Course : ME22088 VIBRATION AND NOISE CONTROL

Unit 5_1 Vibration Measuring Devices

Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
 Unit 5 Syllabus
MEASUREMENTS AND CONTROL OF VIBRATIONS

• Vibration Measuring Devices: Transducers, vibration pickups

• Vibration exciters: mechanical, hydraulic
• Frequency measuring instruments: single reed, multi reed and stroboscope.
• Experimental modal analysis- FFT analyzers
• Vibration control methods and devices- isolators, absorbers and balancing

CO 5: At the end of the course, learners will be able to:

Advocate suitable methods for measuring and controlling the motions of
mechanical systems.
 Video Outline
Vibration Measuring Devices: Transducers

Introduction
Transducers

3
 Introduction
Why we need to measure vibrations:
To detect shifts in ωn which indicates possible failure
To select operational speeds to avoid resonance
Measured values may be different from theoretical values
To design active vibration isolation systems
To identify mass, stiffness and damping of a system
To verify the approximated model

4
 Introduction
Type of vibration measuring instrument used
will depend on:
Expected range of frequencies and amplitudes
Size of machine/structure involved
Conditions of operation of the machine/structure
Type of data processing used

5
 Transducers
• A device that transforms values of physical variables
into electrical signals

• Following slides show some common transducers for

measuring vibration

6
 Transducers
Variable Resistance Transducers
Mechanical motion changes electrical resistance, which cause
a change in voltage or current
Strain gage is a fine wire bonded to surface where strain is to
be measured.

7
 Transducers
Variable Resistance Transducers
Surface and wire both undergo same strain.
Resulting change in wire resistance:
where K = Gage factor of the wire R / R r L
K= = 1 + 2v +  1 + 2v
R = Initial resistance L / L r L
ΔR = Change in resistance
L = Initial length of wire
ΔL = Change in length of wire
v = Poisson’s ratio of the wire
r = Resistivity of the wire
Δr = Change in resistivity of the wire ≈ 0 for Advance

8
 Transducers
Variable Resistance Transducers
Strain:  = L = R
L RK
The following figure
shows a vibration pickup:

9 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 Transducers
Variable Resistance Transducers
ΔR can be measured using a Wheatstone bridge as shown:
 R1 R3 − R2 R4 
E= V
(
 1 R + R2 )( R3 + R )
4 

10 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 Transducers
Variable Resistance Transducers

Initially, resistances are adjusted so that E=0

R1R3 = R2R4
When Ri change by ΔRi,

 R R R R  R1 R2 R3 R4
E  Vr0  1 − 2 + 3 − 4  where r0 = =
 R1 R2 R3 R4  (R1 + R2 ) (R3 + R4 )2
2

11
 Transducers
Variable Resistance Transducers
If the leads are connected between pts a and b,
R1=Rg, ΔR1,= ΔRg, ΔR2= ΔR3= ΔR4=0
Rg E
= = K or E = KVr0
Rg Vr0

where Rg is the initial resistance of the gauge.

Hence E can be calibrated to read ε directly.

12
 Transducers
Piezoelectric Transducers
Certain materials generate electrical charge when subjected to
deformation or stress.

Charge generated due to force: 𝑄𝑥 = 𝑘𝐹𝑥 = 𝑘𝐴𝑝𝑥

where k =piezoelectric constant

A =area on which Fx acts
px =pressure due to Fx.

13 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 Transducers
Piezoelectric Transducers
E= v t px
v = voltage sensitivity
t = thickness of crystal
px =pressure due to Fx.
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐴𝑝𝑥

A piezoelectric accelerometer is shown.

Output voltage proportional to acceleration

14
 Transducers
Example Problem :1
Output Voltage of a Piezoelectric Transducer
A quartz crystal having a thickness of 2.5mm is subjected to a pressure of
50psi. Find the output voltage if the voltage sensitivity is 0.055 V-m/N.
Solution px​=50psi.
E = v t px We need to convert this to Pascals (N/m²) to
match the units of voltage sensitivity.
=(0.055)(0.00254)(344738)
1 psi is approximately equal to 6894.76 Pascals.
= 47.4015V Therefore,
px ​= 50 × 6894.76 Pa
= 344738 N/m².

15
 Transducers
Electrodynamic Transducers
Voltage E is generated when the coil moves in a magnetic field as
shown.
E F
E=Dlv Dl = =
v I

where D = magnetic flux density

l = length of conductor
v = velocity of conductor relative
to magnetic field

16
 Transducers
Linear Variable Differential Transformer Transducer
➢ Output voltage depends on the axial displacement of the core.
➢ Insensitive to temp and high output.

17
Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
Course : ME22088 VIBRATION AND NOISE CONTROL

Unit 5_2 Vibration Pickups

Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
 Vibration Pickups
Most common pickups are seismic instruments as shown
Bottom ends of spring and dashpot have same motion as the cage
Vibration will excite the suspended mass
Displacement of mass relative to cage:
z=x–y

2
 Vibration Pickups
z=x–y
Y(t) = Ysinωt
Equation of motion of mass m:
mx + c(x + y ) + k (x + y ) = 0 or
mz + cz + kz = −my
 mz + cz + kz = m 2Y sin t
Steady-state solution:
z (t ) = Z sin(t −  )

3
 Vibration Pickups

𝑌𝜔2
𝑍=
𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2 2 + 𝑐 2𝜔2
𝑟2𝑌
=
1 − 𝑟2 2 + 2𝜁𝑟 2

𝜔 𝑐
𝑟= , 𝜁=
𝜔𝑛 2𝑚𝜔𝑛

4
Vibration Pickups

𝑐𝜔
𝜑 = tan−1
𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2
2𝜁𝑟
= tan−1
1 − 𝑟2

𝜔 𝑐
𝑟= , 𝜁=
𝜔𝑛 2𝑚𝜔𝑛
 Vibration Pickups
Vibrometer
Measures displacement of a vibrating body

Z/Y ≈ 1 when ω/ωn ≥ 3 (range II)

r2
z (t )  Y sin(t −  ) if 1
(1 − r ) + (2r )
2 2 2

In practice Z may not be equal to Y as r may not be large, to prevent

the equipment from getting bulky

6
 Vibration Pickups
Example Problem Amplitude by Vibrometer
A vibrometer having a natural frequency of 4 rad/s and ζ = 0.2 is attached to a
structure that performs a harmonic motion. If the difference between the
maximum and the minimum recorded values is 8 mm, find the amplitude of motion
of the vibrating structure when its frequency is 40 rad/s.
Let's break down the solution step-by-step:
1.Identify the given parameters:
1. Natural frequency, ωn​ = 4 rad/s
2. Damping ratio, ζ = 0.2
3. Frequency of the vibrating structure, ω = 40 rad/s
4. The difference between the maximum and minimum recorded values is 8mm. This
difference represents 2Z, where Z is the amplitude of the relative displacement.
Therefore, 2Z = 8 mm, and Z = 4 mm.
7
 Vibration Pickups
Amplitude by Vibrometer
Solution
Calculate the frequency ratio: 𝑟2𝑌
𝑍=
1 − 𝑟2 2 + 2𝜁𝑟 2

Amplitude of recorded motion:

Y (10)
2
Z= = 1.0093Y = 4 mm
(1 − 10 ) + 2(0.2)(10)
2 2 2

Amplitude of vibration of structure:

Y = Z/1.0093
= 3.9631 mm
8
 Vibration Pickups
Vibrometer
Measures acceleration of a vibrating body.

− Y 2 sin(t −  )
− z (t ) =
2

(1 − r ) + (2r )
n
2 2 2

1
If  1,
(1 − r ) + (2r )
2 2 2

 − z (t )n2  −Y 2 sin(t −  )

9
Vibrometer 1
0.96   1.04 for 0  r  0.6
If 0.65< ζ < 0.7,
(1 − r ) + (2r )
2 2 2

Accelerometers are preferred due their small size.

10
Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
 Course : ME22088 VIBRATION AND NOISE CONTROL

Unit 5_3 Design of Vibration Pickups

Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
 Design of an Accelerometer

Measures velocity of vibrating body: y (t ) = Y cost

Velocity:
r 2Y
z(t ) = cos(t −  )
(1 − r ) + (2r )
2 2 2

r2
If  1, then
(1 − r ) + (2r )
2 2 2

z(t )  Y cos(t −  )
2
Design of an Accelerometer
An accelerometer has a suspended mass of 0.01 kg with a damped
natural frequency of vibration of 150 Hz. When mounted on an engine
undergoing an acceleration of 1 g at an operating speed of 6000 rpm,
the acceleration is recorded as 9.5 m/s2 by the instrument. Find the
damping constant and the spring stiffness of the accelerometer.

3
 Design of an Accelerometer
Solution 1
=
Measured value 9.5
= = 0.9684
(1 − r ) + (2r )
2 2 2 True value 9.81

or (1 − r ) + (2r ) = (1 / 0.9684)
2 2 2 2
= 1.0663 (E.1)
6000(2 )
Operating speed  = = 628.32 rad/s
60
d = 1 −  2 n = 150(2 ) = 942.48 rad/s
  r 628.32
Thus = = = = 0.6667
d 1 −  n
2
1−  2 942.48

(
 r = 0.6667 1 −  2 or r 2 = 0.4444 1 −  2 ) (E.2)

4
 Design of an Accelerometer
Solution
Substitute (E.2) into (E.1): 1.5801ζ4 – 2.2714ζ2 + 0.7576 = 0
Solution gives ζ2 = 0.7253, 0.9547
Choosing ζ= 0.7253 arbitrarily, d 942.48
n = = = 1368.8889 rad/s
1−  2
1 − 0.72532

k = mn2 = (0.01)(1368.8889) = 18738.5628 N/m

2

Damping constant
c = 2mn = 2(0.01)(1368.8889)(0.7253)
= 19.8571 N - s/m

5
Design of a Velometer
•Design a velometer if the maximum error is to be limited to 1%
of the true velocity. The natural frequency of the velometer is to
be 80Hz and the suspended mass is to be 0.05 kg.

r 2Y
z(t ) = cos(t −  )
(1 − r ) + (2r )
2 2 2

r2 Recorded velocity
R= = (E.1)
(1 − r ) + (2r )
2 2 2 True velocity

6
 Design of a Velometer
Solution
r 2Y
z(t ) = cos(t −  )
We have
(1 − r ) + (2r )
2 2 2

r2 Recorded velocity
R= = (E.1)
(1 − r ) + (2r )
2 2 2 True velocity
Substitute (E.2) into (E.1),
1  1 
Maximum r = r  = (E.2)  
2 
1 − 2 2  1 − 2  =R
2
  1   1 
1 −   + 4 2 
2 

2 
  1 − 2   1 − 2 
1
 =R
4 − 4
2 4

7
 Design of a Velometer
Solution
1
=𝑅 ⇒ =𝑅
4𝜁 2 − 4𝜁 4

R = 1.01 or 0.99 for 1% error

ζ4 – ζ2 + 0.245075 = 0
ζ4 – ζ2+ 0.255075=0
ζ2 = 0.570178, 0.429821 or
ζ = 0.755101, 0.655607

8
Solution
Choosing ζ = 0.755101 arbitrarily,

n = 80(2 ) = 502.656 rad/s

k = m = (0.05)(502.656) = 12633.1527 N/m
2 2
n

c = 2 n m = 2(0.755101)(502.656)(0.05)
= 37.9556 N - s/m

9
 Vibration Pickups
Phase Distortion
All vibrating-measuring instruments have phase lag.
If the vibration consists of 2 or more harmonic components, the
recorded graph will not give an accurate picture – phase distortion
Consider vibration signal of the form as shown:

10
 Vibration Pickups
Phase Distortion
Let phase shift = 90° for first harmonic
Let phase shift = 180° for third harmonic
Corresponding time lags: t1= 90°/ω, t2 = 180°/ω
Output signal is as shown:

11 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 Vibration Pickups
Phase Distortion
In general, let the complex wave be
y(t) = a1sinωt + a2sin2ωt + …
Output of vibrometer becomes:
z(t) = a1sin(ωt – Φ1) + a2sin(2ωt – Φ2) + …

where   
2  j 
 n 
tan  j = 2
, j = 1,2,...
  
1 −  j 
 n 
12 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 Vibration Pickups
Phase Distortion
Φj ≈ π since ω/ωn is large.
z(t) ≈ – [a1sinωt + a2sin2ωt + …] ≈ -y(t)
Thus, the output record can be easily corrected.

Similarly, we can show that output of velometer is z(t )  − y (t )

Accelerometer: Let the acceleration curve be
y(t )  −a1 2 sin t − a2 (2 )2 sin 2t − 

Output of accelerometer: z(t )  −a1 2 sin(t − 1 ) − a2 (2 )2 sin(2t − 2 ) − 

13
 Vibration Pickups
Phase Distortion
Since Φ varies almost linearly from 0° to 90° for ζ = 0.7,
Φ ≈ αr = α(ω/ωn) = βω; where α and β are constants.

 
Time lag t = = = is independent of frequency.
 

−  2 z(t )  −a1 2 sin(t −  ) − a2 (2 ) sin(2t − 2 ) − 

2

= −a1 2 sin  − a2 (2 ) sin 2 −  where  = t − 

2

Thus, output of accelerometer represents the true acceleration being

measured.

14
Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
Course : ME22088 VIBRATION AND NOISE CONTROL
Unit 5_4 Frequency-Measuring Instruments

Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
 Frequency-Measuring Instruments
Single-reed instrument or Fullarton Tachometer
➢ Consists of a variable-length cantilever strip with an
attached mass.
➢ Strip is marked with frequencies corresponding to its
length.
➢ Usage: Clamped end pressed against vibrating body;
screw adjusted until maximum vibration amplitude is
observed.
➢ Screw mechanism adjusts free length, altering its
natural frequency.
➢ Key principle: Natural frequency of the reed matches
excitation frequency, allowing direct frequency reading.
 Frequency-Measuring Instruments
Multi-reed Instrument or Frahm Tachometer
➢ Comprises multiple cantilevered reeds, each with
a unique natural frequency.
➢ Covers a wide frequency range due to multiple
reeds.
➢ Usage: Instrument mounted on vibrating body;
reed vibrating at largest amplitude has frequency
closest to the body's unknown frequency.
➢ Small masses attached to reed ends; each reed
marked with its frequency.
➢ Key principle: The vibrating body's frequency is
determined by the known frequency of the most
active reed.
 Frequency-Measuring Instruments
Stroboscope ➢ Used to observe rotating or vibrating objects.
➢ Object appears stationary when light pulse
frequency matches its movement.
➢ Produces intermittent light pulses with
adjustable frequency.
➢ Key advantage: Non-contact measurement of
frequency.
➢ Limitations: Lower frequency measurement limit
is approximately 15 Hz, restricted by human
vision persistence.
Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
 Course : ME22088 VIBRATION AND NOISE CONTROL

Unit 5_5 Vibration Exciters: Mechanical and Hydraulic

Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
Vibration Exciters: Principles and Applications
Understanding the Tools of Vibration Testing

➢ Vibration exciters, also known as shakers, are essential tools used in various
engineering applications.
➢ Their primary functions include determining the dynamic characteristics of machines
and structures and conducting fatigue testing of materials.
➢ This presentation will cover the fundamental principles and operational mechanisms
of different types of vibration exciters,
➢ with a focus on mechanical and electrodynamic exciters.
 Introduction to Vibration Exciters
What are Vibration Exciters?

❑ Vibration exciters are devices designed to impart controlled oscillatory motion or force
to a test object.
❑ This controlled excitation allows engineers to analyze how a structure or material
responds to dynamic loads, simulating real-world vibration environments.
❑ Vibration exciters come in various forms, including mechanical, electromagnetic,
electrodynamic, and hydraulic types, each suited for specific applications and
force/frequency requirements.
 Mechanical Exciters - Scotch Yoke Mechanism

•The Scotch yoke mechanism is a classic example of a

mechanical exciter used to generate harmonic
vibrations.
•It converts rotary motion into linear sinusoidal
motion.
•The crank of the mechanism, driven by a motor (either
constant- or variable-speed), dictates the frequency and
amplitude of the vibration.

Force can be applied as an elastic

spring force for frequency <30 Hz
and loads <700N
Vibration of a structure through (a) an inertia force

•The harmonic force produced can be applied

to a structure either as an inertia force or as an
elastic spring force.
•These types of exciters are typically employed
for lower-frequency applications and lighter
load requirements.
 Vibration of a structure through (b) an elastic spring force

➢ the rotating motion of the crank is

converted into a sinusoidal vertical force
applied to the structure via the spring.

This setup allows for the excitation of the

structure (in this case, the airplane wing) with
a controlled harmonic force at a specific
frequency (determined by the rotational speed
'ω' of the crank).

According to Hooke's Law,

❑ the spring force is F=kx,
❑ where 'k' is the spring stiffness and 'x' is the displacement.
❑ Since the displacement is x(t)=rsinωt,
❑ the force applied to the wing by the spring is F(t)=krsinωt.
 Mechanical Exciters: Utilizing Unbalanced Force
The unbalance created by two masses rotating at the same
speed in opposite directions can be used as a mechanical exciter.
➢ Two identical masses rotating at the same speed in opposite
directions produce a net vertical force while the horizontal
components cancel each other.
➢ This arrangement can generate relatively large forces,
making it suitable for testing heavier structures.
➢ The magnitude of the vertical force is given by the equation:
F(t)=2mRω2cos ωt , where 'm' is the mass, 'R' is the radius of
rotation, and 'ω' is the angular velocity.

Generates large vertical forces (250 N to 25,000 N)

7
 Electrodynamic Shakers - Principle of Operation
The electrodynamic shaker can be considered as the reverse of an electrodynamic
transducer.
➢ When an electric current flows through a coil
placed in a magnetic field, it produces a force
that is proportional to the current, the magnetic
flux intensity, and the length of the coil within
the magnetic field.

➢ This force is used to accelerate the shaker table,

upon which the test object is mounted.

➢ F=Dll , where D is the magnetic flux intensity, l is

the length of the coil, and I is the current.

8
 Electrodynamic Shakers - Design and Characteristics

➢ Electrodynamic shakers employ a moving element (including the coil and table)
suspended by a flexible support to ensure linear motion.
➢ Small shakers use permanent magnets to generate the magnetic field,
while larger shakers utilize electromagnets.
➢ The acceleration of the table is determined by the maximum current and the masses of
the test component and the shaker's moving element.
➢ The nature of the input current dictates the output force: AC current produces a
harmonically varying force, while DC current generates a constant force.
➢ Acceleration depends on current and masses
Electrodynamic Shakers - Frequency Range and Applications

Electrodynamic shakers exhibit two resonant frequencies:

one associated with the flexible support and the other with the moving element.

➢ The effective operating frequency range

lies between these two resonant
frequencies.
➢ These shakers are capable of
• generating forces up to 30,000 N,
• displacements up to 25 mm, and
• frequencies ranging from
5 Hz to 20 kHz.
➢ They are widely used in various
vibration testing applications due to
their versatility and controllability.
Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
 Course : ME22088 VIBRATION AND NOISE CONTROL

Unit 5_6 Experimental Modal Analysis

Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
 Experimental Modal Analysis EMA
Why is this so important?

In the real world, structures are often far more complex than our idealized mathematical
models. Things like material damping, complex geometries, and boundary conditions can
be difficult to accurately represent theoretically. EMA allows us to directly measure these
properties. This information is crucial for a variety of applications, such as:"
•"Troubleshooting vibration problems: If a machine is experiencing excessive vibration or
noise, EMA can help pinpoint the source and identify the specific modes that are being
excited."
•"Validating and improving analytical models: The experimental data obtained through
EMA can be used to refine and improve the accuracy of our finite element models, for
instance."
 Experimental Modal Analysis

Why is this so important?

•"Structural health monitoring: By periodically performing EMA, we can detect

changes in a structure's modal properties, which might indicate damage or degradation
over time – think about bridges or aircraft.“

•"Designing for vibration and noise control: Understanding the natural frequencies and
mode shapes of a structure early in the design process allows engineers to make
informed decisions to minimize unwanted vibrations and noise."
 Dynamic Testing of Machines and Structures

Involves finding the deformation of machines/structures at a critical

frequency

Approaches:
Operational Deflection Shape measurements
Modal Testing

4
 Dynamic Testing of Machines and Structures
Using Operational Deflection Shape Measurements

Forced dynamic deflection shape measured under

steady-state frequency of system.

Valid only for forces/frequency associated with operating

conditions.

If a particular location has excessive deflection, we can

stiffen that location.
5 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 Dynamic Testing of Machines and Structures
Modal Testing

Any dynamic response of a machine/structure can be

obtained as a combination of its modes.

Knowledge of the mode shapes, modal frequencies and

modal damping ratio will describe completely the machine
dynamics.

6 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 Experimental Modal Analysis
When a system is excited, its response exhibits a sharp peak at
resonance
Phase of response changes by 180°as forcing frequency crosses
the natural frequency

Equipment needed:
Exciter to apply known input force
Transducer to convert physical motion into electrical signal
Signal conditioning amplifier
Analyzer with suitable software
7
 Experimental Modal Analysis
Necessary Equipment
Exciter
➢ Can be an electromagnetic shaker or impact hammer
➢ Shaker is attached to the structure through a stringer, to control the
direction of the force
➢ Impact hammer is a hammer with built-in force transducer in its head
➢ Portable, inexpensive and much faster to use than a shaker
➢ But often cannot impart sufficient energy and difficult to control
direction of applied force

8 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 Experimental Modal Analysis
Necessary Equipment
Transducer
➢ Piezoelectric transducers most popular
➢ Strain gauges can also be used
Signal conditioner
➢ Outgoing impedance of tranducers not suitable for direct input into
analyzers.
➢ Charge or voltage amplifiers are used to match and amplify the signals
before analysis

9
 Experimental Modal Analysis
Necessary Equipment

Analyzer
➢ FFT analyzer commonly used

➢ Analyzed signals used to find natural frequencies,

damping ratios and mode shapes

10
 Experimental Modal Analysis
General arrangement for experimental modal analysis:

11
Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
 Course : ME22088 VIBRATION AND NOISE CONTROL

Unit 5_7 Experimental Modal Analysis:

Signal Analysis
Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
 Experimental Modal Analysis
Digital Signal Processing
x(t) represents analog signal, xi = x(ti) represents corresponding
digital record.

2
 Experimental Modal Analysis
Digital Signal Processing

a0 N / 2  2it j  2it j
We have x j = x(t j ) = +   ai cos ; j = 1,2,, N
+ bi sin
2 i =1  T  T
1 N 1 N 2it j 1 N 2it j
where a0 =  x j , ai =  x j cos , bi =  x j sin
N j =1 N j =1 T N j =1 T

N is fixed for a given analyzer, and equations can be expressed as

  
d = A X where X = x1 x2  xN  ,
−1 T


d = a0 a1a2  a N / 2b1b1 bN / 2 
T

3
 Experimental Modal Analysis
Analysis of Random Signals
Input and output data usually contain random noise.

If x(t) is random signal, its average is

1
x (t ) = lim  x(t )dt
T

T → T 0

 x(t )
N
1
For digital signal, x = lim j
N → N j =1

4
 Experimental Modal Analysis
Analysis of Random Signals
Define a new variable x(t) as x(t ) = y(t ) − y (t )

Mean square value

1 T 2
x 2 (t ) = lim  x (t )dt
T → T 0

 x (t )
N
1
For digital signal, x = lim
2
j
N → N j =1

Root mean square value xRMS = x 2

5
 Experimental Modal Analysis
Analysis of Random Signals
Autocorrelation function
1 T
R(t ) = x = lim  x( )x( + t )d
2
T → T 0

1 N −n
For digital signal, R(n, t ) =  x j x j +n
N − n j =0

6 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 Experimental Modal Analysis
Analysis of Random Signals
1 
Power spectral density (PSD): S ( ) =  R( )e −i  d
2 −

x( )
2

Digital form : S ( ) =

Nt
Cross-correlation function:
1 T
Rxf (t ) = lim x( ) f ( + t )d
T → T 0

Cross-PSD:
1 
S xf ( ) =  Rxf ( )e −i  d
2 −

7
 Experimental Modal Analysis
Determination of Modal Data from Observed Peaks
➢ Let the graph of H(iω) be as shown below.
➢ 4 peaks suggesting a 4-DOF system.

8 © 2018 echanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 Experimental Modal Analysis
Determination of Modal Data from Observed Peaks
Partition into several frequency ranges.
Each range is considering a 1-DOF system

Damping ratio corresponding to peak j:

 (j2 ) −  (j1)
j = where  (j1) and  (j2 ) satisfy
2 j
H (i j )
(
H i j (1)
) = H (i ) =
(2 )
j
2
When damping is small, ωj ≈ ωn
9
 Experimental Modal Analysis
Example
Determination of Damping Ratio from Bode Diagram

•The graphs showing the variations of the magnitude of the response and its
phase angle with the frequency of a single DOF system provides the
frequency response of the system.

•Instead of dealing with the magnitude curves directly, if the logarithms of

the magnitude ratios (in decibels) are used, the resulting plots are called
Bode diagrams. Find the natural frequency and damping ratio of a system
whose Bode diagram is as shown.

10 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 Experimental Modal Analysis
Example
Determination of Damping Ratio from Bode Diagram
Solution
ωn = 10Hz, ω1 = 9.6 Hz, ω2 = 10.5 Hz,
Peak response = -35 dB
Damping ratio:

2 − 1 10.5 − 9.6
 = = = 0.045
2n 2(10.0 )

11
 Experimental Modal Analysis
Determination of Modal Data from Nyquist Plot
Real parts of frequency-response function of 1-DOF system
plotted along horizontal axis

Imaginary parts of frequency-response function of 1-DOF

system plotted along vertical axis

1 
Frequency-response function:  (i ) = = u + iv where r =
1 − r 2 + i 2r n
1− r 2 − 2r
u= , v=
(1 − r )
2 2
+ 4 2 r 2 (1 − r )
2 2
+ 4 2 r 2

12
 Experimental Modal Analysis
Determination of Modal Data from Nyquist Plot

13
Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
Course : ME22088 VIBRATION AND NOISE CONTROL

Unit 5_8 Vibration and Control Methods

:Balancing of Masses

Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
 Vibration and Control Methods
Introduction
Vibration leads to wear of machinery and discomfort of humans,
thus, we want to eliminate vibration

Designer must compromise between acceptable amount of vibration and

manufacturing cost

We shall consider various techniques of vibration control in this chapter.

 Reduction of Vibration at the Source
The following methods are discussed to eliminate/ reduce vibration
at the source:
• Balancing of rotating machines.
- Controlling the response and stability of rotating shafts.
• Balancing of reciprocating engines.
• Reducing vibration caused by impacts due to clearances in the
joints of machines and mechanisms.
 Reduction of Vibration at the Source
• Try to alter the source so that it produces less vibration

• E.g. balance rotating or reciprocating machines, use close tolerances or

better surface finish

• Some sources cannot be eliminated e.g. turbulence, engine combustion

instability, road roughness
 Ranges of Vibration

The usual ranges of vibration encountered in different scientific and engineering

applications are given below :
1. Atomic vibrations:
➢ Frequency = 1012 Hz, displacement amplitude = 10-8 mm to 10-6 mm.
2.Microseisms or minor tremors of earth’s crust:
➢ Frequency = 0.1 to 1 Hz, displace ment amplitude = 10-5 mm to 10-3 mm.
This vibration also denotes the threshold of disturbance of optical, electronic, and
computer equipment.
 Ranges of Vibration
3. Machinery and building vibration:
➢ Frequency = 10 Hz to 100 Hz, displacement amplitude = 0.01 mm to 1
mm. The threshold of human perception falls in the frequency range 1
Hz to 8 Hz.
4. Swaying of tall buildings:
➢ Frequency range = 0.1 Hz to 5 Hz, displacement amplitude = 10 mm to
1000 mm
 Reduction of Vibration at the Source
• Try to alter the source so that it produces less vibration

• E.g. balance rotating or reciprocating machines, use close tolerances or

better surface finish

• Some sources cannot be eliminated e.g. turbulence, engine combustion

instability, road roughness
 Balancing of Rotating Machines
• Unbalanced mass in rotating disc will cause vibration.

• Can be eliminated by removing the unbalanced mass or adding equal mass

to cancel out vibration

• Need to determine the amount and location of the eccentric mass

experimentally

• We shall consider 2 types of balancing: single-plane balancing and 2-plane

balancing
 Balancing of Rotating Machines
Single-Plane Balancing
When center of mass is displaced from the axis of rotation, the element is
statically unbalanced.
To determine whether a disc is balanced, mount it as shown below.
Rotate the disc and let it come to rest. Mark the lowest point.
Repeat a few times.
 Balancing of Rotating Machines
Single-Plane Balancing

If the disc is unbalanced, the markings will coincide (static unbalance).

Static unbalance can be corrected by removing material at the mark or adding

material 180° from the mark.

Amount of unbalance can be found by rotating the disc at a known speed ω

and measuring the reactions at the 2 bearings.
 Balancing of Rotating Masses
Single-Plane Balancing
If the unbalanced mass m is located at radius r, the centrifugal force will be
mrω2.
a2 a1
Measured bearing reactions: F1 = mr  2
, F2 = mr  2

l l
 Balancing of Rotating Machines
Single-Plane Balancing
Another method for single-plane balancing uses a vibration analyzer as shown:
 Balancing of Rotating Machines
Single-Plane Balancing
Turn the rotor and fire a stroboscopic light at the same frequency ω.
A marking on the rotor will appear stationary but positioned at an angle θ from
the mark on the stator.

The amplitude Au caused by the unbalance is also noted by the vibration

analyzer. Add a known trial weight W to the rotor and repeat the procedure.
13
 Balancing of Rotating Machines
Single-Plane Balancing

The new angle of the marking, φ and

the new amplitude Au+w are noted.

Construct vector diagram:

14
 Balancing of Rotating Machines
Single-Plane Balancing
  
The difference vector AW = AU +W − AU is the unbalance vector due to trial
weight W.

AW = AU2 + AU2 +W − 2 AU AU +W cos( −  )

Original unbalance is at angle α from position of trial weight.

 AU2 + AU2 +W − AU2 +W 
 = cos 
−1

 2 AU AW 
Magnitude of original unbalance WO=(AU/AW)•W
15
 Balancing of Rotating Machines
Two-Plane Balancing
If rotor is as shown, unbalance can be anywhere along the
length
Can be balanced by adding weights in any 2 planes,
most common planes being the end planes of the rotor

16 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 Balancing of Rotating Machines
Two-Plane Balancing
Consider a rotor with unbalanced mass
as shown:

Force due to unbalance, F=mω2R

Replace unbalanced mass m by m1 and m2
located at the ends of the rotor as shown:

17 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 Balancing of Rotating Machines
Two-Plane Balancing

Forces exerted due to m1 and m2 are F1=m1ω2R and F2=m2ω2R

For equivalence of forces: mω2R=m1ω2R+m2ω2R or m = m1 + m2
Taking moments at the right end:
l
m 2 R = m1 2 Rl or m = 3m1
3
m1 = m/3, m2 = 2m/3
Thus, any unbalanced mass can be replaced by 2 unbalanced mass at
the end planes.
18 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units
 Balancing of Reciprocating Engines
Moving elements: Piston, crank, connecting rod

Vibrations due to
Periodic variations of gas pressure in cylinder
Inertia forces associated with moving parts
 Balancing of Reciprocating Engines
Unbalanced Forces Due to Fluctuations in Gas Pressure

20
 Balancing of Reciprocating Engines
Unbalanced Forces Due to Fluctuations in Gas Pressure
Expanding gas in cylinder exerts force F on piston
F can be resolved into F/cos Φ and F tan Φ.
F/cos Φ induces torque Mt which rotates the crank shaft
Figure shows equilibrium forces on
stationary parts of the engine
 F 
M t =  r cos
 cos 
Total resultant force =0
 Balancing of Reciprocating Engines
Balancing of Reciprocating Engines
mc can be made zero by counterbalancing the
crank. Hence Fy can be reduced to zero.
mp always positive hence vertical unbalanced
force Fx always exists.
Thus, single cylinder engine is inherently
unbalanced.
In multi-cylinder engine, can balance inertia
forces by proper arrangement of cranks

22 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
 Course : ME22088 VIBRATION AND NOISE CONTROL

Unit 5_9 Vibration and Control Methods:

▪ Control of Natural Frequencies
▪ Introduction of Damping
▪ Vibration Isolation
▪ Vibration Absorbers
Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering
 Control of Vibration
Some import methods to control vibrations:
▪ Control ωn and avoid resonance under external excitations.
▪ Introduce damping mechanism to prevent excessive response of
system
▪ Use vibration isolators to reduce transmission of excitation forces
from one part of the machine to another
▪ Add an auxiliary mass neutralizer or vibration absorber to reduce
response of system

2
 Control of Natural Frequencies
Resonance →Large displacements →large strains and stresses →failure of
system
Often the excitation frequency cannot be controlled.
Hence must control natural frequency by varying mass m or stiffness k to
avoid resonance.
Practically mass cannot be changed easily.
Hence, we change stiffness k by altering the material or number and
location of bearings.

3
 Introduction of Damping
• System may be required to operate over a range of speed, hence cannot avoid
resonance

• Can use material with high internal damping to control the response.

• Can also use bolted or riveted joints to increase damping.

• Bolted or riveted joints permit slip between surfaces and dissipate more energy
compared to welded joints.

• However, they also reduce stiffness of structure, produce debris and cause
fretting corrosion.
4
 Introduction of Damping
▪ Viscoelastic materials have larger values of η and are used to provide
internal damping.

▪ Disadvantage is their properties change with temperature, frequency and

strain.

▪ Sandwich viscoelastic material between elastic layers – Constrained layer

damping

▪ Material with largest η will be subjected to the smallest stresses.

5
 Introduction of Damping
The values of loss coefficient for some The damping ratios obtainable with different
materials are given below: types of construction/arrangement are
indicated below:
Equivalent
Viscous
Type of Construction/Arrangement
Damping
Ratio (%)

Welded construction 1-4

Bolted construction 3-10

Steel frame 5-6

Unconstrained viscoelastic layer on steel-concrete
girder 4-5
Constrained viscoelastic layer on steel-concrete
girder 5-8
 Vibration Isolation
• Insert isolator between vibrating mass and
vibration source to reduce response

• Passive isolators: springs, cork, felt etc.

• E.g. Mounting of high-speed punch press

7
 Vibration Isolation
▪ Active isolator comprised of servomechanism with sensor, signal
processor and actuator.

▪ Effectiveness given in terms of transmissibility Tr which is the ratio of

amplitude of the transmitted force to that of the exciting force

▪ 2 types of isolation situations:

▪ Protect base of vibrating machine against large unbalanced or
impulsive forces
▪ Protect system against motion of its foundation

8
 Vibration Isolation
• Protect base of vibrating machine against large
unbalanced or impulsive forces

Fi (t ) = kx(t ) + cx(t )

• Protect system against motion of its foundation

Fi (t ) = mx(t ) = k x(t ) − y(t ) + cx(t ) − y (t )

9
 Vibration Isolation
Vibration Isolation System with Rigid Foundation

Resilient member placed between vibrating machine and rigid foundation

Member is modeled as a spring k and a dashpot c as shown:

10
 Vibration Absorbers
• When the excitation freq coincides with the ωn, the system may experience
excessive vibration.

• Dynamic vibration absorber is another spring mass system designed to shift

ωn of the resulting system away from the excitation freq.

11 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 Vibration Absorbers
Undamped Dynamic Vibration Absorber

12 © 2018 Mechanical Vibrations Sixth Edition in SI Units

 Damped Dynamic Vibration Absorber
Damped Dynamic Vibration Absorber

Amplitude of machine can be reduced by adding a damped vibration absorber as

shown.
End of Unit 5
Dr C Senthamaraikannan
Associate Professor,
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering