014 © IEC 2014

– the equipment shall be tested according to the conditions given in Clause C.5 (see the
last paragraph of C.5.3).
b) Active input power d 25 W
Discharge lighting equipment having an active input power smaller than or equal to 25 W
shall comply with one of the following two sets of requirements:
– the harmonic currents shall not exceed the power-related limits of Table 3, column 2, or:
– the third harmonic current, expressed as a percentage of the fundamental current, shall
not exceed 86 % and the fifth harmonic current shall not exceed 61 %. Also, the
waveform of the input current shall be such that it reaches the 5 % current threshold
before or at 60°, has its peak value before or at 65° and does not fall below the 5 %
current threshold before 90°, referenced to any zero crossing of the fundamental supply
voltage. The current threshold is 5 % of the highest absolute peak value that occurs in
the measurement window, and the phase angle measurements are made on the cycle
that includes this absolute peak value. See Figure 2.
If the discharge lighting equipment has a built-in dimming device, measurement is made
only in the full load condition.

7.4 Limits for Class D equipment

For Class D equipment, the harmonic currents and the power shall be measured as defined
in 6.2.2. The input currents at harmonic frequencies shall not exceed the values that can be
derived from Table 3 according to the requirements specified in 6.2.3 and 6.2.4.

Table 1 – Limits for Class A equipment

Harmonic order Maximum permissible

harmonic current
n A

Odd harmonics
3 2,30
5 1,14
7 0,77
9 0,40
11 0,33
13 0,21

15
15 d n d 39 0,15
n

Even harmonics

2 1,08
4 0,43
6 0,30

8
8 d n d 40 0,23
n
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ELOT EN 61000-3-2 : 2014-08

IEC 61000-3-2:2014 © IEC 2014 – 21 –

Table 2 – Limits for Class C equipment

Harmonic order Maximum permissible harmonic

currrent expressed as a percentage of
the input current at the fundamental
frequency
n %

2 2
3 30 ˜ O a

5 10
7 7
9 5
11 d n d 39 3
(odd harmonics only)
a O is the circuit power factor.

Table 3 – Limits for Class D equipment

Harmonic order Maximum permissible Maximum permissible

harmonic current per harmonic current
watt
n mA/W A

3 3,4 2,30
5 1,9 1,14
7 1,0 0,77
9 0,5 0,40
11 0,35 0,33
13 d n d 39 3,85 See Table 1
(odd harmonics only) n

Table 4 – Test observation period

Type of equipment behaviour Observation period

Quasi-stationary T obs of sufficient duration to meet the requirements for repeatability in 6.2.3.1

Short cyclic (T cycle d 2,5 min) T obs t 10 cycles (reference method) or T obs of sufficient duration or
synchronisation to meet the requirements for repeatability in 6.2.3.1 a
Random T obs of sufficient duration to meet the requirements for repeatability in 6.2.3.1

Long cyclic (T cycle ! 2,5 min) Full equipment program cycle (reference method) or a representative 2,5 min
period considered by the manufacturer as the operating period with the highest
THC
a By 'synchronization' is meant that the total observation period is sufficiently close to including an exact
integral number of equipment cycles such that the requirements for repeatability in 6.2.3.1 are met.
WEBPORT pour client/for customer SCHNEIDER ELECTRIC INDUSTRIES SAS le/the 26/01/2016 à/at 09:21
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– 22 – IEC 61000-3-2:2014 © IEC 2014

Annex A
(normative)

Measurement circuit and supply source

A.1 Test circuit

The measured harmonic values shall be compared with the limits given in Clause 7. The
harmonic currents of the equipment under test (EUT) shall be measured in accordance with the
circuits given in the following figures:

– Figure A.1 for single-phase equipment;

– Figure A.2 for three-phase equipment.

Measurement equipment complying with Annex B shall be used. Test conditions for the EUT
are given in Annex C.

A.2 Supply source

While the measurements are being made, the test voltage (U) at the terminals of the
equipment under test, when operated according to Annex C, shall meet the following
requirements.

a) The test voltage (U) shall be the rated voltage of the equipment. In the case of a voltage
range, the test voltage shall be 230 V or 400 V for single-phase or three-phase supplies
respectively. The test voltage shall be maintained within r2,0 % and the frequency within
r0,5 % of the nominal value.
b) In the case of a three-phase supply, the angle between the fundamental voltage on each
pair of phases of a three-phase source shall be 120° r 1,5°.
c) The harmonic ratios of the test voltage (U) shall not exceed the following values with the
EUT connected as in normal operation:
0,9 % for harmonic of order 3;
0,4 % for harmonic of order 5;
0,3 % for harmonic of order 7;
0,2 % for harmonic of order 9;
0,2 % for even harmonics of order from 2 to 10;
0,1 % for harmonics of order from 11 to 40.
d) The peak value of the test voltage shall be within 1,40 times and 1,42 times its r.m.s. value
and shall be reached within 87° to 93° after the zero crossing. This requirement does not
apply when Class A or B equipment is tested.
WEBPORT pour client/for customer SCHNEIDER ELECTRIC INDUSTRIES SAS le/the 26/01/2016 à/at 09:21
ELOT EN 61000-3-2 : 2014-08

–4– IEC 61000-3-2:2014 © IEC 2014

INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMISSION

____________

ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC) –

Part 3-2: Limits – Limits for harmonic current emissions

(equipment input current d 16 A per phase)

FOREWORD
1) The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is a worldwide organization for standardization comprising
all national electrotechnical committees (IEC National Committees). The object of IEC is to promote
international co-operation on all questions concerning standardization in the electrical and electronic fields. To
this end and in addition to other activities, IEC publishes International Standards, Technical Specifications,
Technical Reports, Publicly Available Specifications (PAS) and Guides (hereafter referred to as “IEC
Publication(s)”). Their preparation is entrusted to technical committees; any IEC National Committee interested
in the subject dealt with may participate in this preparatory work. International, governmental and non-
governmental organizations liaising with the IEC also participate in this preparation. IEC collaborates closely
with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in accordance with conditions determined by
agreement between the two organizations.
2) The formal decisions or agreements of IEC on technical matters express, as nearly as possible, an international
consensus of opinion on the relevant subjects since each technical committee has representation from all
interested IEC National Committees.
3) IEC Publications have the form of recommendations for international use and are accepted by IEC National
Committees in that sense. While all reasonable efforts are made to ensure that the technical content of IEC
Publications is accurate, IEC cannot be held responsible for the way in which they are used or for any
misinterpretation by any end user.
4) In order to promote international uniformity, IEC National Committees undertake to apply IEC Publications
transparently to the maximum extent possible in their national and regional publications. Any divergence
between any IEC Publication and the corresponding national or regional publication shall be clearly indicated in
the latter.
5) IEC itself does not provide any attestation of conformity. Independent certification bodies provide conformity
assessment services and, in some areas, access to IEC marks of conformity. IEC is not responsible for any
services carried out by independent certification bodies.
6) All users should ensure that they have the latest edition of this publication.
7) No liability shall attach to IEC or its directors, employees, servants or agents including individual experts and
members of its technical committees and IEC National Committees for any personal injury, property damage or
other damage of any nature whatsoever, whether direct or indirect, or for costs (including legal fees) and
expenses arising out of the publication, use of, or reliance upon, this IEC Publication or any other IEC
Publications.
8) Attention is drawn to the Normative references cited in this publication. Use of the referenced publications is
indispensable for the correct application of this publication.
9) Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this IEC Publication may be the subject of
patent rights. IEC shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.

International Standard IEC 61000-3-2 has been prepared by sub-committee 77A: Low-
frequency phenomena, of IEC technical committee 77: Electromagnetic compatibility.

This fourth edition cancels and replaces the third edition published in 2005, Amendment 1:
2008, Amendment 2:2009 and Corrigendum of August 2009.

This edition includes the following significant technical changes with respect to the previous
edition:

a) a clarification of the repeatability and reproducibility of measurements;

b) a more accurate specification of the general test conditions for information technology
equipment;
c) the addition of optional test conditions for information technology equipment with external
power supplies or battery chargers;
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Harmonics Study
 Harmonic Currents in the Data Center: A Case Study

they add together to create a new harmonic current and PF profile. Because this example
exhibits high power factor and relatively low current THD we can deduce that the majority
load on this circuit is linear (PFC). The circuit load diversity can be defined as the ratio of
linear load to nonlinear load. For example, 1200 VA linear and 300 VA nonlinear would be
1200:300 = 4:1 ratio. A diversity of greater than one indicates that the linear loads dominate
and dramatically reduce the effect of the non-linear load. A diversity of zero is a pure non-
linear load. Any diversity of greater than zero provides some mitigation from the theoretical
problems associated poor power factor and current harmonics.

Harmonics Study at OneBeacon in Foxboro Massachussetts

Breaker Harmonics % (current)

Number Phase Current Voltage PF DPF VA Watts %THD(I) 3rd 5th 7th 9th 11th 13th

1 A 4.48 120.5 0.97 0.98 540 524 20 19 2.6 3.3 2.5 2.2 0.7
B 2.49 121.6 0.93 0.99 303 282 34.2 32.1 4 7.1 7.4 5.4 2.9
C 2.45 120.6 0.93 0.98 295 275 31.5 27.1 10.6 10 4.8 2.3 1
N 3.04
2 A 8.64 121.8 0.96 0.96 1052 1010 6.1 5.2 2.4 1 1.2 0.4 0.3
B 4.6 121.4 0.95 0.95 558 531 5.9 5 2.3 0.9 1.3 0.2 0.6
C 4.45 121.9 0.96 0.95 542 521 7 6.2 2.3 0.9 1.5 0.3 0.1
N 4.01
3 A 5.56 120.5 0.97 0.98 670 650 12.7 12.5 1.2 1.3 1.4 0.8 1.6
B 2.54 121.6 0.97 0.98 309 300 18.4 18.1 2.2 1 1.6 1.2 1.6
C 6.28 121.9 0.98 0.98 766 750 10.3 10.1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.3 0.7
N 1.96
4 A 0.89 121.8 0.98 0.98 108 106 11.8 10.9 1.1 1.6 0.2 2.5 2.2
B 3.73 121.7 0.97 0.97 454 440 8 7.5 1.5 1.3 0.9 1.1 0.7
C 0.97 122 0.98 0.97 118 116 11.6 10.1 1.6 1.6 2.6 2.9 1.9
N 2.82
5 A 2.77 121.7 0.98 0.98 337 330 7.3 6.8 1.7 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.4
B 2.09 121.6 0.97 0.99 254 247 23.7 17.7 11.1 8.5 5 3.2 0.9
C 2.47 120.7 0.98 0.98 298 292 7.3 6.9 1.4 0.4 1 0.3 0.4
N 1.12
Figure 4 6 A 3.74 121.8 0.99 0.96 456 451 6.7 6.3 1.7 0.5 0.9 0.2 0.4
B 3.05 121.7 0.95 0.95 371 353 7.8 1 7.2 1.7 0.6 1.2 0.7
Results of C 1.95 121.9 0.97 0.98 238 231 6.5 6.1 1.5 0.6 1.6 0.4 0.7
N 1.8
harmonics study 7 A 3.24 121.7 0.97 0.99 394 382 20.6 18.8 6.4 4.1 2.5 1.1 1.8
B 6.4 121.6 0.98 0.99 778 763 16.1 14.8 4.7 3.3 1 0.8 1.1
C 4.44 120.6 0.97 0.98 535 519 17.2 15.9 5.1 3.3 1 1.1 1.4
N 3.55
8 A 0.12 121.8 0.65 0.68 15 10 23 17.5 2.3 2.2 4.1 2.2 2
B 0.1 121.7 0.91 0.94 12 11 83 65.1 21.1 18.3 25.2 19.1 16.9
C 0 121.9 N/A N/A 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
N 0.1
9 A 1.67 121.8 0.94 0.99 203 191 31.6 22.2 13.6 14.4 7.6 6.3 3.5
B 1.31 120.5 0.99 0.99 158 156 12.7 7.2 1.1 4.6 3.1 3.3 2.9
C 1.07 121.9 0.57 0.98 130 74 81.5 48.1 42 35 27.2 19.4 12.5
N 1.69
10 A 0.8 121.8 0.65 0.99 97 63 75.4 50.4 38.2 29.7 20.7 12.6 0.04
B 0.75 121.7 0.6 0.99 91 55 79.5 56.4 46.3 29.7 21.9 12.1 4.2
C 1.45 121.9 0.67 0.99 177 118 73.9 57.4 37.3 27.5 13.3 6 1.9
N 1.76
11 A 0 121.8 N/A N/A 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
B 0.11 121.7 0.62 0.78 13 8 56.7 12.3 26.7 19.3 16.4 17.4 14.3
C 0.11 120.6 0.17 0.25 13 2 73.7 69.3 8.3 7 8.3 1.4 2.7
N 0.13
12 A 4.66 121.8 0.97 0.98 568 551 11.2 10.5 2.8 1.2 0.4 0.9 0.8
B 3.95 121.7 0.96 0.98 481 461 17.5 16.5 4 3.1 0.7 1.9 1.7
C 6.72 120.8 0.96 0.97 812 779 12 11.2 3.3 1.7 0.6 0.9 0.7
N 2.97
13 A 2.99 121.7 0.96 0.99 364 349 7.3 6.9 1.7 1 0.7 0.3 0.5
B 3.78 120.5 0.97 0.95 455 442 29.3 6.9 9.3 5.1 2.9 2.4 0.8
C 4.27 121.8 0.97 0.99 520 504 13.7 12.9 2.7 1.3 2.4 1.6 0.8
N 2.13
14 A 1.34 121.7 0.96 0.98 163 157 17.8 17.6 1.9 1.3 0.3 2.6 0.9
B 3.54 121.7 0.97 0.98 431 418 15.7 15.1 1.5 2.1 1.6 1.8 0.6
C 3.2 120.6 0.97 0.98 386 374 13.9 13.3 0.9 2.5 0.1 1.3 1.2
N 2.25

Using the raw branch circuit data from the chart above, analysis was done and bar charts
were created to provide better visualization of the circuit conditions.

Schneider Electric – Data Center Science Center White Paper 38 Rev 1 7

 Harmonic Currents in the Data Center: A Case Study

Figure 5
Fundamental
(60Hz) currents

The circuit numbers 1-48 correspond to the individual breaker poles in the main PDU panel
board as shown in the previous data chart. Therefore, “1, 2, 3 are multi-wire branch circuit #1
in the above analysis chart, i.e., A, B, and C phases respectively. This data shows that none
of the 16 three-phase multi-wire branch circuits are carrying balanced load.

Figure 6
% of phase
conductor rating
(16A)

This chart shows the branch circuit loads relative to the 16A conductor rating for each branch.
Once again there is no balance indicated for any of the three-phase multi-wire circuits and
the highest % load is ~ 55% on branch # 4 (CB #2- A Phase). The majority circuit loading is
under 30% of the conductor rating.

Schneider Electric – Data Center Science Center White Paper 38 Rev 1 8

 Harmonic Currents in the Data Center: A Case Study

Figure 7
Current % total
harmonic distortion

This chart is the analysis of the percent total harmonic distortion for the currents (% THDi) on
each branch circuit. This shows us that the majority of branch circuits are loaded with less
than 20% THDi. If we compare this to the previous charts we can see a pattern developing,
i.e., the loads with the highest THDi (circuits 21-33) have some of the lowest branch circuit
loading, i.e., ~ 10% or less of the circuit rating.

Schneider Electric – Data Center Science Center White Paper 38 Rev 1 9

 Harmonic Currents in the Data Center: A Case Study

Figure 8
Total circuit power
factor

This chart shows the total power factor of all branches. We can see that the majority load is
.95 or better and also has same pattern as the previous charts, i.e., lowest power factor is the
lightest loaded circuits. The overall power factor of the system will be higher than the
average of these power factors, because the data shows that the circuits with low power
factor also have low current, and therefore the circuits with low power factor make a low
contribution to the total reactive power.

Schneider Electric – Data Center Science Center White Paper 38 Rev 1 10

 Harmonic Currents in the Data Center: A Case Study

Figure 9
% of neutral rating
(20 A)

This is the key chart that summarizes the implications regarding the sizing of neutral wires.
The chart shows the neutral load current versus 20A branch rating for all 16 multi-wire branch
circuits. Legacy design guidelines would predict that these neutral currents would be as
much as 170% of rating, whereas the data shows actual currents in a real installation are on
the order of 20%. Furthermore, the dominant source of the observed neutral currents is
actually load imbalance between phases, and not harmonic currents. These results are
expected when an understanding of modern computer power supplies is applied to the
analysis, and they clearly show that the legacy approach of oversizing neutrals in this
application is unwarranted.

System phase loading in all branch circuits is under 60% and is under 20% for the majority of
the 48 branch circuits studied. The circuits with highest ITHD percentage exhibit the lowest
circuit loading. These same circuits also exhibit the lowest neutral currents and poorest
power factor. The reason for this is that they represent a very small fraction of the modern IT
data center load.

OneBeacon feeder circuit data analysis

In the chart below we see the effects of load diversity on the feeder circuit from the UPS to
PDU panel board. We also see there is harmonic current flowing on the neutral conductor.
But the neutral current is also ~41.7% of the lowest phase current (19.9/47.7 = .41719). The
feeder neutral in this case is a 1/0AWG conductor rated at 150 amperes. Therefore the %
load on the neutral is ~ 13.3% of its 150A rating (19.9/150 = .13266.). At the same time the
load power factor is very high, at .97-.98PF. Once again we see the positive load diversity
effects in the feeder, i.e., same as those seen in the branch circuit waveform of CB 1- A
Phase shown previously.

Feeder Harmonics Study at OneBeacon in Foxboro Massachussetts

Figure 10 UPS Harmonics % (current)

Output Phase Current Voltage PF DPF VA Watts %THD(I) 3rd 5th 7th 9th 11th 13th
Feeder circuit
Q2 A 47.7 120.4 0.98 0.99 5743 5628 11.7 11.2 1.4 2.5 16 18 0.8
data analysis B 52 120.5 0.98 0.98 6266 6141 13.6 13.1 1.3 2.7 0.8 1.2 0.7
C 49.2 120.6 0.97 0.98 5934 5756 14.4 13.5 2.5 3.5 1.3 1.2 0.7
N 19.9

Schneider Electric – Data Center Science Center White Paper 38 Rev 1 11

 Harmonic Currents in the Data Center: A Case Study

IT data center rack environment loads and K-Factor

The K-factor requirement for the system can be determined from the data measured at the
example site. The calculated K-factor for the feeder load at OneBeacon is K-1.25, i.e., using
the C Phase harmonic current values.

Legacy design guidelines would predict that the K-factor requirement would be as much as
21, whereas the data shows the actual K-factor requirement is approximately 1. These
results are expected when an understanding of modern computer power supplies is applied
to the analysis, and they clearly show that the legacy approach of specifying high K-factors of
15 or 21 in this application is unwarranted.

Conclusion The power characteristics of the modern IT data center rack environment are very different
from the computer room of the early 1980’s. Dramatic improvements in IT equipment power
factor and harmonics have lead to corresponding improvements in the overall system power
factor along with a large harmonic current reduction. Actual measurements of real systems
demonstrate these improvements. K-factor specifications of 15 or 21 drive unnecessary cost
when the actual K-factor of real installation is approximately 1. Neutral oversizing of 170% to
200% drives unnecessary costs when the actual neutral current is only 20% of circuit rating.
Legacy design practices and specifications for data center power systems should be updated
to reflect the actual requirements of modern data centers.

About the author

Neil Rasmussen is a Senior VP of Innovation for Schneider Electric. He establishes the
technology direction for the world’s largest R&D budget devoted to power, cooling, and rack
infrastructure for critical networks.

Neil holds 19 patents related to high-efficiency and high-density data center power and cooling
infrastructure, and has published over 50 white papers related to power and cooling systems,
many published in more than 10 languages, most recently with a focus on the improvement of
energy efficiency. He is an internationally recognized keynote speaker on the subject of high-
efficiency data centers. Neil is currently working to advance the science of high-efficiency,
high-density, scalable data center infrastructure solutions and is a principal architect of the APC
InfraStruXure system.

Prior to founding APC in 1981, Neil received his bachelors and masters degrees from MIT in
electrical engineering, where he did his thesis on the analysis of a 200MW power supply for a
tokamak fusion reactor. From 1979 to 1981 he worked at MIT Lincoln Laboratories on flywheel
energy storage systems and solar electric power systems.

Schneider Electric – Data Center Science Center White Paper 38 Rev 1 12

 Example VSD
(Variable Speed Drive)
Training department

VSD and Harmonics

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 1

Introduction

 Harmonic currents and voltages are generated by non-linear loads

connected on the power distribution system.

 Variable Speed Drives are non linear loads thus increase voltage distortion
by injecting harmonic currents into the main supply.

 Harmonic distortion is a form of pollution that can cause problems if it

increases above certain limits.

 Dedicated standards or guide lines specifies the limits.

 The international standard recommendation about power supply quality

are more and more requested for design of new installation.

 The purpose of this presentation is to explain what are harmonics and

their effects and how to limit them.

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 2

Summary

I. Generalities
II. The standards

III. Harmonics mitigation

IV. Line or DC chokes

V. Passive filters

VI. 12-18 pulses

VII. Active filters

VIII. C Less technology

IX. Synthesis

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 3

VSD and harmonics

I. Generalities
II. The standards

III. Harmonics mitigation

IV. Line or DC chokes

V. Passive filters

VI. 12-18 pulses

VII. Active filters

VIII. C Less technology

IX. Synthesis

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 4

Generalities

 The current absorbed by a Variable Speed Drive is not sinus, it's not a
linear load

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 5

Generalities

 Why the current absorbed by a Variable Speed Drive is not sinus ?

Ex for a single phase rectifier :

• In steady state the filtering capacitors are charged only on the peak of the supply voltage
• The current in a phase is a succession of impulses, corresponding to the reloading of the DC bus
capacitors on the peaks of the line voltage (voltage between phases).

DC bus voltage U

DC bus capacitor
current Ic

Supply voltage V

V  E Z I

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 6

Generalities

 Why the current absorbed by a Variable Speed Drive is not sinus ?

Ex for a 3 phase rectifier :

• The current impulses in the phase 1 correspond to the peak of the voltage between phases U12 and
U13, in the 2 directions. Each current impulse starts when the line voltage is higher than the voltage
at the capacitor terminals.

600

Vc
400 The current is almost in
U 13 U 12
phase with the simple
main voltage
So the Cos Phi is near
200
from 1
I main
0

V1
-200

-400

- Vc
-600
0.04s 0.05s 0.06s 0.07s 0.08s
18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 7
Generalities

 A periodic non-sinusoidal signal is equivalent to the sum of its sinusoidal

harmonics

h 
I RMS    I h2
h 1
The effective current is equal to
the square root of the sum of
the harmonics squared.

h 
  I h2
h 2
THD 
I1
Ratio of the r.m.s. value of the sum of
all the harmonic components up to a
specified order to the r.m.s. value of
the fundamental component .

I 22  I 32  I 42 ...  I n2
THD%  * 100
I1

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 8

Generalities

 Example of harmonics spectrum for a 3 phases and single phase supply

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 9

Generalities

 Harmonic row magnitude is depending on the rectifier technology

Supply 1 ph 3 ph

Pulses 4 6
THDI 98% 145%
Freq Row I RMS % 140 176
50 1 100 100
150 3 80
250 5 51 90
350 7 23 81
450 9 5
550 11 6 58
650 13 5 46
750 15 2
850 17 2,5 23
950 19 2 14
1050 21 1,2
1150 23 1,4 5
1250 25 1 5
1350 27 0,8
1450 29 0,9 6
1550 31 0,7 3,5
1650 33 0,5
1750 35 0,6 3
1850 37 0,4 2,2
1950 39 0,4
2050 41 0,4 2,4

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 10

Generalities

 The effective line current (RMS) is depending on the THD

• Higher is the distortion higher is the current absorbed

I RMS  I12  I 22  I32  ..I n2

Fundamental input RMS current

Cos
The power factor is

D depending on the THD.

1  THDi 2 The Cos  of a drive is

close to 1 but the power
factor is worse due to the
harmonic distortion

P  UI 3 * D

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 11

Generalities

 Voltage harmonics

• The current distortion generate voltage distortion (harmonics)

• The voltage harmonics are proportional to the current harmonics

• For each row the ohm law is apply Uhn  Z hn  I hn

– hn harmonic row

• So higher the supply impedance higher the voltage harmonics (THDu).

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 12

Generalities

 The main problems generated by harmonics

Onto the network :

• RMS current Higher => Overload of the transformer, wiring,

components …

• Main Voltage distortion => Perturbations to sensitive equipment

• Harmonic frequencies => Risks of resonance with capacitor bank for

power factor improvement

Into the VSD :

• RMS current and ripple higher => Overload of the rectifier bridge and
the drive capacitors

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 13

Generalities

 RMS current increasing overloads the transformer

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 14

Generalities

 Characterization of the supply

• The system short-circuit capacity is an indication of the fundamental frequency

system impedance at a point in the system.

U n2
Ssc 
• Short circuit power (Ssc) ZT

– Un nominal voltage of the supply Usc U 2

– Zt total impedance of the supply (transformer + cables) Zt  *
– Usc drop voltage in %
100 Sn

• Apparent nominal power of equipment (Sequ)

– Iequ RMS current absorbed by the equipment Sequ  Un  Iequ  3

• Short circuit ratio (Rsce)* Ssc Un

Rsce  
Sequ ZT  Iequ  3

I sc
* Rsce is define in IEC 61000-3-4 (-12) Rsce 
IEEE519 gives Isc/Iload in fact it's the same value IL

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 15

Generalities

 Transformer main characteristics

• Un=Rated sec voltage

Sn  Un * In * 3
• In=Rated sec current
• Isc=Short circuit current
• Zt=transformer impedance U n2
• X/R =Ratio inductive/resistive impedance (from 0.1 to 0.3) Ssc 
• Usc= primariry voltage for In when sec is in short circuit
ZT
• Sn= Rated power
• Ssc=Short circuit power In
I sc  100 *
Usc
 Cable impedance
Usc U 2
• = Cooper resistivity
Zt  *
100 Sn
• L= Cable length Zc  Xc 2  Rc2
• S= Cable section
L Zt  R 2  L2 2
Rc 
S
X L
Xc  8 * 103 * L * 
R R
• *Approximate value (50Hz) for cables >50mm2 under negligible

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 16

 Generalities

 Standard 400V transformer characteristics

Sn kVA Un V In A Usc % Rt mO L mH Xt mO Zt mO X/R Ssc kVA Isc A

100 400 144 6 37 0,316 99,1 105,8 2,7 1513 2406
160 400 231 6 18,6 0,202 63,5 66,2 3,4 2418 3849
200 400 289 6 14,1 0,162 51 52,9 3,6 3024 4811
250 400 361 6 10,7 0,131 41 42,4 3,8 3776 6014
315 400 455 6 8 0,104 32,6 33,6 4,1 4767 7578
400 400 577 6 6,1 0,082 25,8 26,5 4,2 6035 9623
500 400 722 6 4,6 0,066 20,7 21,2 4,5 7545 12028
630 400 909 6 3,5 0,052 16,4 16,8 4,7 9541 15155
800 400 1155 6 2,6 0,041 13 13,3 5,0 12069 19245
1000 400 1443 6 1,9 0,033 10,4 10,6 5,5 15134 24056
1250 400 1804 6 1,5 0,026 8,3 8,4 5,5 18970 30070
1600 410 2253 6 1,1 0,021 6,5 6,6 5,9 25499 37551
2000 400 2887 6 0,9 0,017 5,2 5,3 5,8 30318 48113

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 17

Generalities

 Point of Common Coupling "PCC" and short circuit ratio "Rsce"

• Within an installation, the PCC is defined as the connection point between the
non-linear load and other loads.

• In the standard the Total Harmonic Distortion limits are tabulated as function of
the short circuit ratio (Rsce) at PCC

Ssc I sc
Rsce  
SL IL
IL or Sl
Rsce is an image of
PCC the supply impedance

U n2
Ssc 
ZT

Rsce gives also an

Isc or Ssc at PCC information about the
ratio transformer size
/load

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 18

 Generalities

 Main factors having an influence on the harmonic distortion at PCC

PCC1*
Utility At PPC1 THDU
Short circuit current
Utility short circuit
 
current

Rated power
Transformer
(impedance)

Cable length
At PCC2 THDI THDU
PCC2*
Transformer size (Rsce)   
Cable length   
Linear loads/VSD kVA   
Technology VSD impedance   
VSD* of the VSD VSD rectifier pulses   
Linear Motor load   
loads

*VSD= Variable Speed Drive

Motor Motor % load
*PCC= Point of common coupling

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 19

Generalities

 Influence of short circuit ratio (source impedance) on the THDU

THDU decrease when

Rsce decrease

High system Low system

impedance impedance
Low KVA supply High KVA supply

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 20

Generalities

 Influence of short circuit ratio (source impedance) on the THDI

THDI increase when Rsce

decrease

High system Low system

impedance impedance
Low KVA supply High KVA supply

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 21

Generalities

 Influence of the motor load on THDI

THDI (%)
ATV71 3ph 22kW

140
THDI increase when With choke
motor load decrease
Without choke
120

100

80

60

40

20

0 Motor load
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 22

Generalities

 Influence of linear load on the THDI at PCC

• The THDI is calculated versus total load of the installation, means if there are
linear loads connected the resultant THDI decreases.

50
THDI decrease when
45 linear loads inrease

40
THDI at PCC %I

35
30
25
VSD with 3% choke
20
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ratio VSD load / Linear loads at PCC %

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 23

VSD and harmonics

I. Generalities
II. The standards

III. Harmonics mitigation

IV. Line or DC chokes

V. Passive filters

VI. 12-18 pulses

VII. Active filters

VIII. C Less technology

IX. Synthesis

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 24

 The standards

Generic
Standards and guidelines ...
or reference
standards

Based on generic standards

but adapted to Family of specific standards
application’s environment for processes and machines

Based on specific standards

but adapted to Products standards
application’s environment

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 25

The standards

 Two main standards apply for drives :

 IEC/EN 61800-3
• International standard for Power Drives Systems
• It refers to IEC 61000-3-2 , technical report IEC 61000-3-4 and IEC 61000-3-12

 IEEE 519
• Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical
Power Systems
• Us guide line

 In fact these are guide lines and recommendations are not mandatory but
many manufacturer and drive users refer to them.

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 26

IEC standards

 The countries of the CEE have agreed on common minimum regulatory

requirements in order to ensure the free movement of products within the
CEE

 The CE marking indicates that the product works in conformity with the
directives that are valid for the product.

 The directives state the principles that must be followed.

 Standards specify the requirements that must be met.

 EN61800-3 is the EMC product standard for Power Drive Systems* (PDS).

 Meeting the requirements of this standard, is the minimum condition for

free trade of power electronics converters inside the CEE.

• * The variable speed drives are included in PDS family

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 27

IEC standards

 EN61800-3 states, that manufacturer shall provide in the documentation of

the PDS, or on request, the current harmonic level, under rated conditions,
as a percentage of the rated fundamental line current.

 The current harmonic values shall be given at least up to the 40th row.

 For calculations, the PDS is connected to a supply with short circuit power
Rsce = 250 and with initial voltage distortion less than 1%.

 The internal impedance of the network shall be assumed to be a pure

reactance.

 The high-frequency component of the THD call PWHD shall be also given.

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 28

IEC standards

 Partial Weighted Harmonic Distortion PWHD.

 The PWHD gives an evaluation of the distortion in the high frequency

spectrum (over 14th row).

 A device can have a very low THD for the first rows but a lot of high
frequency distortion which is not good for certain installation.

2
 In 
PWHD  n 14 n 
40

 I1 

 For example the PWHD with DC inductance is worse than with AC inductance
and yet the THDI is quite the same.

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 29

IEC standards

 The standard IEC/EN 61800-3 defines 2 types of environments:

 1- The first environment is called « Domestic or Residential »

• The electrical power is furnished directly without an intermediate MV/LV
transformer.
• Low voltage public power network also powering domestic buildings :
– Cinemas, theaters ...
– Shopping centers …
– Art studios
– Eventually, hospitals.

 2- Second environment is called « Industrial »

• Other areas than those powered directly by the low voltage public distribution
network that also powers buildings for domestic use :
– Factories
– And all areas powered by a dedicated medium voltage/low voltage
transformer.

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 30

 IEC standards

 IEC/EN61800-3 refers to different standards function of power

• All those standards are applicable for the first environment “ residential “
• There is no standard for the 2nd environment “industrial”

• In fact users ask to respect them even for industrial network.

• In order to have no problem with the energy provider, they consider the all installation
(with transformers) is connected onto the public network.

Current harmonic levels required for VSD by IEC standard

Residential Industrial
directly connected onto the public network MV/LV transformer
Professional equipment Non professional equipment
I line VSD Standard THDI Rsce Standard THDI Rsce

<= 16A IEC 61000-3-12 <=48% >=120 IEC 61000-3-2 <5% NS no requirment

16A < I <= 75A IEC 61000-3-12 <=48% >=120 IEC 61000-3-12 <=48% >=120 no requirment

>=75A IEC 61000-3-4 <=48% >=350 IEC 61000-3-4 <=48% >=350 no requirment

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 31

IEC standards IEC 61000-3-2

 IEC61000-3-2 : Non professional equipment I <16A

• To conform to this standard the drive must be equipped with a specific filter,
inductors are not sufficient. The THDi must be less than 5%

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 32

IEC standards IEC 61000-3-2

 IEC61000-3-2 : Non professional equipment I <16A

• This standard is not easy to respect at reasonable cost for little variable speed
drive (the filter has the price of the drive).

• At the moment Telemecanique doesn't conform this standard even with option
filters

Always:

• If the drive is declared as professional equipment, which does not conform to the
standard IEC 61000-3-2 then : the recommendations of the standard IEC 61000-3-
12 apply

• In this case, the builder (STIE) must warn the user in the product notices :
“ The installation of this product can be done only with the authorization of the
public energy utility, because this product does not conform to the standard
IEC 61000-3-2 ”.

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 33

IEC standards IEC 61000-3-12

 IEC61000-3-12 : Professional equipment or not I >16A

• If the phase shift of the 5th harmonic of the line current with Up1

respect to the fundamental voltage has a value:

90° <  < 150° then the transformer losses are less. I5

• Consequently at equivalent Rsce the admissible THD with a 0

frequency converter is higher.
• Ex : the Rsce is reduced from 350 to 120 for a THD of 48%
compared to IEC61800-3-4 standard 5

- 180°

Table 4 –current emission limits for a balanced 3 phase distribution network

under specified conditions

Rsce minimum Level of harmonic rank Total admissible

In/I1*% Harmonic Distortion %
I5 I7 I11 I13 THD PWHD

33 10.7 7.2 3.1 2 13 22

 120 40 25 15 10 48 46
* I1 = reference fundamental current; In = harmonic current component.

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 34

IEC standards IEC 61000-3-4

 IEC 61000-3-4 : Professional equipment or not I >16A

This standard gives 3 cases for connection of the equipment and then 3 table
of THD limits :

• Stage 1: Simplified connection

The equipment can be connected at any point of the installation if Rsce <=33 (limits
table 1 apply)

• Stage 2: Connection based on network and equipment data.

The equipment not complying with the emission values of table 1, higher emission
values may be allowed, provided the short-circuit ratio Rsce is > 33 (limits table 2-3
apply)

• Stage 3: Connection based on the consumer’s agreed power.

If the conditions of neither stage 1 nor stage 2 are fulfilled, or if the input current of the
equipment exceeds 75 A, the supply authority may accept the connection of the
equipment on the basis of the agreed active power of the consumer’s installation.
The local requirements of the power supply authority apply in this case.

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 35

IEC standards IEC 61000-3-4

 Example of THDi limits table

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 36

IEC standards IEC 61000-3-4

 Example of THDi limits table

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 37

IEEE 519 guide line

 IEEE 519 Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic

Control in Electrical Power Systems

 The standard does not give limits for individual equipment, but for
individual customers.

 The philosophy is to limit the harmonic injection from individual

customers so that they will not cause unacceptable voltage distortion.

 This standard is also recognised as American National Standard and it is

widely used in the USA, especially in the municipal public works market.

 In fact it makes also reference in a lot of installation world wild

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 38

IEEE 519 guide line

 IEEE 519 addressed initially voltage distortion only

• 5% THD (voltage) is typical requirement for General System

Low-Voltage System Classification and Distortion Limits

Special General Dedicated

Applications1 System System2

THD (voltage) 3% 5% 10%

1 Special applications include hospitals and airports

2 A dedicated system is exclusively dedicated to the converter load

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 39

IEEE 519 guide line

 IEEE 519 THDI limits at PCC function of short circuit ratio Isc/IL

Current distortion limits per IEEE519 -1992

Maximum harmonic distortion in %

Harmonic rank
ISC/IL <11 11h<17 17h<23 23h<35 35h THD (I)
<20* 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20<50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100<1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0

Where:
ISC = Maximum short circuit current at the point of common connection(PCC).
IL = Maximum current drawn by the installation (fundamental) at PCC.

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 40

The standard conclusions

 The minimum required by standard for Variable Speed Drive is at least a

table with harmonic currents (in documentation or on requirement)

 There is no standard for industrial environment

 There is standard for equipment directly connected to the public network.

 This standard gives limits of drive contribution the installation THDU
 The THDU, to be evaluated, needs to know the impedance of the supply at
the PCC, generally a calculation tool is necessary.

 To have no trouble with the energy supplier, the customer generally consider
the all installation is connected to the public network (including
transformer).
 The customer voice is often to follow the standard requirements even for
industrial network.

 Telemecanique offer :
• Harmonic current available in the catalogues
• Different solutions for harmonic mitigation in accordance with the standards
• Tools for THDU evaluation of installation with drives.

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 41

VSD and harmonics

I. Generalities
II. The standards

III. Harmonics mitigation

IV. Line or DC chokes

V. Passive filters

VI. 12-18 pulses

VII. Active filters

VIII. C Less technology

IX. Synthesis

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 42

Harmonics mitigation

 Harmonics are harmful for many reason

• Both users and non linear load manufacturers have to limit them in order to
guaranty the quality of the energy of the network.

• Standards give recommendation in order to not pass the limit acceptable for
other equipment and the energy provider.

• Many solutions exist at level of the drive or for a all installation

• Harmonics reduction can be done either by structural modifications in the drive

system, installation design or by using external filtering.

• The best economical and technical choice need an analyze of the installation
some tools more or less evolved allows to do it.

• This section makes an overview of the main solutions

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 43

Harmonics mitigation

 The choice of a solution depends upon customer needs :

• Reducing input RMS current to an acceptable value (avoid oversizing)

• Minimize sensitive load perturbation by non linear load.
• Minimize the voltage distortion onto the public network side
• Meeting the standards guide lines IEEE519 or IEC is asked as a guaranty

 Different needs exist today depending upon sales channels

• Industrial user : the supplier can have influence with the end user
• As there is no drive standard for industrial network, the limits are a commitment
of best practice with eventually respect of guide lines .

• Commercial/Construction user : the solution is required by the consulting

engineer, specifier, contractor or utility

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 44

Harmonics mitigation

 There is many ways for harmonic mitigation

• Choosing loads with low level of harmonics

• Reducing harmonic currents of non linear loads

• Lowering harmonic impedance of the source

• Carefully choosing the installation structure

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 45

Harmonics mitigation

 There is many ways for harmonic mitigation

• Harmonic isolation with transformers

Public Plant
network MV network LV

sensitive
loads

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 46

Harmonics mitigation

 There is many ways for harmonic mitigation

• Active or passive filtering for a all installation

• PWM rectifier called active front end

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 47

Harmonics mitigation

 Element necessary for harmonics disturbance evaluation

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 48

Tools for harmonics calculation

 Harmcalc V4 developed by motion and drives

• Simple calculation oriented IEEE519
• Needs a minimum of information about the supply

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 49

Tools for harmonics calculation

 Harmcalc V4

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 50

Tools for harmonics calculation

 Harmcalc V4

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 51

VSD and harmonics

I. Generalities
II. The standards

III. Harmonics mitigation

IV. Line or DC chokes

V. Passive filters

VI. 12-18 pulses

VII. Active filters

VIII. C Less technology

IX. Synthesis

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 52

Line or DC chokes

 In order to smooth the current a choke can be placed upstream the

inverter 2 locations possible :

• In the DC bus
• Onto the main supply

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 53

Line or DC chokes

 Effect of the choke

Without additional choke With additional choke 3%

Line current spectrum

Line current spectrum

30
30
THDI = 150% 25,94
THDI = 40%
25,16 25
25 22,88
20,77
Irms = 45A Irms = 28A -60%
20
20

I (A)
15,32
I (A)

15
15
12,36
9,38
10 10
6,77
4,51 5
5 3,20
1,54 1,21 1,80
0,87 0,74 0,49 0,35 0,30
0 0
1

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25
1

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

Harmonic order Harmonic order

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 54

Line or DC chokes

 Effect of the choke

• The efficiency of the choke on harmonics is depending on its impedance

• Higher the impedance, lower the harmonic distortion
• But higher the impedance, higher the drop voltage

Z  R  L
L I ZI THD Motor Losses
voltage
     
     

ZI
Z% 
U sup

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 55

Line or DC chokes

 Influence of the inductance value on current harmonics

120%

100%
5
Harmonics levels

80%
7

11
60%
13
40%
17

19
20%
THD
0%
0,0% 1,0% 2,0% 3,0% 4,0% 5,0% 6,0%
Impedance Z%

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 56

Line or DC chokes

 Influence of the location of inductance

• In terms of harmonics, the THDI is a little less with DC chokes but the PWHD is
worse
• Inductance in the DC bus is a little smaller and the voltage drop is smaller.
• A line inductor protects the drive input bridge

Line inductor 3 x 1mH Inductor 2mH in the DC bus

THD = 39.16 % THD = 33.54 %

30
25,94
Irms = 28 A 30
Irms = 27 A
25,80
25 25

20 20
I (A)

I (A)

15 15

9,38
10 10
6,65
5 3,20 5 4,14
1,80 2,23
0,87 0,74 0,49 1,73 1,39 1,12
0,35 0,30 0,99 0,81
0 0
15
1

7
3

11

17

21

23
13

19

25

11

17
13

15

19

21

23

25
1

9
5

Harmonic order Harmonic order

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 57
Line or DC chokes

 Advantages  Disadvantage

• Most cost effective solution (0-20% • Bulky and heavy

of drive cost)
• Designed for full load capacity to
• 3%to 5%Z reduces Irms line near obtain effective impedance.
the level of I motor Ineffective at no load and oversized
conditions
• Reduce THDI around 50-30%
which is convenient in most of the • Difficult or impossible to meet the
common cases more demanding standard (5% THDI
IEEE519, IEC61000-3-2)
• Line chokes protects the drive
front end, limits voltage spikes • Voltage drop can affect low line
and short circuit current supply conditions. Lowers torque
performance at full speed
• Allows to optimize the size of the
rectifier bridge and the capacitors

• Weak risk of resonance with other

filters

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 58

Line or DC chokes

 ATVx1 VSD industrial offer strategy

Harmonic Ievel / total power installed

ATV11

ATV31

ATV71
ATV71

ATV71

15-18.5kW 75kW 500kW

THD <=48% according to IEC standards

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 59

VSD and harmonics

I. Generalities
II. The standards

III. Harmonics mitigation

IV. Line or DC chokes

V. Passive filters

VI. 12-18 pulses

VII. Active filters

VIII. C Less technology

IX. Synthesis

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 60

Passive filters

 When a simple inductance is not enough to meet the requirements (ex

THDI 5%) specific passive filters can be used.

 These filters >=2d order are a compound of Inductance, Capacitors,

Resistance.

Mainly 2 kinds of filter :

 The trap filter matched for 1 harmonic row :

• Generally used at the level of the installation after an harmonic expertise (Merlin
Gerin has a subsidiary specialized Rectiphase)

 The broad band filter able to lower harmonics on the all spectrum
• Can be put directly on the inputs of the variable speed drives
• Has to used if no global solution is possible

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 61

Passive filters

 The passive broadband filter effect

With simple choke THDI 48% With passive filter THDI 10%

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 62

Passive filters

 Passive filter THDI versus the IEEE519 requirements

16

10% f ilter
14
16% f ilter
ISC/IL <20
12
ISC/IL 20<50

10 ISC/IL 50<100
ISC/IL 100<1000
8 ISC/IL >1000

0
ISC/IL >1000
5
7
11 ISC/IL 50<100
13
17
19 ISC/IL <20
23
25
29
31 10% f ilter
35
37
41

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 63

Passive filters

 Passive filter THDI versus the load

10% filter
20 16% filter

15
THDI

10

0
45 55 65 78 90 100 125 150
Load pow er % 160

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 64

Passive filters

 Advantages  Disadvantage

• Allows to reach IEC and IEEE519 • Bulky and heavy

requirements by reducing THDI
around 5-16% • Expensive (50-80%drive cost)

• Line chokes protects the drive • Designed for full load capacity to
front end, limits voltage spikes obtain effective impedance.
and short circuit current Ineffective at no load

• Low voltage drop • Risk of resonance with other filters

or power factor correction capacitor
• High efficiency 99% bank

• Reliable

• Good EMC

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 65

Passive filters

 ATV61-71 Offer available

• Available for the all 380-480V range

• Nominal voltage 400V-50Hz or 460V-60Hz

• Working temperature :
– 5°C…40°C without derating
– 55°C with derating

• CE marking

• IP20

THDI for a THDU < 2% and Rsce > 66

Filter ATV71 ATV71 + inductance DC *
VW3A4601 - 17 (400V)
VW3A4641 - 55 (460V) <16% <10%
VW3A4621 - 37 (400V)
VW3A4661 - 73 (460V)
<10% <5%
* The inductance is delivered with the product from 90kW

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 66

VSD and harmonics

I. Generalities
II. The standards

III. Harmonics mitigation

IV. Line or DC chokes

V. Passive filters

VI. 12-18 pulses

VII. Active filters

VIII. C Less technology

IX. Synthesis

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 67

12-18 pulses VSD supply

 Harmonics can be reduced by phase multiplication.

 If n six-pulse rectifier sections

• have the same transformer ratios,
• have transformers with identical impedance's,
• are phase shifted exactly 60°/n degrees from each other,

 Then :

• 2 rectifier sections phase shifted by 30° result in 12-pulse row up H7 are slightly
reduced

• 3 rectifier sections phase shifted by 20° result in 18-pulse row up to H13are

slightly reduced

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 68

 12-18 pulses VSD supply

 12 pulses supply structure

Phase shifted by 30°

Delta
H5 and H7 attenuated 6 pulses
rectifier M

Inverter

6 pulses
rectifier
Star

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 69

12-18 pulses VSD supply

 18 pulses supply diagram (developed by square D)

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 70

12-18 pulses VSD supply

 18 pulses supply system (developed by square D)

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 71

12-18 pulses VSD supply

 6-12-18 pulses wave form comparaison

6 Pulse with L 12 Pulse 18 Pulse

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 72

Generalities

 Harmonic row magnitude is depending on the rectifier technology

+L

Predominate harmonics row are given by the relation :

hc = n * p +/-1
•n is an integer from 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
•p is number of pulses (or diodes) on the rectifier front end

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 73

12-18 pulses VSD supply

 Advantages  Disadvantage

• Eliminates rows up to h7,(12p), up • Very Bulky and heavy

to H13(18p)
• Expensive (100%drive cost)
• Reduces THD(I) down to
10-15%(12p), 5-3%(18p)
• Needs 2 or 3 diodes bridge

• 12p with L, 18p meet IEEE519

• Needs a specific transformer

• Suppresses line voltage transients

• Interesting for high power PDS
(>200kW)
• Good EMC

• Efficient on the all load range

• Very used on US market

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VSD and harmonics

I. Generalities
II. The standards

III. Harmonics mitigation

IV. Line or DC chokes

V. Passive filters

VI. 12-18 pulses

VII. Active filters

VIII. C Less technology

IX. Synthesis

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 75

Active Filters

 The more efficient solution is the active filtering

 It's cost make it rather dedicated for very severe requirements (THD<5%)

There are mainly 2 kind of filter :

 Active front end rectifier

 Active anti harmonic filter *

• see CT153 for more

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Active Filters

 Active front end

 The solution use an active rectifier bridge made with IGBT (in fact an
inverter) instead of the standard 6 diodes rectifier.
 The rectifier is controlled in order to absorb a sinus current onto the
network (THDI <5%)
 It has the advantage to be reversible and allows to feedback energy onto
the network when the PDS is generator (slow down or braking phase).

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 77

Active Filters

 Active front end

+L

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Active Filters

 Active front end

 Advantages  Disadvantage

• Nearly sinus supply (THD<5%) • Very expensive if reversibility not

needed (150%drive cost)
• Reversible, allows to feedback
energy onto the network • Bad EMC (chopper generate
perturbation)
• Can be embedded in the drive
• Reliability (IGBT, more components)

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Active Filters

 Active filter

 The solution makes harmonic analyse (feedback by current transformer)

and a current generator
 The generator send to the network the opposite harmonic current in order
to compensate the harmonics generated by the PDS.

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Active Filters

 Active filter

+ =

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Active Filters

 Active filter

 Advantages  Disadvantage

• reduces THD(I) below 5% • Expensive (150%drive cost)

• easy to use • Compatibility with other kinds of

filters
• several units can be installed on
the same supply • Reliability (more components)

• More adapted for a global solution

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 82

VSD and harmonics

I. Generalities
II. The standards

III. Harmonics mitigation

IV. Line or DC chokes

V. Passive filters

VI. 12-18 pulses

VII. Active filters

VIII. C Less technology

IX. Synthesis

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 83

C Less technology

 Principle of ATV21 C-less Technology

• A DC capacitance link provides voltage to the inverter between the peaks of the mains voltage
waveform.
• Current only flows from the mains into the DC link when the mains voltage exceeds that of the
capacitor. Current only flows when the mains voltage is near its peak, as shown.
• The larger the DC link capacitor, the shorter the period of current flow, and the higher the
peak current.

V Single or +
Three
Phase Power C C

Current
-
Rectifier D C Link Inverter

A non demanding load like a fan allows 95%

reduction of the DC bus capacitance without
significant reduction of performances.

Less capacitance --> less current harmonics

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 C Less technology

 Principle of C-less Technology

Example of input currents without filtering

on a standard 3ph 6 pulse AC drive
Current spikes due to capacitors charge
THID = 100% in this example

Low THDI but

Almost pure rectifier input current waveform DC bus and
with C-Less technology output
current ripple
THID = 30%

Typical input current with 3% Line Reactor

on a standard 3ph 6 pulse AC drive
THID = 45%

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C Less technology

 Advantages  Disadvantage

• Reduces THD(I) below 30%without • Only for Fan-Pump non demanding

added filter applications (HVAC)

• Meet IEC 61000 requirements • More DC bus ripple so more torque

ripple.
• Lowest cost for harmonic
mitigation • More sensitive to network voltage
drop and perturbation
• Reduce also drive volume

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 86

VSD and harmonics

I. Generalities
II. The standards

III. Harmonics mitigation

IV. Line or DC chokes

V. Passive filters

VI. 12-18 pulses

VII. Active filters

VIII. C Less technology

IX. Synthesis

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 87

 Solutions comparison

 Comparaison between harmonic mitigation solutions at drive level

Choke Passive 12-18 Active Active

Mitigation solutions Nothing C less
3% -5% filter pulses front end filter

Current distortion THDI >80% <48% <5%-16% <30% <5%-10% <5% <5%

Meet IEEE519 gen. app. no to be evaluated yes to be evaluated yes (18p) yes yes
Meet IEC 61000 3-12 no yes yes yes yes yes yes
Meet IEC 61000 3-2 no no no no no yes yes

Drop voltage no yes no no no no no

Power factor no/full load <0,8 0.75-0.95 0.75-1 0.95 0.90-0.99 0.8-1 0.90-0.99
Load influence on THDI no yes yes no no no no
Efficiency 100% 97% 98% 100% 96% 96% 96%
Reliabilty High High Good Good Medium Medium Medium
EMC Poor Good Good Medium Good Poor Medium
Influence on VSD perf. no weak no Strong no no no
Resonace risk no weak yes no no no no

Cost effective very good good <100kW very good >200kW If regen needed for installation
Price ratio /drive cost 100% 110%-120% 150%-200% 95% 200%-250% 250% 250%
Foot print ration/drive 100% 120% 200% 100% 350% 150%-200% 300%-500%

ATV >75kW ATV21 MG

Offer ATV <75kW ATV option Square D US
<75kW option fan/pump only Accusine

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 V – Conclusions

 Cost comparison between harmonic mitigation solutions at drive level

Harmonic Mitigation - Cost / Performance Comparison

Cost/VSD price

300
5
250 5-10

200
5-16
THDI
150 %
35-48
60-130 30-35
100

50

0
6 Pulse Drive C-Less DC chokes Passive Filters Multi-Pulse Active
AC chokes 12p, 18p Filters

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 89

Summary

 Market trends

• The more used solution at VSD level is line or DC choke.

• It is the best compromise Cost/Efficiency and it is in accordance with the
industrial best practices.

• For VSD there is no standard THD limits for industrial sector.

• However some industry segments are more focused on harmonics mitigation

than others and require compliance with IEEE or IEC.
• These standards guidelines address the harmonic distortion at distribution
system level, however some customers require to comply at the drive level.
• In this case a line reactor alone may not provide the solution.

• In this case we suggest to use passive filter or a global passive or active solution
for the all installation

• Some competitors pushes active front end in standard VSD (ABB) but the
overcost is not justified if regenerative mode is not necessary (95% of the
cases).
• We prefer a targeted approach with a wide offer of options.

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Conclusion

 Harmonic pollution is more and more taken in account in installation

design, standard compliance become the rule.

 A cost efficient solution needs a minimum knowledge of the installation

and it is often a combination of several solutions

 Standard guide lines help to determines the limits

 The VSD manufacturer must help and lead the customer in harmonic
mitigation

 Telemecanique offers a wide range of solutions for VSD, documentation,

tools and experience

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VSD and harmonics

uestions and Answers

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 92

 VSD and harmonics

Thanks
for your attention

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 93

Exercices

 ATV71HD45N4 45 kW 400V, 3ph

• Calculate the THDI
• I1 = 76A, Ih5 = 68%, Ih7=45%, Ih11=9%, Ih13=5%

• Calculate I line RMS

• Calculate the rated power absorbed (Cos Phi=0,98)

• Calculate the THDU at PCC with transformer supply

• 100kVA, and 630kVA see table slide 17

• Make the calculation for VSD with DC choke (Cos Phi=0,95)

• I1 = 76A, Ih5 = 38%, Ih7=24%, Ih11=8%, Ih13=6%

• The THDI with a choke is 45% for Rsce (Isc/Il) =120 and Isc max=22kA
• Calculate the minimum transformer power corresponding

• The maximum short circuit current of the drive is 22kA what is the maximum
transformer power possible

• Use Excel for calculation

18/01/2017 Bertrand Guarinos STIE VSD and harmonics V3 Summary 94

Summary