SOUTH EASTERN KENYA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY AND RELIGIOUS STUDIES

CKG 401: PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA

BY

DR. MAUREEN MULEKA

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Credit Hours 45
Email: [email protected]
Purpose of the Course
To introduce to learners the Concepts, evolution and impact of public administration and Policy
in Kenya.

Expected Learning Outcomes of the Course

By the end of the course a learner should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of public administration, bureaucracy and accountability
2. Trace the history and evolution public administration
3. Compare and contrast public administration in public and private Sectors
4. Describe the structure and functions of the civil service

Course Content
Basic Principles, concepts and Issues in Public Administration; Comparative Administration in
the Public and Private Sectors; Bureaucracy and Accountability; the Structure and Management
of Civil Service; Administrative Agencies. Role of Administration in the; the Formulation,
Implementation and Evaluation of National Development Programmes.

Teaching and Learning Methods

Face-To-Face, Lecture Method, Group Discussions, Online Assignments, E-Learning Platforms,
Tutorials, Directed Reading, Seminar Presentations, Take Away Assignments

Instructional Materials/Equipment
Whiteboard, Hand-Outs, Slide Shows, Maps, Photographs, LC Projector, Overhead Projector,
Use of DVD/VCR.

Course Assessment

Continuous assessment Tests accounting for 30% of the total examination mark comprising of

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one sit-in CAT, term paper, individual assignments and class presentation. End of semester
examination accounting for 70% of the total examination mark.

Course Texts/References

Core Reading Materials

1. McKinney J. B and. Howard L. C. (1998) Public Administration: Balancing Power and
Accountability. 2nd Ed.: Praeger Publishing, Westport, CT. p. 62
2. Lalor, S. (2014)'A General Theory of Public Administration'
3. Kettl, D. and Fessler J. (2009). The Politics of the Administrative Process. Washington
D.C.: CQ Press.

Recommendation for Further Reading Materials

1. Denhardt R. And Denhardt J. (2009) Public Administration: An Action Orientation. 6th
Ed.: Thomson Wadsworth, Belmont CA.

Journals
1. Policy Studies Journal
2. Public Policy Review
3. Research in Public Administration
4. Journal of policy Analysis and Management

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

INTRODUCTION

General statements on public administration

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Public administration is one of the most significance administrative machineries in a particular
state or country.

Public administration plays very important roles in determining the nation’s affairs and progress.

Public administration works together with private administration in managing the state or nation-
building.

The office of public administration is different with political office. Public administration consists
of various components.

Public administration is the government machinery to carry out certain objectives with a variety
of tools; such policy, regulation, direct and indirect services to public.

Public administration refers to the activity of governmental unit in carrying out the public policy
declared in the law.

WHAT IS PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION?

Public – Of or concerning the people or country as a whole.

Administration – The process of running a business or an organization/the management of public

affairs.

Definition of public administration: It is the branch of government that is responsible for the
execution or implementation of policy.

Public administration refers to the implementation, management, and coordination of policies,

programs, and services provided by a government or public institution. It encompasses a wide
range of activities and responsibilities aimed at ensuring the smooth functioning of a government
and the delivery of services to its citizens.

Public administration is the set of organization, rules and laws that ensure the intentions of the
elected legislature are carried out through their laws. In involves establishments of federal,
provincial and municipal governments primarily engaged in activities associated with public
administration. This includes such establishments such as the Federal Public Service, National

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Defense, RCMP and provincial and local administrations. As an instrument of the state in assisting
citizens.

Public administration is the detailed and systematic application of law. Every particular application
of law is an act of administration (Woodrow Wilson). Public Administration is meant, in common
usage, the activities of the executive branches of national, state and local governments, government
corporations and certain other agencies of a specialized character. Specifically excluded are
judicial and legislative agencies within the government and non-governmental administration (H.
A Simon). It is a field in which leaders serve communities to advance the common good and effect
positive change.

ORIGINS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Public administration has ancient origins. In antiquity, the Egyptians and Greeks organized public
affairs by office, and the principal officeholders were regarded as being principally responsible for
administering justice, maintaining law and order, and providing plenty. The field of management
may well be said to have originated in ancient China, including possibly the first highly centralized
bureaucratic state. Public administration is the implementation of government policies. Today, it
is often regarded as including also some responsibility for determining the policies and programs
of governments

A History of Public Administration

Early systems

Public administration has ancient origins. In antiquity the Egyptians and Greeks organized public
affairs by office, and the principal officeholders were regarded as being principally responsible for
administering justice, maintaining law and order, and providing plenty. The Romans developed a
more sophisticated system under their empire, creating distinct administrative hierarchies for
justice, military affairs, finance and taxation, foreign affairs, and internal affairs, each with its own
principal officers of state. An elaborate administrative structure, later imitated by the Roman
Catholic Church, covered the entire empire, with a hierarchy of officers reporting back through

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their superiors to the emperor. This sophisticated structure disappeared after the fall of the Western
Roman Empire in the 5th century, but many of its practices continued in the Byzantine Empire in
the east, where civil service rule was reflected in the pejorative use of the word Byzantinism.

Early European administrative structures developed from the royal households of

the medieval period. Until the end of the 12th century official duties within the royal households
were ill-defined, frequently with multiple holders of the same post. Exceptions were the better-
defined positions of butler (responsible for the provision of wine), steward (responsible for
feasting arrangements), chamberlain (often charged with receiving and paying out money kept in
the royal sleeping chamber), and chancellor (usually a priest with responsibilities for writing and
applying the seal in the monarch’s name). With the 13th century a separation began between the
purely domestic functions of the royal household and the functions connected with governing the
state. The older household posts tended to disappear, become sinecures, or decline in importance.
The office of chancellor, which had always been concerned with matters of state, survived to
become the most important link between the old court offices and modern ministries, and the
development of the modern treasury or finance ministry can be traced back to the chamberlain’s
office in the royal household.

From the middle of the 13th century three institutions began to emerge as the major bodies for
handling affairs of state: the high court (evolving primarily from the chancellery), the exchequer,
and the collegial royal council. In England and France, however, it was not until the early 14th
century that such bodies emerged. In Brandenburg, which was governed by an elector (a prince
with a right to elect the Holy Roman emperor) and which later formed the basis of the Prussian
state, they became distinct entities only at the beginning of the 17th century.

Apart from justice and treasury departments, which originated in old court offices, modern
ministerial structures in Europe developed out of the royal councils, which were powerful bodies
of nobles appointed by the monarch. From the division of labour within these bodies the
monarchs’ secretaries, initially given low status within a council, emerged as perhaps the first
professional civil servants in Europe in the modern sense. The proximity of the secretaries to the
monarch gave them more knowledge of royal intentions, and their relative permanence gave them
greater expertise in particular matters of state than could be found among the more transient nobles

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on the council. They were also assisted by staffs. The secretaries grew in importance in the 15th
and 16th centuries as they became more or less full members of the council.

The distribution of functions among secretaries was initially based upon geography. In England
this geographical allocation—with, for example, a secretary of the North and a secretary of the
South—persisted until 1782, when the offices of home and foreign secretary were created. In
France a more complex allocation of territorial responsibilities among secretaries of state had
begun to give way to functional responsibilities by the end of the ancien régime in 1789.

The civil service in China was undoubtedly the longest lasting in history; it was first organized,
along with a centralized administration, during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) and improved
under the Tang (618–907) and Sung (960–1279). The administration was organized so well that
the pattern stood until 1912. During the Sung dynasty there developed the full use of civil
service examinations. Candidates were subjected to successive elimination through written tests
on three levels, more than a hundred persons beginning the ordeal for each one who emerged
successful. Although there was strong emphasis on the Chinese Classics (because knowledge of
the Classics was thought to form the virtues of a good citizen), there was also an effort to devise
objective and meaningful tests for practical qualities, and there were always long contentions over
subject matter and testing methods. To preserve the anonymity of the candidate and to ensure
fairness in grading, examination papers were copied by clerks, examinees were identified by
number only, and three examiners read each paper. Higher officials were privileged to nominate
junior relatives for admission to the bureaucracy, but the great stress on examination grades in
promotion, the use of annual merit ratings, and the practice of recruiting many lower officials from
the ranks of the clerical service ensured a considerable freedom of opportunity.

Examples of Early Systems of Public Administration

The origins of public administration can be traced back to ancient civilizations where rudimentary
forms of governance and administrative structures were established. Here are some key historical
milestones in the development of public administration:

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Ancient Mesopotamia (circa 3000 BCE): The city-states of Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia had
early administrative systems for managing resources, public works, and legal matters. They had
officials known as "ensi" who were responsible for governance.

Ancient Egypt (circa 3100 BCE): Ancient Egypt had a well-organized bureaucracy that managed
various aspects of society, including tax collection, land distribution, and infrastructure projects
like the construction of pyramids.

Chinese Dynasties (circa 2000 BCE - 1912 CE): Chinese dynasties developed sophisticated
administrative systems. The concept of a merit-based civil service exam system was established
during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE) to select government officials.

Ancient Greece (circa 5th - 4th century BCE): Greek city-states like Athens had systems of
governance where citizens participated in decision-making. Early democratic principles influenced
the concept of public service.

Roman Republic and Empire (509 BCE - 476 CE): Rome is often credited with having one of
the most advanced administrative systems of the ancient world. It had a highly organized
bureaucracy with officials responsible for various aspects of governance, including military,
finance, and law enforcement.

Islamic Caliphates (7th - 13th centuries): The Islamic world developed sophisticated
administrative systems, with officials known as "wazirs" responsible for governance, justice, and
public welfare.

Medieval Europe (5th - 15th centuries): Feudal systems in medieval Europe had local
administrative structures, often centered around feudal lords, who managed land and resources.

Ming and Qing Dynasties in China (14th - 20th centuries): These dynasties further refined the
civil service examination system, emphasizing merit-based appointments.

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Enlightenment Era (17th - 18th centuries): Thinkers like John Locke, Montesquieu, and
Rousseau laid the philosophical groundwork for modern governance and the role of administration
in serving the public interest.

Early Modern Period (late 18th - 19th centuries): The American Revolution (1775-1783) and
subsequent establishment of the United States emphasized the importance of an effective public
administration system. The principles of democracy and the rule of law played a significant role.

Industrial Revolution (late 18th - 19th centuries): The rapid industrialization and urbanization
led to the need for more sophisticated administrative systems to manage complex urban
environments, public health, and infrastructure.

These historical developments laid the groundwork for modern public administration, which has
evolved significantly over time. Today, public administration is a complex field that encompasses
various disciplines and practices aimed at effectively managing public resources, implementing
policies, and providing services to citizens.

Modern Developments

Prussia

The foundations of modern public administration in Europe were laid in Prussia in the late 17th
and 18th centuries. The electors of Brandenburg (who from 1701 were the kings of Prussia)
considered a rigidly centralized government a means of ensuring stability and furthering dynastic
objectives. Their principal effort was devoted in the first instance to the suppression of
the autonomy of the cities and to the elimination of the feudal privileges of the aristocracy. Civil
servants were therefore appointed by the central government to administer the provinces, where
the management of crown lands and the organization of the military system were combined in a
Kriegs-und-Domänen-kammer (“Office of War and Crown Lands”). Subordinate to these offices
were the Steuerräte (“tax councillors”), who controlled the administration of the municipalities
and communes. These officials were all appointed by the central government and were responsible
to it. At the apex of the new machinery of government was the sovereign.

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This centralized system was strengthened by creating a special corps of civil servants. In the
beginning these civil servants—in a real sense servant of the crown—were sent out from Berlin to
deal with such purely military matters as recruiting, billeting, and victualing the troops, but in the
course of time they extended their supervision to civil matters as well. By 1713 there were clearly
recognizable administrative units dealing in civil affairs and staffed by crown civil servants.

Special ordinances in 1722 and 1748 regulated recruitment to the civil service. Senior officials
were required to propose to the king the names of candidates suitable for appointment to the higher
posts, while the adjutant general proposed non-commissioned officers suitable for subordinate
administrative posts. Further steps were taken throughout the 18th century to regularize the system
of recruitment, promotion, and internal organization. All of these matters were brought together in
a single General Code promulgated in 1794. The merit system of appointment covered all types of
posts, and the general principle laid down was that “special laws and instructions determine the
appointing authority to different civil service rank, their qualifications, and the preliminary
examinations required from different branches and different ranks.” Entry to the higher civil
service required a university degree in cameralistics, which, though strictly speaking the science
of public finance, included also the study of administrative law, police administration, estate
management, and agricultural economics. After the degree course, candidates for the higher civil
service spent a further period of supervised practical training in various branches of the
administration, at the end of which they underwent a further oral and written examination. The
basic principles of modern civil services are to be found in this General Code.
Interestingly enough, the educational path that many present-day public administrators take is
similar to these civil servants. Those interested in entering Prussia’s higher civil service were
required to have a university degree in cameralistics — the science of public finance. This degree
included the study of police administration, administrative law, agricultural economics, and estate
management.

During the French Revolution, civil servants became instruments of public power, rather than the
regime of the time, and were responsible for maintaining health, public order, and mortality.

The establishment of public administration, or specifically a merit system, in the United States
dates back to the early 20th century. Yet it wasn’t until the Great Depression (and more so during

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World War II) that human relations, economic planning, and policymaking became essential facets
of the field.

Public Administration in Developing Countries

Less-developed countries have had to face the opposite problem with their civil services. After
World War II many such countries became independent before they had developed effective
administrative structures or bodies of trained civil servants. Few of the colonial powers had
trained indigenous administrators sufficiently. The British left a viable administrative structure in
India and a partly Indianized civil service, but the newly independent Pakistan had few experienced
civil servants. The Belgians left the Congo without any trained administrative or technical staff,
and for some years there was near anarchy.

Even when they inherited reasonably efficient administrative organizations, the newly independent
countries’ politicians frequently proved incapable of fulfilling their supporters’ expectations. Civil
servants from the old colonial powers who remained behind often found radical policies and new
masters uncongenial. The resulting exodus of many such civil servants worsened matters, for
indigenous civil servants were seldom an adequate substitute.

The lack of qualified personnel sometimes led to not only a reduction in efficiency but also a
decline in administrative morality. Nepotism, tribalism, and corruption as well as inefficiency in
the civil service were difficulties often added to the other trials of independence. In many countries
the incapacity of the civil service was a factor leading to military rule, as were the political failings
of the elected leaders. Military regimes were frequently the last resort of a country where the civil
power failed to cope with the problems of independence. Consequently, the United Nations (UN),
in conjunction with the governments of advanced countries, began to develop training programs
for civil servants from underdeveloped countries. The first request came from Latin America,
which led to the founding of a school of public administration in Brazil, followed in 1953 by an
Advanced School of Public Administration for Central America. Various other international
organizations, including the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and
the World Bank, supported institutions for the training of administrators in less-developed
countries. Such institutions included the Arab Planning Institute in Kuwait, the Arab Organization

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of Administrative Sciences in Jordan, and the Inter-American School of Public Administration in
Brazil. Civil servants from less-developed nations also studied administration at such places as the
Institute of Social Studies in The Hague, the Institute of Local Government Studies in
Birmingham, England, and the International Institute of Public Administration in Paris.

After the 1970s the international agencies gave less help toward training, on the assumption—
often unrealized—that the less-developed nations would take on greater responsibility themselves.
Training also tended to be generalist and academic, leading to acute shortages of trained
administrators in specialized fields such as finance and planning. However, organizations such as
the British Council began in the early 1980s to remedy some of these deficiencies.

Core Values of Public Administration

Core values is a broad phrase to describe the standards by which we characterize a person,
profession, or organization. Throughout the course of brainstorming and analyzing my
professional experience, I have settled on a set of five values that are most important in public
administration. In order to achieve success at a personal and organizational level in the public
sector, these values must be practiced on a daily basis.
To practice transparency in public administration is to ensure citizens the availability of
information which is deemed public. This should be an organizational goal, and is to be taken into
account when conducting all public business regardless of one’s job title. If the goal of an
organization is to serve the citizens to the best of their ability, then avoiding or failing to achieve
transparency would cause significant damage to the relationship between them and the people they
are aiming to serve.
Accountability is to adhere to a standard of professionalism in the workplace. Additionally, it
means to understand that our professional activities are being funded by the citizens of this country.
As such, public employees are held responsible by citizens for upholding the mission of their
organization. Accountability is an important aspect of the functionality of any organization public
or private. Essentially, it reminds individuals that while they are employed by a professional
organization they will be held liable for their actions.

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Each public administrator is asked to adhere to a code of ethics. In order to function properly as
an organization, the administrator must be held to a high degree of ethical standards. Specifically,
ethics calls for administrators to display integrity, and be mindful of laws and regulations.
Furthermore, this must be accomplished in order to successfully practice and promote transparency
of government. Unfortunately, the importance of ethics in government is usually shown when
public officials violate laws or regulations. Because of these instances, we are constantly reminded
of the importance of ethics in public administration.
Professionalism is an important core value when considering the prestigious nature of our
positions in the field of public administration. In essence, administrators are hired to be visionaries,
in addition to being stewards of public funds and information. To be professional is to understand
the importance of our jobs in the public sector, to have respect for ourselves and the organizations
that we represent, and to act accordingly. Each individual is to deal with issues, whether positive
or negative, in a mild and straightforward manner whenever possible. Without professionalism in
public administration, the overall perception of our work and our organizations would undoubtedly
falter.
Finally, there are few organizations in the public sector that are able to flourish without
proper leadership. Practicing leadership is setting an example of professionalism for staff
members and possessing the motivation to achieve organizational goals. In doing so, leaders must
have the ability to recognize the talents of individuals and allow those talents to be utilized for the
betterment of the organization. Admittedly, leadership can become a balancing act between
becoming an active team member and taking charge of overall operations. As a leader, it is of
utmost importance to stay connected with staff members, but to act in a managerial role when
called upon.
In summary, I have chosen five values that I believe to be relevant in the public sector. These
values are also a focal point when reflecting on the successes of public organizations in the past.
Upon completing my analysis, I have determined that the five most important core values of public
administration are transparency, accountability, ethics, professionalism, and leadership.

Principles of Public Administration

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The principles of public administration provide a framework for how government organizations
and agencies should operate in order to effectively serve the public interest. These principles guide
the behaviour and decision-making of public administrators. While there are variations in the
formulation of these principles, some commonly accepted ones include:

Responsibility and Accountability: Public administrators are responsible for carrying out their
duties and are accountable for their actions and decisions. They are entrusted with the stewardship
of public resources and are expected to act in the best interest of the public.

Public Interest: The primary focus of public administration is to serve the collective interests of
the community or society as a whole, rather than individual or special interests.

Rule of Law: Public administrators must operate within the bounds of established laws,
regulations, and policies. They are expected to uphold and enforce the rule of law without bias or
favoritism.

Transparency and Openness: Public administrators should conduct their activities in a

transparent manner, providing access to information, decision-making processes, and government
operations. This helps build trust and accountability.

Equity and Fairness: Public administrators should treat all individuals and groups with fairness
and impartiality, ensuring that policies and services are distributed equitably and that
discrimination is avoided.

Efficiency and Effectiveness: Public administrators should strive to achieve the best outcomes
with the available resources. This involves managing resources efficiently and ensuring that
programs and policies achieve their intended objectives.

Flexibility and Adaptability: Public administrators must be able to respond to changing

circumstances and evolving needs within society. This requires a willingness to adapt policies and
approaches when necessary.

Professionalism and Competence: Public administrators should possess the necessary skills,
knowledge, and expertise to perform their duties effectively. They should uphold high professional
standards and continuously seek to improve their capabilities.

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Neutrality and Impartiality: Public administrators are expected to remain neutral and impartial
in their decision-making, avoiding favoritism or bias based on personal beliefs, affiliations, or
interests.

Ethical Conduct: Upholding high ethical standards is crucial for public administrators. They
should avoid conflicts of interest, maintain integrity, and act in a manner that upholds public trust.

Citizen-Centered Approach: Public administrators should actively engage with citizens, seek
their input, and consider their needs and preferences when designing and implementing policies
and services.

Innovation and Creativity: Public administrators should be open to new ideas, technologies, and
approaches that can lead to more effective and efficient government operations.

Collaboration and Partnership: Public administrators should work collaboratively with other
government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and stakeholders to address complex
societal challenges and achieve common goals.

Continuous Improvement: Public administrators should be committed to ongoing learning,

evaluation, and improvement of government operations and services.

These principles provide a foundation for ethical, effective, and accountable public administration.
They serve as a guide for public servants in their roles and responsibilities to ensure that
government serves the best interests of the public.

The characteristics of Public Administration

The characteristics of public administration in the democratic context are:-

Non-partisan or Neutrality – public administration is a non-political administrative apparatus that

is subject to policy direction but not partisan.

Structure - A set of laws or legally founded rules that create the structure of the administrative
apparatus of the state.

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Power – public administration has given certain authority to draw and implement policy to achieve
the desired goal.

Activities – public administration carry out activities that related to the government Supervision -
Continuing democratic supervision of administrative activities through the executive which directs
activities within public administration apparatus.

Personnel – public administration is carried out by public servants who work in public departments
and agencies, at all levels of government, and perform a wide range of tasks.

What is Policy and administration?

Policy - is a deliberate plan of action to guide decisions and achieve rational outcome(s).

Policies can be understood as political, management, financial, and administrative mechanisms

arranged to reach explicit goals.

Policy merely guides actions toward those that are most likely to achieve a desired outcome.

Administration – is described as the implementation of government policy carried out by peoples

who work in that organization or agencies and perform various tasks.

Policy and administration is two interconnected activities that relevant to public administration
and the government administrative process. Public administration is working on policy that
decided by the government to achieve certain desired goals.

The Principles of Political Administrative Dichotomy

Politics is a process by which groups of people make decisions on political interests. They are
elected through election process which involves, normally several political parties. It is achieved
to satisfy political interests. Administration is a process by which groups of people make decisions
on public interests. They are appointed by the government to implement political decisions of the
lead government.

The "Principle of Political-Administrative Dichotomy" is a concept in public administration that

emphasizes the separation of political decision-making from administrative implementation. It

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suggests that there should be a clear distinction between the political leaders who set policies and
the administrators who carry out those policies. Here are the key components of this principle:

Political Authority: Political leaders, typically elected officials, are responsible for making policy
decisions based on their political ideologies, goals, and mandates from the electorate.

Administrative Neutrality: Public administrators are expected to implement policies impartially,

regardless of their personal political beliefs. They are meant to be neutral and objective in their
actions.

Role Clarity: The roles of political leaders and administrators should be well-defined and distinct.
Political leaders set the agenda and make policy decisions, while administrators are responsible
for executing and implementing those decisions.

Policy Formulation vs. Policy Implementation: Political leaders formulate policies based on
their agendas and priorities. Public administrators are tasked with implementing those policies
effectively, efficiently, and equitably.

Merit-Based Hiring and Promotion: Public administrators should be hired, promoted, and
evaluated based on their qualifications, experience, and competence, rather than their political
affiliations.

Professionalism: Public administrators are expected to uphold professional standards and act in
accordance with ethical principles, regardless of political considerations.

Accountability and Transparency: Both political leaders and administrators should be held
accountable for their respective roles. Political leaders are accountable for the policies they set,
while administrators are accountable for their implementation.

Stability and Continuity: The career civil service provides stability and continuity in government
operations, regardless of changes in political leadership.

Public Interest Orientation: Both political leaders and administrators are expected to act in the
best interests of the public, even if their perspectives on what constitutes the public interest may
differ.

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Checks and Balances: The political-administrative dichotomy provides a system of checks and
balances, ensuring that no one individual or group has unchecked power over the entire process.

It's important to note that while the principle of political-administrative dichotomy emphasizes
separation, there is also recognition of the need for collaboration and communication between
political leaders and administrators. Effective governance often requires a constructive and
cooperative relationship between these two groups to achieve the best outcomes for the public.
Additionally, the application of this principle can vary depending on the specific form of
government, the legal framework, and the cultural context of a given country or jurisdiction.

The idea of separating politics and administration is to avoid conflict of interest and maintaining
neutrality (Max Weber) According to David H. Rosenbloom - the idea that public administration
can be separated from politics is strange. He believes that if politics and public administration were
separate, this approach would not work, emphasizing their inevitable interconnection.

Scope of Public Administration

By the scope of Public Administration, we mean the major concerns of Public Administration as
an activity and as a discipline. Public administration covers every area and activity within the ambit
public policy. Thus, the scope of public administration is very wide in modern state. Public
administration is any kind of administration in the public interest which has simply come to mean
governmental administration. There are many views regarding the scope and range of activities to
be included in public administration. Some thinkers take a broader view and include all
governmental activities having for their purpose, the fulfillment of public policy, while other take
a narrow view and consider only those activities concerned with the executive branch of
government as a part of public administration.

The Role/functions/significance of Public Administration

Public administration plays very important role in any country. The role of public administration
is changing from being a major provider of public services and development to promoter and
facilitator of development. Public administration encompasses a wide range of functions aimed at
effectively managing government operations and serving the public interest. These functions can

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vary depending on the level of government (local, regional, national) and the specific context of a
given country or jurisdiction. Here are some of the core functions of public administration:

Policy Formulation and Implementation: Public administrators play a key role in the
development, analysis, and implementation of policies and programs that address societal needs
and priorities.

Program Planning and Evaluation: They are responsible for designing and planning specific
programs and initiatives, as well as evaluating their effectiveness and impact.

Budgeting and Financial Management: Public administrators oversee the allocation of financial
resources, prepare budgets, and manage expenditures to ensure efficient and effective use of public
funds.

Human Resource Management: This involves hiring, training, managing, and evaluating
government personnel to ensure a skilled and motivated workforce.

Regulatory Compliance and Enforcement: Public administrators enforce laws, regulations, and
policies to maintain order, protect public interests, and ensure compliance with legal standards.

Public Service Delivery: They are responsible for providing a wide range of services to the public,
such as education, healthcare, transportation, public safety, and more.

Infrastructure Development and Maintenance: This involves planning, building, and

maintaining critical infrastructure like roads, bridges, utilities, and public buildings.

Citizen Engagement and Participation: Public administrators facilitate communication and

engagement between the government and citizens, seeking input on policies and programs.

Emergency and Crisis Management: They plan and coordinate responses to natural disasters,
pandemics, and other emergencies to protect public safety and well-being.

Policy Research and Analysis: Public administrators conduct research, analyze data, and provide
recommendations to support evidence-based decision-making.

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Information Technology and Data Management: They oversee the implementation of
technology systems and manage data to improve government operations and service delivery.

Intergovernmental Relations: Public administrators work with other levels of government (local,
regional, national) to coordinate efforts and implement policies across different jurisdictions.

Ethical Oversight and Integrity Management: They uphold ethical standards, ensure
compliance with codes of conduct, and prevent corruption or unethical behaviour within the public
sector.

Policy Advocacy and Communication: Public administrators may engage in advocacy efforts to
promote certain policies or initiatives, as well as communicate government decisions and actions
to the public.

Environmental Management and Sustainability: They develop and implement policies and
programs related to environmental protection, conservation, and sustainable resource
management.

Legal and Regulatory Affairs: Public administrators ensure that government actions and policies
comply with legal requirements and provide legal advice on various matters.

Public Relations and Media Management: They handle public relations efforts, including
managing media relations, crisis communication, and public information campaigns.

These functions collectively aim to ensure that government organizations effectively and
efficiently serve the public interest, uphold democratic principles, and maintain the well-being of
society. Keep in mind that these functions may be divided among various agencies and
departments within a government, each specializing in specific areas of public administration.

CONCLUSION

The Concept of Public Administration is co-operative group effort in a public setting; covers all
three branches-executive, legislative, and judicial, and their inter-relationships; has an important
role in the formulation and implementation of public policy and is thus a part of the administrative
process; is different in significant ways from private administration; is closely associated with

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numerous private groups and individuals in providing services to the community”. is the non-
political public bureaucracy operating in a political system; deals with the ends of the State, the
sovereign will, the public interests and laws;

is the business side of government and as such concerned with policy execution, but it is also
concerned with policy-making; covers all three branches of government, although it tends to be
concentrated in the executive branch; provides regulatory and service functions to the people in
order to attain good life; differs significantly from private administration, especially in its emphasis
on the public; and is interdisciplinary in nature as it draws upon other social sciences like political
science, economics and sociology. to the community”.

TOPIC 2: THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

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Public administration theory

Public Administration Theory is the amalgamation of history, organizational theory, social theory,
political theory and related studies focused on the meanings, structures and functions of public
service in all its forms. It often recounts major historical foundations for the study
of bureaucracy as well as epistemological issues associated with public service as a profession and
as an academic field.

Generally speaking, there are three different common approaches to understanding public
administration: Classical Public Administration Theory, New Public Management Theory, and
Postmodern Public Administration Theory, offering different perspectives of how an administrator
practices public administration.

Important figures of study include: Max Weber, Frederick Winslow Taylor, Luther Gulick, Mary
Parker Follett, Chester Barnard, Herbert A. Simon, and Dwight Waldo. Herbert Simon advanced
a public administration theory that was informed by positivism. The influence of positivism today
can be seen in journals such as the Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory and
the Journal of Policy Analysis and Management.[1] Notable Public Administration Theorist such
as Max Weber expressed the importance of values in the development of public administration
theory. However, theory cannot simply be derived from empirical observation of facts, it must be
constructed using value judgments that direct our empirical observations and then guide out
interpretation of those observations. Values are essential for the construction of public
administration theories because it takes into account the meaningful ethical principles and
philosophies of a culture which ensure appropriate theory practice. Public Administration theories
are put into practice or considered through a few distinct strategies: Parallel, Transfer, or
Collaboration also known as the theory-gap practice. This practice is used to transfer knowledge
between practitioners and scholars.

Types of Public Administration Theory

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Classical Theory and Public Administration

Classical theory in public administration refers to the early perspectives and principles that laid
the foundation for the field. These theories emerged during the late 19th and early 20th centuries
and were primarily concerned with improving efficiency and effectiveness in government
operations. There are three main contributors to classical theory in public administration:
Max Weber:
Bureaucratic Model: Weber's most significant contribution is the development of the bureaucratic
model. He argued for a hierarchical organization with a clear chain of command, specialized tasks,
and a merit-based system for hiring and promotion.
Rational-Legal Authority: Weber emphasized the importance of authority based on rules and laws,
as opposed to traditional or charismatic authority. This concept underlined the need for a legal
framework and adherence to established procedures in public administration.
Frederick W. Taylor:
Scientific Management: Taylor is known for his principles of scientific management, which
focused on optimizing the efficiency of tasks and processes. He believed in scientific analysis to
determine the most effective way of performing each job, as well as matching employees to their
most suitable roles.
Henri Fayol:
Administrative Principles: Fayol proposed 14 principles of management that were applicable to
both private and public organizations. These principles include unity of command, division of
work, scalar chain (hierarchy), and unity of direction. Fayol's ideas aimed at improving
organizational efficiency and effectiveness.
Classical theory is characterized by a top-down approach to management, a focus on hierarchy and
structure, and an emphasis on principles of efficiency. While these principles have been influential,
they have also been critiqued for their rigidity and lack of consideration for human factors and
organizational behavior.
Over time, newer theories and approaches, such as the human relations approach and the systems
theory, have emerged to complement and sometimes challenge the classical perspective. These
newer theories take into account the social and psychological aspects of organizations, recognizing
the importance of employee motivation, communication, and the dynamic nature of public
administration.
In contemporary public administration, a combination of classical and modern theories is often
used to address the complexities of governance and administration in a rapidly changing world.

Behavioral Theory and Public Administration

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Behavioral theory in public administration emerged as a reaction to the limitations of classical
theories, which tended to overlook the human element in organizational behavior. Behavioral
theorists focused on understanding and analyzing the behavior of individuals and groups within an
organization, recognizing the impact of human factors on administrative processes. Here are some
key aspects of behavioral theory in the context of public administration:
Human Relations Approach:
Behavioral theorists, such as Elton Mayo and the researchers at the Hawthorne studies, played a
crucial role in the development of the human relations approach. They highlighted the significance
of social and psychological factors in the workplace and emphasized the importance of
relationships and communication.
This approach challenged the strict hierarchical views of classical theorists, suggesting that
employee satisfaction, motivation, and morale are crucial for organizational effectiveness.
Motivation and Leadership:
Behavioral theories in public administration delve into motivational factors that drive individual
and group performance. Understanding what motivates employees is seen as essential for
enhancing productivity and job satisfaction.
Leadership styles and their impact on organizational behavior are also explored. Behavioral
theorists recognize the importance of participative and transformational leadership in fostering
positive workplace dynamics.
Organizational Behavior:
Behavioral theory in public administration considers the dynamics of groups and how they
influence organizational outcomes. Concepts such as group dynamics, communication patterns,
and the informal structure of organizations are emphasized.
The focus on organizational behavior includes an understanding of how individuals and groups
react to change, how conflicts are managed, and the role of organizational culture in shaping
behavior.
Decision-Making Processes:
Behavioral theorists explore decision-making processes within organizations, recognizing that
these processes are influenced by cognitive biases, group dynamics, and interpersonal
relationships.
The emphasis is on understanding how individuals and groups make decisions, including the
impact of emotions, social pressures, and individual preferences.
Feedback and Communication:
Effective communication is considered a critical aspect of behavioral theory in public
administration. The flow of information, feedback mechanisms, and the quality of communication
channels are examined to ensure that information is shared efficiently within the organization.
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In summary, behavioral theory in public administration places a strong emphasis on understanding
and managing human behavior within organizational settings. It recognizes that individuals are not
just cogs in a bureaucratic machine but have unique needs, motivations, and social interactions
that influence their performance and contributions to the organization. This perspective has
contributed to a more nuanced and human-centered approach to public administration,
complementing the earlier classical theories.
Human Relations Theory and public administration

Human Relations Theory is a school of thought in management and organizational studies that
emerged in the early 20th century. It emphasizes the importance of understanding and managing
human behavior in organizations to improve productivity and employee satisfaction. This theory
has implications for various fields, including public administration.
In the context of public administration, Human Relations Theory is relevant in several ways:
Focus on People: Human Relations Theory places a strong emphasis on understanding the needs,
motivations, and behaviors of individuals within an organization. In public administration, where
the primary focus is on serving the public, understanding and effectively managing the people
within government agencies is crucial.
Communication and Interaction: Human Relations Theory highlights the significance of effective
communication and interpersonal relationships in the workplace. In public administration, where
collaboration and coordination are essential, effective communication can improve the functioning
of government agencies and enhance service delivery.
Motivation and Morale: Public administration involves working with diverse groups of people to
achieve common goals. Human Relations Theory suggests that attention to employee motivation
and morale can lead to improved performance. In the public sector, motivated and satisfied
employees are more likely to be productive and provide better services to the public.
Leadership and Management Style: Human Relations Theory challenges traditional authoritarian
leadership styles and promotes a more participative and democratic approach. This has
implications for public administrators, encouraging them to adopt leadership styles that foster
collaboration, employee involvement, and shared decision-making.
Group Dynamics: Understanding group dynamics is a key aspect of Human Relations Theory. In
public administration, where tasks often require teamwork and collaboration, a grasp of how
groups function and how to manage group processes can contribute to more effective policy
implementation and service provision.
Conflict Resolution: Human Relations Theory addresses the inevitability of conflicts in
organizations and provides insights into resolving them constructively. In the public sector, where
competing interests and diverse stakeholders are common, effective conflict resolution skills are
crucial for successful administration.
Organizational Culture: Human Relations Theory recognizes the influence of organizational
culture on behavior and performance. In public administration, cultivating a positive
organizational culture that aligns with the values of public service can contribute to better
outcomes and a more engaged workforce.

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In summary, Human Relations Theory offers valuable insights for public administration by
emphasizing the importance of understanding and managing human behavior within government
organizations. Adopting principles from this theory can contribute to more effective leadership,
improved communication, and better overall organizational performance in the public sector.

Systems Theory and public administration

Systems theory is a conceptual framework that views organizations and phenomena as

interconnected and interdependent systems. It originated in the natural sciences but has been
widely applied to various disciplines, including public administration. In the context of public
administration, systems theory provides a holistic approach to understanding and managing
government organizations. Here are some key points that illustrate the relationship between
systems theory and public administration:

Holistic Perspective: Systems theory encourages a holistic view of organizations, considering them
as complex systems with interconnected components. In public administration, this perspective is
valuable for understanding the interdependence of different government agencies, units, and
functions. It helps administrators see the entire system and how changes in one part may affect the
whole.

Interconnectedness of Parts: Systems theory emphasizes the interconnectedness of various

components within an organization. In public administration, this translates to recognizing the
interdependence of different government departments, agencies, and levels of government.
Policies and decisions in one area can have ripple effects across the entire system.

Input-Output Dynamics: Systems theory looks at the flow of inputs, processes, and outputs within
a system. In public administration, this can be applied to understand how policies are formulated
(inputs), implemented (processes), and result in public services and outcomes (outputs). Analyzing
these dynamics helps in improving the efficiency and effectiveness of public administration.

Feedback Mechanisms: Systems theory emphasizes the importance of feedback loops to maintain
stability and adaptability. In public administration, feedback mechanisms are crucial for assessing
the impact of policies and programs, making necessary adjustments, and ensuring continuous
improvement in governance.

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Emergent Properties: Systems theory recognizes that organizations have emergent properties that
arise from the interactions of their components. In public administration, this can be observed in
the emergence of new policies, programs, or challenges as a result of the dynamic interactions
within the government system.

Boundary and Environment: Systems theory distinguishes between the internal components of a
system and its external environment. In public administration, understanding the boundary
between government organizations and their external environment is essential for effective policy-
making and implementation.

Adaptability and Change: Systems theory acknowledges that organizations must be adaptable to
change and capable of evolving to survive and thrive. In public administration, this is relevant for
addressing dynamic challenges, such as technological advancements, demographic shifts, and
changes in public expectations.

Cross-Sector Collaboration: Systems theory encourages collaboration across different sectors and
levels of government. In public administration, this means recognizing the importance of
intergovernmental relations, partnerships with the private sector, and engaging civil society to
address complex societal challenges.

In summary, systems theory offers a comprehensive and interconnected perspective that can
enhance the understanding and management of public administration. Applying systems thinking
in governance helps administrators navigate complexity, improve decision-making, and foster
adaptability in the face of dynamic challenges.

Max Weber's Ideal- Type Method

The ideal-type method developed by Max Weber is a useful tool in contemporary public
administration theory development because the method takes into account the culture of a society
that is then integrated into a theory. Weber referred to it as cultural science or interpretive
sociology, which, is to understand ideas and practices from within their own intellectual and
cultural horizon and on the basis of categories that are grounded in a meaningful social and
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historical context. According to Margaret Stout, Ideal-type methods are used to frame observation
and analysis and to evaluate what is found. Weber's method must be developed using value
judgments that direct our empirical observations and then guide our interpretation of those
observations. Through this theory building method, Weber insisted that all interpretations of
meaning must remain at best "a peculiarly plausible hypothesis", as opposed to a claim of relevance
of a theory. Weber's purpose for using this method is to clarify the importance of values in sense
making, but how they are also extremely important for the conduct of meaningful social
science. Weber’s interpretive sociology employs a type of functional analysis that begins with the
whole, proceeds to the parts, and then goes back from the parts to the whole. His ideal-type method
is thereby simultaneously useful in both the study of social structure and social action. Social action
is linked to subjective meaning at the individual level of analysis, and structural forms are a
consequence or construction of social action. This combination is particularly valuable to public
administration because the manner in which administrative action and the social structures of
governance interrelate requires an approach that considers both. On the one hand, ideal-types
enable consideration of things like alternative meanings of important concepts or alternative
motivations held by social actors. On the other hand, they enable analysis of associated or resulting
social structures. In this way, an ideal-type can concurrently help interpret the meaning of the
administrative role as well as critique the institutions of governance.

Theory- Gap Practice

Parallel- Proponents of this strategy of relating theory and practice believe that practical
knowledge cannot be derived from theories. For the practitioners of this strategy, practice and
theory remain separate components of knowledge. Practical knowledge aims to how to handle
problems in particular situations while theory aims at handling a specific situation in a general set
of principles. Advocates for the parallel strategy claim there can be a complementary relationship
between practical and theoretical knowledge or that they can substitute each other in certain
situations because particular situations will require practice and theory to work together. Thus
advocates that champion parallel strategy argue that it is essential for management studies to
maintain an autonomous communication system.

Transfer- This second strategy frames the theory-practice problem as one of translating and
diffusing research knowledge into management. This strategy confronts the issue of public

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managers lack of interest or studying of the work of scholars. This is the result of the scholarly
work not being easily applicable to practice, and the complexity of the journals, thus knowledge
is not being transferred from theory to practice. The transfer strategy proponent’s claim the
popularizing the scholarly work, and making it more relevant to current issues faced in public
administration would enhance the transfer of knowledge from scholars to street level bureaucrats
and public managers. However, some argue this approach falls short of expectations because many
practitioners of public administration have little influence on the content of knowledge offered by
scholars.

Collaboration- This strategy aims to enhance communication between scholars and practitioners
before the theory is developed in order to build a dialectic method of inquiry, building on the idea
that communication is necessary throughout the whole theory building process in order to have a
well development practical theory. Scholars Van de Ven and P.E. Johnson put it as:

"Engagement is relationship that involves negotiation and collaboration between researchers and
practitioners in a learning community; such a community jointly produces knowledge that can both
advance the scientific enterprise and enlighten a community of practitioners."

Important Figures in Public Administration Theory

Max Weber

Max Weber, one of the many theorists.

Max Weber was a German political economist, social scientist, and renowned Philosopher is an
important father to the theory of Public Administration and the bureaucratic side of it. He did
extensive research studying ancient and modern states to gather a better perspective of
bureaucracies in multiple eras for his Magnum Opus Economy and Society published in 1922.
That piece of work has contributed countless insight into the Public Administration Theory. Max
Weber considered bureaucracy to be the most rational form of administration yet devised by man.
In his writings he asserts that domination is exerted through administration and that for legal
domination to take place bureaucracy is required.

Woodrow Wilson

Woodrow Wilson, another one of the theorists of Public Administration.

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Woodrow Wilson defined public administration as a detailed and systematic execution of public
law, he divided government institutions into two separate sectors, administration and politics.
According to him politics is dealt with policy formulation and questions regarding such, whereas
administration is equipped with carrying said policies out. In his own words in his early essay,
"The Study of Administration" he said "it is getting to be harder to run a constitution than to frame
one." Wilson very much so tried to establish a distinction between politics and administration; he
saw administration as a field of business which lies outside politics. He thought the theory of public
administration existed simply because of technicalities and was around for the behind-the-scenes
business aspect of politics.

Frederick Winslow Taylor

Frederick Taylor was an engineer by profession who saw much of life from a scientific aspect. He
is a popular less conservative contributor to the Theory of Public Administration in that he
produced his own, very popular, theory of traditional public administration, The Scientific
Management Theory. He was concerned with finding the best and most efficient way to complete
a task for a particular job, reducing the overall labor a worker had to exert with the least amount
of movements. Frederick Taylors work approached motivation with a very authoritative, cold,
scientific motivator which weighed heavy over any sort of humane aspect to scientific
management. Overall, many intricacies in Public Administration such as management, control and
accounting are subject to scientific principles and Taylor draws on these to find his own, efficient
theory approach to Public Administration Theory.

TOPIC 3: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE

ADMINISTRATION

Public VS Private Administration

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Public administration is created by the government/public. The Constitution sets the formation of
public administration and it is funded by taxes/public budget. It is bot for profit motive and it is
controlled by the legislature & judiciary.

Private administration is owned by private/individual or group subject to company law. It is funded

by investor capital/share. Profits are the main motive.

Public administration is a complex entity that exists on the political, legal, and managing levels. It strives
to serve the people while executing its functions within the grounds dictated by those levels.

Public administration is inherently democratic, and its proper functionality is at the core of democratic
processes.

However, it does not imply that private management, which stands in opposition to public
administration, is anti-democratic. They both exist within one system and perform similar functions, but
they differ as far as the factors that can influence them and the way they operate are concerned. This
essay will discuss the specifics of public administration and private management in such areas as
decision-making, human resources management, and accountability and the implications caused by the
differences.

As public administration and private management have to make certain decisions, they consider certain
factors, which vary between the two. Private management mostly considers an organization’s gains and
losses, as, according to Bodemann (2018), “the highest priority in private sector is producing demanded
products in pursuit of profit for shareholders and interests of stakeholders” (p. 43). Meanwhile, public
administration should represent the people’s will, meaning that, ideally, the outcome should benefit the
people, but it does not always result in that. The people are also not a monolith; there are various groups
of people with their needs and problems, which public administration should somehow address. Those
groups include citizens, corporate executives, nonprofit groups, and interest groups, all of which want
to influence the process of decision-making and the outcome (Raadschelders et al., 2015). Transparency
improves decision-making and allows more public participation, which, in a way, removes some of the
burdens from public managers and bureaucrats (Jarman et al., 2016). Overall, decision-making for
public administration appears to be more difficult and susceptible to various groups that comprise the
public, while private management focuses on profit and appealing to shareholders and stakeholders.

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As long as humans remain in charge of managing others, there will be the issue of human resources,
which both public administration and private managing should be able to tackle. It may seem that public
administration would have no problem employing people, as, according to Khan (2017), “Governments
are the largest employer in many countries” (p. 34). However, the prestige of working for public
administration depends on the country; in the US there is a trend of reducing the size of government
officials (Khan, 2017, p. 36). In turn, as public administration loses its appeal and fails to draw
personnel, private management becomes a new place to host human resources. The previous point,
decision-making, also impacts the trend, as civil servants are not always protected from repercussions
of a risky decision and accountability, which will be discussed later (Jarman et al., 2016). As for who
might represent a proper public manager, Khan (2017) states that they should act in full knowledge of
the global and domestic situation and bear in mind the challenges of globalization. Overall, HRM in
public administration faces challenges that should be addressed to regain its prestige.

Accountability accompanies any type of management, but it becomes particularly crucial for public
administration, as there is a belief that appointed people have bigger responsibilities. The belief is
reflected in the table provided by Bodemann (2018), which compares the public and the private sectors.
Although accountability is also essential for the private sector, it could be linked with profitability and
whether it was achieved, as seen in Table 1.

Table 1. The Public and Private Sectors.

Ranking Public sector Private sector

1. Accountability Profitability
2. Lawfulness Accountability
3. Incorruptibility Reliability
4. Expertise Effectiveness
5. Reliability Expertise
As accountability appears to be a vital component in public administration, there should be ways to
ensure that it is applied fairly. Schillemans (2015) proposes a calibrated public accountability model
that addresses the absence of specific standards, according to which public executors might be held
accountable. The model can be seen in Figure 1, and it is important to note that machine bureaucracies

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and professional organizations are subject to different standards (Schillemans, 2015). In general,
accountability serves as a reminder for managers that their decisions affect people and that they will be
held responsible.

In conclusion, public administration and private management might be similar and exist in the same
field, but public administration appears to be under more scrutiny when it comes to all the areas
considered. A wide variety of groups may influence the process of decision-making; the prestige of
public administration is low, as people working there are deemed inefficient; and accountability for
public administration is of utmost importance. Meanwhile, the scope of decision-making of private
management is smaller; it could gain human resources lost by public administration, and its
accountability is directly affected by profitability. Despite public administration appearing less
favorable than its private counterpart, it is the nature of public administration to be constantly visible
and liable for its actions. In the end, it serves the people and, ideally, works towards the common good,
which is not achievable easily.

In summary the difference between public and private administration is:

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Public administration and private administration refer to the management and operation of organizations
in the public and private sectors, respectively. While there are similarities in the fundamental principles
of administration, there are also key differences between these two domains. Here are some of the
primary distinctions:

Purpose and Goals:

Public Administration: Focuses on serving the public interest. The primary goals involve providing
public services, implementing public policies, and ensuring the well-being of the citizens.

Private Administration: Primarily concerned with generating profits for the owners or shareholders. The
main goal is to maximize efficiency, productivity, and financial returns.

Ownership and Control:

Public Administration: Operates under government ownership and control. Decision-making is

influenced by elected officials, public policies, and regulatory frameworks.

Private Administration: Operates under private ownership and control. Decision-making is driven by
the interests of private owners, shareholders, and the market.

Funding and Resources:

Public Administration: Typically funded through taxation and government budgets. Resources are
allocated based on public priorities and policy goals.

Private Administration: Relies on private funding, often from investors, customers, or loans. Resource
allocation is influenced by market demand and profitability.

Accountability:

Public Administration: Accountable to the public, citizens, and elected officials. Transparency and
responsiveness to the public are critical aspects of accountability.

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Private Administration: Accountable to shareholders, customers, and regulatory bodies. Profitability
and financial performance are key indicators of success.

Decision-Making Processes:

Public Administration: Decision-making may involve complex bureaucratic processes, public

consultations, and adherence to legal and regulatory frameworks.

Private Administration: Decision-making is often more streamlined and can be driven by market
demands, competition, and the pursuit of profit.

Risk-Taking:

Public Administration: Generally has a lower appetite for risk, as decisions may need to consider a wide
range of public interests and potential consequences.

Private Administration: May be more willing to take risks in pursuit of innovation, market share, and
financial gains.

Long-Term vs. Short-Term Focus:

Public Administration: Often focused on long-term societal benefits and stability. Policies and programs
may have a longer time horizon.

Private Administration: Can be more focused on short-term financial performance, responding to

market dynamics and shareholder expectations.

Flexibility and Innovation:

Public Administration: Can be more bureaucratic and less flexible due to the need to adhere to
regulations and established procedures.

Private Administration: Tends to be more flexible and agile, allowing for quicker adaptation to market
changes and innovation.

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While these differences highlight contrasting features between public and private administration, it's
important to note that there can be variations and overlaps, particularly in public-private partnerships
and hybrid organizational structures. Additionally, both sectors can learn from each other and adopt best
practices to improve overall efficiency and effectiveness.

TOPIC 4: BUREAUCRACY AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Introduction
Bureaucracy, is a specific form of organization defined by complexity, division of labour,
permanence, professional management, hierarchical coordination and control, strict chain of
command, and legal authority.

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It is a body of non-elective government officials: an administrative policy-making group
It can also be defined as a government characterized by specialization of functions, adherence to
fixed rules, and a hierarchy of authority: a system of administration marked by officialism, red
tape, and proliferation
It is distinguished from informal and collegial organizations. In its ideal form, bureaucracy is
impersonal and rational and based on rules rather than ties of kinship, friendship, or patrimonial
or charismatic authority. Bureaucratic organization can be found in both public and private
institutions.
Characteristics and Paradoxes of Bureaucracy and their Relations to Public Administration

The foremost theorist of bureaucracy is the German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920), who
described the ideal characteristics of bureaucracies and offered an explanation for the historical
emergence of bureaucratic institutions. According to Weber, the defining features of bureaucracy
sharply distinguish it from other types of organization based on nonlegal forms of authority. Weber
observed that the advantage of bureaucracy was that it was the most technically proficient form of
organization, possessing specialized expertise, certainty, continuity, and unity. Bureaucracy’s
emergence as a preferred form of organization occurred with the rise of a money-based economy
(which ultimately resulted in the development of capitalism) and the attendant need to ensure
impersonal, rational-legal transactions. Instrumental organizations (e.g., public-stock business
firms) soon arose because their bureaucratic organization equipped them to handle the various
demands of capitalist production more efficiently than small-scale producers.

Contemporary stereotypes of bureaucracy tend to portray it as unresponsive, lethargic,

undemocratic, and incompetent. Weber’s theory of bureaucracy, however, emphasizes not only its
comparative technical and proficiency advantages but also attributes its dominance as a form of
organization to the diminution of caste systems (such as feudalism) and other forms of inequitable
social relations based upon a person’s status. In the pure form of bureaucratic organization
universalized rules and procedures would dominate, rendering personal status or connections
irrelevant. In this form, bureaucracy is the epitome of universalized standards under which similar
cases are treated similarly as codified by law and rules, and under which the individual tastes and
discretion of the administrator are constrained by due process rules. Despite the

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widespread derogatory stereotypes of bureaucracy, a system of government grounded
in law requires bureaucracy to function.

Nevertheless, the words bureaucracy and bureaucrat are typically thought of and used
pejoratively. They convey images of red tape, excessive rules and regulations, unimaginativeness,
a lack of individual discretion, central control, and an absence of accountability. Far from being
conceived as proficient, popular contemporary portrayals often paint bureaucracies as inefficient
and lacking in adaptability. Because the characteristics that define the organizational advantages
of bureaucracy also contain within them the possibilities of organizational dysfunction, both the
flattering and unflattering depictions of bureaucracy can be accurate. Thus, the characteristics that
make bureaucracies proficient paradoxically also may produce organizational pathologies.

Jurisdictional competency

Jurisdictional competency is a key element of bureaucratic organization, which is broken into units
with defined responsibilities. Fundamentally, jurisdictional competency refers to bureaucratic
specialization, with all elements of a bureaucracy possessing a defined role. The responsibilities
of individuals broaden with movement upward through an organizational hierarchy. The
organizational division of labour enables units and individuals within an organization to master
details and skills and to turn the novel into the routine. Although the division of labour is highly
efficient, it can lead to a number of harmful organizational pathologies; for example, units or
individuals may be unable to identify and respond adequately to problems outside their
competency and may approach all problems and priorities exclusively from the purview of a unit’s
specific capabilities. This feature of bureaucracy also can lead organizational units to shirk
responsibility by allowing them to define a problem as belonging to some other unit and thereby
leave the issue unattended. Alternatively, every unit within an organization is apt to put a face on
a problem congenial mainly to its own interests, skills, and technologies.
Command and control

Bureaucracies have clear lines of command and control. Bureaucratic authority is organized
hierarchically, with responsibility taken at the top and delegated with decreasing discretion below.
Because of the risk of organizational parochialism produced by limited and specific

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jurisdictional competencies, the capacity to coordinate and control the multiplicity of units is
essential. Authority is the glue that holds together diversity and prevents units from exercising
unchecked discretion. Yet, few features of bureaucratic life have received so much adverse
attention as the role of hierarchical authority as a means for achieving organizational command
and control. Popular criticisms emphasize that hierarchical organization strangles creative
impulses and injects hyper-cautious modes of behaviour based on expectations of what superiors
may desire. Command and control, which are necessary to coordinate the disparate elements of
bureaucratic organization, provide for increasing responsibility upward, delegation, and
decreasing discretion downward.

Continuity

Continuity is another key element of bureaucratic organization. Rational-legal authority

necessitates uniform rules and procedures for written documents and official behaviour. A
bureaucracy’s files (i.e., its past records) provide it with organizational memory, thereby enabling
it to follow precedent and standard operating procedures. The ability to utilize standard operating
procedures makes organizations more efficient by decreasing the costs attached to any given
transaction. Organizational files record procedures, antecedent behaviour, and personnel records.
They also allow an organization to be continuous and, thus, independent of any specific leadership.
On the whole, continuity is vital to an organization’s capacity to retain its identity and even
its culture. Without its records, it would be impossible to maintain transactions grounded in
legality. Yet continuity also has a dysfunctional side, leading organizations to behave predictably
and conservatively or, worse perhaps, merely reflexively. Continuity also may lead a bureaucracy
to repeat regularly activities that may be inaccurate and whose inaccuracies thereby cumulate.

Professionalization

Professionalization of management, another basic element of bureaucracy, requires a full-time

corps of officials whose attention is devoted exclusively to its managerial responsibilities. In
government, professionalization is vested in the corps of civil servants whose positions have
generally been obtained through the passage of tests based upon merit. The civil service is

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sometimes considered a permanent government, distinct from the transient politicians who serve
only for a limited time and at the pleasure of the electorate in democratic political systems.

In businesses and in other nongovernmental bureaucratic organizations, there is also a professional

cadre of managers. Professionalization increases expertise and continuity within the organization.
Even when organizations are temporarily leaderless or experience turmoil in their top leadership
positions, the professional cadre helps to maintain an organizational equilibrium. The virtues of
professionalization are clear: without a professional corps, organizations would suffer from crises
induced by incompetency. Professionalization thus contributes to the superior technical
proficiency that Weber claimed was the hallmark of bureaucratic organization.

Despite its virtues, professionalization also carries potential risks. Often the professional corps of
managerial experts itself becomes a covert source of power because it has superior knowledge
compared with those who are its nominal but temporary superiors. By virtue of greater experience,
mastery of detail, and organizational and substantive knowledge, professional bureaucrats may
exercise strong influence over decisions made by their leaders. The existence of powerful
bureaucrats raises issues of accountability and responsibility, particularly in democratic systems;
bureaucrats are supposedly the agents of their leaders, but their superior knowledge of detail can
place them in a position of indispensability. In addition, although a permanent corps of officials
brings expertise and mastery of detail to decision making, it also deepens the
innate conservatism of a bureaucracy. The permanent corps is usually skeptical of novelty because
the essence of bureaucratic organization is to turn past novelties into present routines. Professional
bureaucrats, be they in the civil or private sector, also tend to favour the organizational status quo
because their investments (e.g., training and status) are tied to it. Consequently, the more
professionalized the cadre becomes, the more likely it is to resist the intrusion of external forces.

Rules

Rules are the lifeblood of bureaucratic organization, providing a rational and continuous basis for
procedures and operations. An organization’s files provide the inventory of accumulated rules.
Bureaucratic decisions and—above all—procedures are grounded in codified rules and precedents.
Although most people dislike rules that inhibit them, the existence of rules is characteristic of

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legal-rational authority, ensuring that decisions are not arbitrary, that standardized procedures are
not readily circumvented, and that order is maintained. Rules are the essence of bureaucracy but
are also the bane of leaders who want to get things done their way instantly.

Rules restrain arbitrary behaviour, but they also can provide formidable roadblocks to
achievement. The accumulation of rules sometimes leads to the development of inconsistencies,
and the procedures required to change any element of the status quo may become extraordinarily
onerous as a result of the rule-driven character of bureaucracy. One perspective holds that the
strict adherence to rules restricts the ability of a bureaucracy to adapt to new circumstances. By
contrast, markets, which can operate with very few rules, force rapid adaptation to changing
circumstances. Yet, most major business organizations are arranged in bureaucratic form because
hierarchy and delegated responsibility reduce the transaction costs of making decisions.
In Summary:
Bureaucracy derives its authority from law.
Bureaucracy has differentiated offices or units that have specialized competencies and
jurisdictions.
Bureaucracy is characterized by an internally hierarchical system of authority required to bring
its distinctive parts together as part of a unified system of coordination.
Bureaucracy is also characterized by rules and procedures that govern its internal functions.
Bureaucracy is characterized by a full-time staff of officials. In governments, these officials are
known as civil servants; they represent the continuity of the organization of government.
Thus, the most basic elements of pure bureaucratic organization are its emphasis on procedural
regularity, a hierarchical system of accountability and responsibility, specialization of function,
continuity, a legal-rational basis, and fundamental conservatism. The emergence of capitalism and
the emphasis on standard currency transactions over and above barter systems created the need for
bureaucratic forms of organization in both the private and public sectors. However, the critical
elements of the bureaucratic form of organization also can conflict with one another and are often
at the base of criticisms that regard bureaucracies as dysfunctional. In sum, what makes
bureaucracy work also may work against it.

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Bureaucracy and the state

All forms of governance require administration, but only within the past few centuries has
the bureaucratic form become relatively common. Although Weber observed bureaucratic forms
of administration in ancient Egypt, during the later stages of the Roman Empire, in the Roman
Catholic Church, and in imperial China, the rise of the modern nation-state was accompanied by
a commensurate elevation in the status of its administration, the bureaucratization of the
administration, and the indispensability of its permanent officialdom. The bureaucracy, in service
to the crown, was the manifestation of the state. Building the state essentially was identified with
the increasing proficiency of its bureaucratic apparatus and the status of its permanent officials.

The development of public bureaucracy generally accompanied the capacity of a state to extend
its reach and to unite its territories under a single sovereignty. The establishment of a full-time
administrative cadre was a sign of a government’s administrative unity and its capacity
to implement its writ. The bureaucratization of the state, odd as it may initially seem, typically
provided the basis for its democratization because it eliminated feudal, plutocratic, and patrimonial
bases of administration. Some states, typically those that experienced a struggle to break the power
base of a provincial aristocracy, developed a strong professional bureaucracy to serve the crown
and unify the state. During the reign of Louis XIV (1643–1715), France established a strong
professional corps of officials responsible for public works, extracting revenues, and otherwise
supporting the ambitions of the crown. The term bureaucracy, coined (as bureaucratie) in the mid-
18th century by the French philosophe Vincent de Gournay, is derived from the French bureau,
meaning “writing desk,” and -cratie, meaning “government.” In the 19th century the Meiji
Restoration in Japan (1868–1912), motivated by powerful modernizing ambitions, centralized the
state, weakened the aristocracy, and created a powerful bureaucracy. By contrast, Britain’s more
powerful aristocracy continued to wield amateur administrative functions until well into the 19th
century, when a professionalized civil service eventually emerged. In the United States a
professional civil service was not created at the federal level until 1883, and in many of its states
and localities not until much later. The actual realization of a modern bureaucracy at the federal
level in the United States was a patchwork, reflecting responses to specific problems and its
complicated system of political authority.

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Traditionally, governments have reformed their administrative operations in response to evident
failures (e.g., the inability to deal with crises or to function effectively in warfare) and the need to
create universal systems of benefits (e.g., pensions, health care, and education), both of which
require revenue extraction by an efficient institution. Until the end of the 20th century,
administrative reforms generally strengthened the meritocratic and universalistic bases of
administrative organization to guard against the malignant influences of corruption, a lack of
accountability, and patronage. However, by the 1980s, antibureaucratic reform efforts in
established democracies gained momentum, emphasizing decentralization and market-
based decision making and, in some instances, even the replacement of full-time civil servants
with managers on contract. In order to increase flexibility and adaptability and to make the public
sphere smaller and more performance-oriented, the de-bureaucratization of the state’s
administrative apparatus became fashionable, if not comprehensively applied. Those reforms often
fell under the rubric of what was called New Public Management.

The administrative apparatus of the state in developing countries, however, rarely has come close
to achieving the impersonal, rule-based status that Weber depicted. Nor has it generally been able
to produce the level of proficiency that Weber claimed was characteristic of bureaucracy. Often
the lack of sufficient resources to pay officials in resource-scarce societies has led to corruption
and, at the very least, shirking on the job so that officials can tend to other, more remunerative
ventures. The absence of a strong professionalized corps of officials in such settings has meant
that the civil service is often a source of patronage, allowing leaders to pay off supporters or deter
the formation of an opposition. As these countries generally lack adequate resources, the state
bureaucracy has less to extract to allow for the proficient delivery of services.

Many of the problems identified in developing countries, of course, affect even the
most affluent countries, though usually to a lesser degree. The extent to which bureaucracy
performs in accordance with the Weberian characterization is related to the external circumstances
governing its capabilities. As a consequence, when these resources are lacking or when there is
little basis for the rule of rational-legal authority, the state bureaucracy is unable to act in ways that
may make it accountable, proficient, or rule-based. Further, when pay is low and educational
resources limited, the officials responsible for running the administrative machinery may have
inadequate skills and become susceptible to corruption and shirking. Thus, the fact that the

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administrative apparatus of a state is casually referred to as “the bureaucracy” (or its officials as
“bureaucrats”) says little about how proximate to or distant from the Weberian ideal of bureaucracy
it is.

In developing countries, ideas about administrative reform often move in the direction of the more
formalistic Weberian ideal—particularly the creation of universalistic standards, regular
procedures, and accountability. By contrast, in more-affluent countries, there is some emphasis,
particularly but not exclusively in the largely English-speaking democracies, to reduce
administrative formalism associated with bureaucracy, diminish the number of rules, and increase
discretion and performance accountability lower down in organizations. Whereas in developing
countries the main need is the reduction of corruption, in more established countries the reform
motif is focused on rapid adaptability and performance. In settings where the state bureaucracy is
believed to have been essential to the identity and performance of the state itself (e.g., France and
Germany), there is more resistance to the introduction of market criteria to evaluate the state
administrative apparatus or to disrupt prevailing patterns of civil service recruitment and training.

In summary,
What is bureaucracy in public administration?
Bureaucracy in public administration refers to a structured organizational system characterized by
hierarchical authority, standardized procedures, and specialized roles. It is a system through which
government agencies and institutions carry out their functions, implement policies, and deliver
public services. Here are some key characteristics and components of bureaucracy in public
administration:
Hierarchical Structure: Bureaucracies have a clear chain of command with levels of authority,
where decisions and instructions flow from the top down to lower levels. This structure helps
maintain order and accountability.
Specialization: Bureaucratic organizations are divided into specialized units or departments, each
responsible for specific functions or tasks. This division of labor allows for expertise to develop
in specific areas.
Formal Rules and Procedures: Bureaucracies operate based on established rules, regulations, and
procedures. These formal guidelines help ensure consistency and fairness in decision-making.

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Impersonality: Bureaucracies aim to treat all individuals equally and impartially, regardless of
personal attributes or relationships. Decisions are based on established rules rather than personal
preferences.
Merit-based Employment: Bureaucracies often emphasize hiring and promoting individuals based
on their qualifications, skills, and performance, rather than on political or personal connections.
Clear Job Descriptions: Each position within a bureaucratic organization has a clearly defined set
of responsibilities, roles, and tasks. This clarity helps employees understand their duties and
expectations.
Record Keeping and Documentation: Bureaucracies maintain detailed records of their activities,
decisions, and transactions. This documentation helps ensure accountability and transparency.
Impartial Decision-making: Bureaucratic decisions are ideally made based on objective criteria
and established procedures, rather than on personal biases or political considerations.
Stability and Predictability: Bureaucracies aim to provide stability and predictability in the
execution of government functions. This helps ensure that public services are delivered
consistently over time.
Professionalism: Bureaucratic employees are expected to adhere to professional standards of
conduct and ethics in their interactions with the public and colleagues.
Accountability: Bureaucratic organizations are accountable for their actions and performance.
They are subject to oversight by higher authorities, and they are often required to report on their
activities.
Inflexibility: While bureaucracies provide stability, they can also be criticized for being slow to
adapt to changing circumstances or for being resistant to innovation.
Impediments to Quick Decision-making: Due to the need to follow formal procedures and obtain
approvals at various levels, bureaucracies may be perceived as slow in making decisions,
particularly in urgent situations.
Bureaucracy is a common and necessary feature of modern government. It provides a framework
for organizing and managing complex tasks and ensures that public resources are used efficiently
and effectively. However, it is important to strike a balance between the benefits of bureaucracy
and the need for flexibility and responsiveness in public administration.

Why is bureaucracy important in public administration?

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Bureaucracy is important in public administration for several reasons:
Efficiency and Effectiveness: Bureaucratic structures are designed to handle complex tasks
efficiently. They provide clear procedures and guidelines for carrying out various functions, which
helps ensure that tasks are completed in a systematic and organized manner.
Division of Labor: Bureaucracies allow for specialization, where individuals focus on specific
tasks or areas of expertise. This division of labor leads to increased productivity and higher quality
outcomes.
Standardization and Consistency: Bureaucracies rely on established rules, regulations, and
procedures. This standardization helps ensure that similar situations are treated consistently and
fairly, reducing the likelihood of arbitrary or discriminatory decisions.
Accountability and Transparency: Bureaucracies are structured to be accountable for their actions.
They keep records, document decisions, and are subject to oversight by higher authorities or
external bodies. This transparency helps prevent corruption and ensures that decisions are made in
the public interest.
Impersonality: Bureaucracies aim to treat individuals impartially, without favoritism or
discrimination. Decisions are based on established rules and criteria, rather than personal
relationships or biases.
Stability and Predictability: Bureaucracies provide stability in the execution of government
functions. This ensures that public services are delivered consistently over time, regardless of
changes in political leadership.
Expertise and Specialization: Bureaucracies allow for the development of specialized knowledge
and skills within specific departments or units. This expertise is crucial for handling complex
issues and making informed decisions.
Merit-Based Employment: Bureaucracies often emphasize hiring and promoting individuals based
on their qualifications and performance, rather than on political or personal connections. This
promotes a professional and capable workforce.
Record Keeping and Documentation: Bureaucracies maintain detailed records of their activities,
which serves as a valuable resource for future reference, analysis, and evaluation.

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Protection of Rights and Due Process: Bureaucracies provide a framework for ensuring that
individuals' rights are protected and that due process is followed. This is particularly important in
areas such as law enforcement, justice, and regulatory compliance.
Resource Allocation and Budget Management: Bureaucratic structures are instrumental in
managing and allocating public resources efficiently. They help ensure that funds are used in
accordance with established priorities and objectives.
Risk Management: Bureaucracies often have established procedures for risk assessment and
management. This helps identify potential issues or challenges in advance and allows for proactive
measures to mitigate them.
While bureaucracy provides many benefits, it's important to acknowledge that it can also have
drawbacks, such as potential for inflexibility, slow decision-making, and a tendency towards red
tape. Striking a balance between the benefits of bureaucracy and the need for flexibility and
responsiveness is an ongoing challenge in public administration.

CHAPTER 5: ACCOUNTABILITY AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Accountability in public administration refers to the obligation of government officials and

institutions to answer for their actions, decisions, and policies. It is a fundamental principle that

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underpins democratic governance and ensures that those in positions of authority are held
responsible for their conduct and the outcomes of their actions.

Here are some key aspects of accountability in public administration:

Answerability: Public officials and institutions are expected to provide explanations for their
actions, decisions, and policies. They should be able to justify their choices and demonstrate that
they align with the public interest.
Transparency: This involves making information about government activities, decisions, and
spending readily available to the public. Transparency facilitates public scrutiny and helps in
holding officials accountable for their actions.
Responsiveness: Public officials should be attentive and receptive to the needs and concerns of the
citizens they serve. They should be willing to engage with the public, address grievances, and
adjust policies when necessary.
Compliance with Laws and Regulations: Public administrators are expected to operate within the
bounds of the law. This includes adhering to established procedures, regulations, and legal
frameworks.
Performance Evaluation: Government agencies and officials should be subject to performance
assessments. This may involve setting clear objectives, measuring progress, and evaluating
outcomes to ensure that public resources are used effectively and efficiently.
Checks and Balances: Accountability is reinforced through a system of checks and balances, where
different branches of government (such as the legislative, executive, and judicial branches) have
oversight functions to monitor and regulate each other's activities.
Ethical Conduct: Public officials are expected to uphold high standards of ethics and integrity in
their actions. This includes avoiding conflicts of interest, treating all citizens fairly, and acting in
the best interests of the public.
Corrective Measures and Sanctions: When public officials or institutions fail to meet their
obligations or engage in misconduct, there should be mechanisms in place to hold them
accountable. This may involve disciplinary actions, legal proceedings, or other corrective
measures.

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Citizen Participation: Engaging citizens in the decision-making process and allowing them to have
a say in public policies enhances accountability. It gives the public a direct role in shaping
government actions.
Independent Oversight Bodies: These are independent agencies or bodies tasked with monitoring
and evaluating the performance of government agencies and officials. They provide an additional
layer of accountability by conducting audits, investigations, and reviews.
Media and Civil Society: A free and independent media plays a crucial role in holding public
officials accountable by investigating and reporting on government activities. Additionally, civil
society organizations and advocacy groups can act as watchdogs, advocating for transparency and
accountability.
Learning and Improvement: Accountability also involves a commitment to learning from past
mistakes and continuously improving government processes and policies.
Overall, accountability in public administration is essential for maintaining trust in government
institutions and ensuring that they serve the best interests of the public. It helps to prevent abuses
of power, corruption, and inefficiency, ultimately contributing to a healthy and functioning
democracy.

Accountability in public administration systems is crucial for several reasons:

Preventing Abuse of Power: It serves as a check on government officials and institutions,

preventing them from using their authority for personal gain or to the detriment of the public.
Maintaining Trust and Legitimacy: When citizens see that government officials are held
accountable for their actions, it builds trust in the system. This trust is essential for a functioning
democracy.
Ensuring Transparency: Accountability promotes transparency by requiring officials to be open
and honest about their actions and decisions. This transparency helps citizens understand how and
why certain policies are implemented.
Promoting Ethical Conduct: It encourages public officials to adhere to high ethical standards,
promoting fairness, integrity, and honesty in their interactions with the public.

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Improving Efficiency and Effectiveness: Holding public officials accountable for their
performance encourages them to use resources effectively and efficiently. This leads to better
outcomes for the public.
Encouraging Innovation and Learning: Knowing that their actions will be scrutinized, public
officials are incentivized to seek innovative solutions and to learn from past mistakes.
Protecting Human Rights: Accountability mechanisms help ensure that government actions respect
and protect the rights of citizens, preventing abuses and violations.
Preventing Corruption: Accountability measures can act as a deterrent to corruption, as officials
know that they may face consequences if they engage in corrupt practices.
Facilitating Continuous Improvement: Through regular assessments and evaluations,
accountability encourages a culture of continuous improvement within public administration. This
can lead to better policies, services, and governance.
Providing Redress for Grievances: When citizens believe they have been treated unfairly or
unjustly, accountability mechanisms provide avenues for seeking redress and rectification.
Balancing Power in Democracy: In a democratic system, accountability helps maintain a balance
of power between different branches of government and ensures that no one entity becomes too
dominant.
Enhancing Public Participation: Knowing that their voices are heard and that government officials
are answerable for their actions, citizens are more likely to engage in civic activities and participate
in the democratic process.
Promoting Long-term Planning and Sustainability: Public officials are more likely to engage in
long-term planning and sustainable policies if they know they will be held accountable for the
consequences of their decisions.
Overall, accountability is a cornerstone of effective and responsible governance. It ensures that
public administration serves the best interests of the public, upholds democratic values, and
operates in a manner that is fair, just, and transparent. Without accountability, there is a greater
risk of corruption, abuse of power, and erosion of public trust in government institutions.

hat happens when there is lack of accountability in public administration?

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When there is a lack of accountability in public administration, several negative consequences can
arise, which can undermine the functioning of a democratic society and erode public trust in
government.
Here are some of the potential outcomes:
Abuse of Power: Without accountability mechanisms in place, public officials may be more
inclined to misuse their authority for personal gain, favoritism, or to pursue their own interests at
the expense of the public.
Corruption: Lack of accountability can create an environment conducive to corruption, as officials
may feel that they can act with impunity. This can lead to embezzlement, bribery, kickbacks, and
other forms of corrupt practices.
Inefficiency and Waste: Public resources may be mismanaged or misallocated, leading to
inefficiencies in the delivery of public services. Without accountability, there may be little
incentive to use resources effectively.
Lack of Transparency: Transparency is a cornerstone of accountable governance. Without it,
government actions, decisions, and expenditures may be shrouded in secrecy, making it difficult
for citizens to understand and trust the workings of their government.
Diminished Public Trust: A lack of accountability erodes public confidence in government
institutions and officials. Citizens may become disillusioned and skeptical, leading to a decline in
civic engagement and participation.
Unaddressed Grievances: When there is no mechanism for holding officials accountable, citizens
may have no recourse when they feel wronged or treated unfairly by government actions or
policies.
Injustice and Violations of Rights: Without accountability, there may be a higher risk of human
rights violations, as officials may not be held responsible for actions that infringe on the rights of
citizens.
Stifling of Innovation and Progress: When officials are not held accountable, there may be less
incentive to seek innovative solutions or to improve public policies and services.
Unchecked Power Concentration: A lack of accountability can lead to an accumulation of power
in the hands of a few, potentially undermining the principles of democracy and leading to
authoritarian tendencies.

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Loss of Democratic Values: Accountability is a fundamental democratic principle. When it is
lacking, the core values of democracy, such as transparency, fairness, and equal representation,
may be compromised.
Political Instability and Conflict: A lack of accountability can lead to social and political unrest,
as citizens may become frustrated and disillusioned with the government.
Undermined Rule of Law: Without accountability, there is a risk of weakening the rule of law, as
officials may operate without regard for legal constraints or established procedures.
Overall, a lack of accountability in public administration can have far-reaching negative
consequences for society, potentially leading to governance crises, decreased well-being of
citizens, and the erosion of democratic institutions. It is therefore essential to establish and
maintain robust accountability mechanisms in any well-functioning democracy

CHAPTER 6: STRUCTURE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE CIVIL SERVICE

What is a civil service?

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A civil service refers to the body of professional, non-political, and permanent employees who
work for government institutions and agencies. These employees are responsible for implementing
and administering government policies and programs. The civil service is distinct from political
appointees or elected officials, as civil servants are hired based on merit, qualifications, and
experience, rather than political affiliation.
Here are some key characteristics and aspects of a civil service:
Professionalism: Civil servants are expected to possess the necessary qualifications, skills, and
expertise to carry out their roles effectively. They are typically hired based on merit and
performance in competitive exams or evaluations.
Neutrality: Civil servants are expected to be politically neutral and to serve the interests of the
public and the government of the day, regardless of their own political beliefs.
Stability: Civil servants often have job security and enjoy certain protections against arbitrary
dismissal, which can contribute to stability within government institutions.
Impartiality: Civil servants are expected to act impartially and without favoritism. Decisions are
based on established rules, regulations, and procedures.
Continuity: Civil servants provide continuity in government operations, ensuring that essential
services continue even as political administrations change.
Specialization: Civil service positions cover a wide range of functions and responsibilities,
including areas like healthcare, education, law enforcement, finance, and more. This requires
specialized knowledge and expertise in various fields.
Bureaucratic Structure: Civil service positions often follow a hierarchical structure, with clear lines
of authority and responsibilities. This helps maintain order and accountability within government
agencies.
Public Service Values: Civil servants are generally expected to uphold values such as integrity,
accountability, transparency, and a commitment to the public interest.
Ethical Conduct: Civil servants are often subject to codes of conduct and ethical guidelines that
govern their behavior and interactions, both within the organization and in their dealings with the
public.

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Training and Development: Civil service organizations often provide training, professional
development, and opportunities for advancement to help employees improve their skills and
capabilities.
Service to the Community: The primary role of civil servants is to serve the public interest and
provide services to citizens. This can include tasks like managing public resources, delivering
healthcare services, maintaining infrastructure, and more.
Civil services can exist at various levels of government, including national, regional (state or
provincial), and local (municipal or city) levels. The specific structure and functions of civil
services can vary from country to country, reflecting differences in political systems, legal
frameworks, and administrative traditions.

What are the principles that govern the civil service?

The principles that govern the civil service are established to ensure professionalism, impartiality,
efficiency, and accountability in the functioning of government institutions. These principles may
vary somewhat from country to country, but generally include the following:
Meritocracy: Recruitment, hiring, and promotion in the civil service should be based on merit,
qualifications, and performance, rather than political affiliation or personal connections. This
principle ensures that the most qualified individuals are appointed to positions.
Political Neutrality: Civil servants are expected to remain politically neutral and to serve the
government of the day, regardless of their own political beliefs. They implement policies and carry
out tasks based on the decisions of elected officials.
Professionalism and Expertise: Civil servants should possess the necessary knowledge, skills, and
expertise to perform their duties effectively. They are often required to meet specific educational
and professional qualifications.
Impartiality: Civil servants are expected to act objectively and without favoritism. Decisions
should be made based on established rules, regulations, and procedures, rather than personal bias.
Ethical Conduct: Civil servants are typically held to high ethical standards, including honesty,
integrity, transparency, and accountability. They are expected to avoid conflicts of interest and to
act in the best interests of the public.

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Service to the Public Interest: The primary role of civil servants is to serve the interests of the
public and the community. They are responsible for delivering public services, managing
resources, and implementing policies that benefit society.
Accountability and Transparency: Civil servants are accountable for their actions and decisions.
They are often required to keep records, document their activities, and be subject to oversight by
higher authorities or independent bodies.
Stewardship of Public Resources: Civil servants are entrusted with managing public resources
responsibly and efficiently. This includes financial resources, infrastructure, and other assets
owned by the government.
Continuity and Stability: Civil servants provide continuity in government operations, ensuring that
essential services continue to be delivered even as political administrations change.
Adherence to Legal Frameworks: Civil servants are expected to operate within the bounds of the
law, following established legal procedures and regulations in their actions and decisions.
Protection of Human Rights: Civil servants should respect and protect the human rights and dignity
of individuals in the execution of their duties.
Innovation and Improvement: Civil servants are encouraged to seek innovative solutions and to
continuously improve the efficiency and effectiveness of government operations.
Public Confidence and Trust: Civil servants play a role in maintaining public confidence in
government institutions. They should conduct themselves in a manner that upholds the trust and
respect of the public.
These principles collectively aim to ensure that civil servants serve the public interest, uphold
democratic values, and maintain the integrity of government institutions. They provide a
framework for ethical and responsible conduct within the civil service

Structure of a civil service

The structure of a civil service can vary from country to country, but there are common elements
that are typically found in many civil service systems. Here is a general overview of the typical
structure of a civil service:
Entry Level Positions:

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Entry-Level Positions: These are the starting positions for individuals who join the civil service.
They may have titles like "Junior" or "Assistant" and typically require a basic level of education
or relevant qualifications.
Intermediate Level Positions:
Middle Management: These positions are responsible for supervising and overseeing the work of
lower-level employees. They often have titles like "Manager" or "Supervisor" and require a higher
level of experience and expertise.
Senior Level Positions:
Senior Management: These positions are responsible for high-level decision-making and policy
implementation. They may hold titles like "Director," "Deputy Director," or "Assistant Director."
Senior managers often have significant experience and may be appointed based on merit,
experience, or a combination of both.
Executive Level Positions:
Top Management: This level includes the highest-ranking officials in the civil service. They may
have titles like "Secretary," "Commissioner," "Director-General," or "Permanent Secretary,"
depending on the country's terminology. These individuals are responsible for setting policies,
making strategic decisions, and overseeing the entire civil service.
Specialized Departments or Units:
Within the civil service, there may be specialized departments or units that focus on specific areas
such as finance, human resources, legal affairs, public policy, and more. Each department or unit
may have its own hierarchy of positions.
Support and Administrative Positions:
These roles provide essential administrative and logistical support to the functioning of the civil
service. This may include positions in areas like human resources, finance, information
technology, communications, and administrative support staff.
Professional and Technical Positions:
These positions require specialized knowledge or expertise in areas such as law, engineering,
healthcare, education, economics, and more. They often require specific professional
qualifications or licenses.

Civil Service Commission or Public Service Commission:

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In many countries, there is an independent commission responsible for overseeing the recruitment,
appointment, and promotion of civil servants. This commission ensures that appointments are
made based on merit and in accordance with established rules and regulations.

Training and Development:

Civil services often have dedicated training and development units responsible for providing
continuous education and skill-building opportunities for employees. This helps to enhance their
capabilities and adapt to evolving demands.
Advisory and Policy Units:
These units may be responsible for providing advice, conducting research, and formulating
policies that guide the work of the civil service.
It's important to note that the specific structure, titles, and levels within a civil service can vary
significantly from one country to another, and even within different levels of government (national,
regional, local). Additionally, some civil services may have additional specialized units or agencies
depending on the functions they perform. This overview provides a general framework that is
applicable to many civil service systems.

Functions of the civil service

The civil service plays a critical role in the functioning of government and the delivery of public
services. Its functions are diverse and encompass a wide range of responsibilities. Here are some
of the key functions of the civil service:
Policy Formulation and Advice: Civil servants provide expertise and analysis to assist in the
development of government policies and programs. They offer advice based on their specialized
knowledge and experience.
Policy Implementation: Civil servants are responsible for putting government policies and
programs into action. This includes overseeing the execution of policies and ensuring that they are
carried out effectively.

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Regulation and Enforcement: Civil servants are often tasked with regulating various sectors of
society, such as healthcare, education, finance, and more. They enforce laws and regulations to
ensure compliance and protect the public interest.
Service Delivery: Civil servants are directly involved in the delivery of public services, such as
healthcare, education, social services, transportation, and more. They manage and operate the
systems that provide these services to citizens.
Administration and Management: Civil servants handle the administrative tasks necessary for the
smooth operation of government agencies and departments. This includes tasks like budgeting,
personnel management, procurement, and record-keeping.
Public Finance Management: Civil servants are responsible for managing public funds, including
budget preparation, financial planning, expenditure control, and accounting. They ensure that
public resources are used efficiently and effectively.
Human Resources Management: Civil servants oversee the recruitment, hiring, training, and
development of government employees. They also manage performance evaluations, promotions,
and disciplinary actions.
Legal and Regulatory Compliance: Civil servants ensure that government actions and policies
comply with applicable laws, regulations, and legal frameworks. They may also be involved in
drafting and reviewing legislation.
Research and Analysis: Civil servants conduct research and analysis on various issues to inform
policy development and decision-making. This may involve collecting and analyzing data,
conducting studies, and producing reports.
Emergency Management and Disaster Response: Civil servants are often involved in planning and
responding to emergencies, natural disasters, and crises. They coordinate resources and services
to protect public safety and mitigate risks.
Diplomacy and International Relations: In some cases, civil servants may be involved in
diplomatic efforts and international relations, representing the government in negotiations,
conferences, and international organizations.
Information Technology and Innovation: Civil servants play a crucial role in managing and
implementing technology solutions to improve government operations, enhance services, and
increase efficiency.

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Community Engagement and Public Communication: Civil servants may engage with the public
to gather feedback, address concerns, and provide information about government policies and
services.
These functions collectively contribute to the effective functioning of government and the delivery
of services to citizens. The specific responsibilities and roles of civil servants may vary depending
on the country, level of government, and the specific functions of the agencies or departments they
work for.

CHAPTER 7: MANAGEMENT IN THE CIVIL SERVICE

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Management in the civil service refers to the processes and practices used to plan, organize, lead,
and control the activities of government agencies and departments. Effective management is
crucial for ensuring that public services are delivered efficiently, policies are implemented
effectively, and resources are used wisely.
Here are some key aspects of management in the civil service:
Strategic Planning: Civil service management involves setting long-term goals, objectives, and
priorities for government agencies. This includes identifying the most pressing issues, allocating
resources, and developing strategies to achieve desired outcomes.
Organizational Structure: Managers in the civil service are responsible for designing and
maintaining the organizational structure of their agencies. This includes determining reporting
relationships, defining roles and responsibilities, and creating clear lines of authority.
Resource Allocation: Managers allocate resources, including budgetary funds, personnel, and
physical assets, to support the delivery of public services and the implementation of government
policies.
Performance Management: This involves setting performance goals and expectations for
employees, conducting regular performance evaluations, providing feedback, and recognizing
achievements. It also includes addressing performance issues when they arise.
Human Resource Management: Managers oversee the recruitment, hiring, training, and
development of staff. They also handle personnel matters, such as promotions, transfers, and
disciplinary actions.
Budgeting and Financial Management: Civil service managers are responsible for developing and
managing budgets, ensuring that funds are allocated appropriately, and overseeing financial
reporting and accountability.
Policy Implementation: Managers play a key role in translating government policies and decisions
into actionable plans and programs. They coordinate the efforts of their teams to ensure that
policies are carried out effectively.
Stakeholder Engagement: Managers often interact with various stakeholders, including elected
officials, community organizations, interest groups, and the public. They seek input, address
concerns, and communicate information about government activities.

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Conflict Resolution: Managers are responsible for managing conflicts that may arise within their
agencies or between different stakeholders. They work to find constructive solutions and maintain
a productive work environment.
Innovation and Process Improvement: Effective civil service managers encourage innovation and
seek ways to improve processes and procedures. They look for opportunities to increase efficiency
and effectiveness in service delivery.
Compliance and Accountability: Managers ensure that their agencies operate in compliance with
laws, regulations, and established policies. They also uphold standards of accountability by
monitoring performance and addressing any discrepancies or issues.
Crisis and Risk Management: Managers are often tasked with planning for and responding to
emergencies, crises, or unforeseen events. They coordinate resources and actions to protect public
safety and mitigate risks.
Ethical Leadership: Civil service managers are expected to lead by example and uphold high
standards of ethical conduct. They set a tone of integrity and transparency for their teams.
Effective management in the civil service is essential for maintaining public trust, ensuring the
efficient use of resources, and achieving positive outcomes for citizens. It requires a combination
of strategic thinking, organizational skills, leadership abilities, and a commitment to public service
values.

Administrative Agencies in Public Administration

Administrative agencies are specialized government bodies or organizations responsible for
implementing specific policies, overseeing specific functions, and regulating particular sectors of
society. They play a crucial role in public administration by carrying out the day-to-day operations
of government and ensuring that policies and laws are executed effectively.
Here are some key characteristics and functions of administrative agencies in public
administration:
Specialization: Administrative agencies are often created to focus on specific areas of governance,
such as healthcare, education, environmental protection, labor, transportation, and more. This
specialization allows them to develop expertise in their respective fields.

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Regulation and Enforcement: Many administrative agencies are tasked with regulating industries,
businesses, and individuals to ensure compliance with laws and regulations. They have the
authority to enforce rules, issue licenses, and impose penalties for non-compliance.
Policy Implementation: Administrative agencies are responsible for putting government policies
and programs into action. They translate legislative intent into practical initiatives and oversee
their execution.
Expertise and Technical Knowledge: Agencies typically employ experts, professionals, and
specialists in their respective fields. This allows them to make informed decisions and provide
specialized services.
Rulemaking and Administrative Law: Agencies have the authority to promulgate rules and
regulations to clarify, interpret, and enforce laws. These rules have the force of law and are an
important aspect of administrative law.
Licensing and Permits: Many agencies issue licenses, permits, and certifications to individuals,
businesses, and organizations that meet certain qualifications or criteria. These licenses often grant
permission to engage in specific activities or professions.
Adjudication and Dispute Resolution: Some agencies have quasi-judicial functions, meaning they
can hold hearings, make determinations, and settle disputes within their areas of jurisdiction.
Data Collection and Analysis: Agencies often collect data, conduct research, and analyze
information related to their areas of responsibility. This data-driven approach helps inform policy
decisions and assess the impact of government programs.
Public Services and Programs: Many agencies directly deliver services and programs to the public.
This can include services like healthcare, education, social welfare, and more.
Compliance Monitoring and Inspections: Agencies conduct inspections and audits to ensure
compliance with laws, regulations, and standards. They may also investigate complaints and
reports of non-compliance.
Emergency Management and Response: Certain agencies are responsible for coordinating and
responding to emergencies, natural disasters, and crises. They work to protect public safety and
mitigate risks.
Stakeholder Engagement: Agencies often interact with various stakeholders, including industry
representatives, advocacy groups, community organizations, and the public. They seek input,
address concerns, and communicate information about their activities.

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Transparency and Accountability: Administrative agencies are subject to principles of
transparency and accountability. They are required to operate in a manner that is open to public
scrutiny, and they may be subject to oversight by elected officials, independent bodies, or the
judiciary.
Administrative agencies are a vital component of the public administration system, helping to
bridge the gap between policy formulation and implementation. They provide specialized
knowledge and expertise, ensure regulatory compliance, and deliver essential services to citizens.

Administrative Agencies
The specific administrative agencies at work in public administration vary significantly from one
country to another, and even within different levels of government (national, regional, local).
Additionally, the functions and responsibilities of administrative agencies can change over time
due to legislative reforms and shifts in government priorities. However, I can provide some
examples of common types of administrative agencies that are typically found in public
administrations:
Health and Human Services Agencies: These agencies are responsible for overseeing healthcare
delivery, public health programs, social services, and related areas.
Education Departments or Ministries: These agencies focus on the administration and regulation
of educational institutions, curriculum development, and student services.
Environmental Protection Agencies: These agencies are tasked with monitoring and regulating
environmental quality, natural resource management, pollution control, and conservation efforts.
Labor and Employment Agencies: These agencies oversee labor laws, workplace safety,
employment regulations, and programs related to workforce development.
Transportation Departments: These agencies manage transportation infrastructure, including
roads, bridges, public transit systems, and aviation.
Financial and Regulatory Authorities: These agencies oversee financial institutions, securities
markets, banking, insurance, and related industries.
Law Enforcement and Justice Agencies: These agencies are responsible for upholding and
enforcing the law, maintaining public safety, and overseeing the criminal justice system.
Regulatory Commissions (e.g., Utilities, Communications): These agencies regulate specific
industries or sectors, such as utilities (e.g., electricity, water), telecommunications, and more.

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Consumer Protection and Trade Commissions: These agencies protect consumers' rights, enforce
fair trade practices, and regulate consumer markets.
Housing and Urban Development Agencies: These agencies focus on housing policies, urban
planning, and community development efforts.
Immigration and Border Control Agencies: These agencies manage immigration policies, border
security, and naturalization processes.
Emergency Management and Disaster Response Agencies: These agencies coordinate
preparedness, response, and recovery efforts during emergencies, natural disasters, and crises.
Regulatory and Licensing Boards (e.g., Medical, Legal): These agencies oversee the professional
qualifications and standards for specific occupations, such as healthcare professionals, lawyers,
and engineers.
Agriculture and Food Safety Agencies: These agencies regulate agricultural practices, food safety
standards, and related industries.
Cultural and Heritage Agencies: These agencies may be responsible for the preservation and
promotion of cultural heritage, arts, and cultural programs.
It's important to note that this list provides general examples, and the actual administrative agencies
present in a specific country or jurisdiction may have different names, structures, and functions.
Additionally, some agencies may have overlapping or shared responsibilities. For precise
information about the administrative agencies in a particular region, it's best to refer to official
government sources or organizational charts provided by the relevant government entity.

The role of administration in development of Africa.

Introduction

Administration is described as public implementation of government policy carried out by people

who work in that organization or agencies and perform various tasks.

Administration refers to management of public affairs by government for example hospitals and
schools.

Development is an event constituting a new stage in a changing situation from one stage to another.

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Administration helps to establish and strengthen the minimum legal and public service
preconditions to economics development, namely law and order and security in general
infrastructure demands, money and banking institution and legal and administrative structure
favourable to conduct of economic activities by both domestic and foreign enterprise.

Administration, for instance public administration help the Africa government in policy making
and arranging affairs of society according to demand through the process of prioritizing.

Administration is important for organizations, government institutions and non governmental

facilities to properly organize work procedures and control.

Through administration, administrator maintain social cohesion and harmony by solving

problems and by settling social tensions and conflicts.

Administration is dominant instrument of social change and economic development, especially

in the developing nations of Africa.

Public Administration plays an important role in each and every aspect of

individual’s life and is an important instrument for development and making realistic
policies.

Roles of administration in socio economic development in Africa.

Administration act as the main role and help political executive to accomplish its objectives
in African countries. Africa has got developing countries which has limited resources, so
administration help in ensuring resources are equally distributed among the citizens and help to
improve the socio-economic development.

Administration also plays an important role in bringing about economic growth of the
country by operating in industries and giving loans to citizens.

Administration provides a range of service like education, health, cultural insurance, housing
unemployment benefits and communication and transport to the African countries. It also helps in
reducing the gap of unemployment by ensuring that the youths are employed by providing the job
markets and opportunities.

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Administration helps in Improving the well- being of the society, removing poverty, diseases
and social illness, removing social and economic disparities and providing countries with
higher education and intensive training in many fields.

Government Budgeting

The importance of Public Administration includes it retain ability to ensure money circulates
through the public. Instead of going to the private sector for access to money, most institutions run
by the government through the field of public administration have shown the Importance of Public
Administration to be that of helping government have its own access to money.

Roles of administration in;

Nation-building

Establishment of offices for civil servants such as chiefs’ offices which helps in maintaining law
and order. This ensures that people can engage in their daily economic activities thus leading to
nation building.

Provision of employment opportunities for nation building. In Kenya for example, National
Hygiene Program (NHP) also known as Kazi Mtaani, is a national initiative that kicked off in April
2020 and which was designed to help the most vulnerable people from the effects of Covid 19
pandemic. This in turn created job opportunities to the youthful population thus reducing crime
rates in society and eventually providing room for development of the nation.

i. Public Administration has important role in nation building.

ii. Building up institutions like public sectors and public corporation.
iii. Developing man power required for developing these institutions.
iv. Human development that is shifting the temperament and adjusting with
technological development.
Providing Public Services

Public administration is the performance of a variety of activities by the government in the interest
of the public.

It ensures that public goods and services are provided for you and I. Some of which include water,
good roads, the supply of power, etc.

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National Unity

Establishment of ministry of culture and sports has promoted unity among African nations. For
example, Confederation of African Football (CAF) has provided an avenue where African nations
come together to compete. This has brought about interaction among Africans from different
nations hence uplifting African unity.

Establishment of democracy

African nations like Kenya have come up with various institutions such as Independent Electoral
and Boundaries Commission (IEBC). This institution has encouraged the people to practice their
democratic rights thus helping the people to choose leaders who will in turn render them freedom.

provides sustainability/ stability in the society.

Through its personnel, they arrange, manage and supervise the organizations that regulate and
control community laws and statutes. As these agencies grow to accommodate the needs of society,
public administrators act as special advisors to satisfy the public's interest and needs. Public
administration supports the network of business owners, residents, developers and investors to
improve the community through housing, economic development, healthcare and social services.
Public administration ensures that there is equity in the society, administrators address fairness,
justice and equity within a variety of public contents. Through this it ensures stability in which it
implements public services to everyone while working to eliminate structural inequalities based on
income and race.

Public administration ensures that law and order continue to exist with a minimum of effort. It aims
to carry on the existing order rather than try innovative paths. It secures the tradition and hence
stabilizes the society. Every society develops conflicts and tension through-out its existence and
public administration is meant to resolve those conflicts and settle social harmony.

Establishment of framework in unified polity

Polity is an identifiable political entity that is a group of people with a collective identity that are
organized by some form of institutionalized social relations and have a capacity to mobilize
resources. A unified polity can only be established through good public administration and
administrators.

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Good administration plays a key role in ensuring unification of people. Specifically unified polity
helps in the planning, organizing, directing, coordinating and controlling of government operation.
Public administration enables the establishment of framework for a unified polity. Good unified
polity promotes policy development and coordination.

An Instrument for Implementing Policies

Implementation of laws, policies, and programs, as well as their execution, is solely rested on public
administration.

Whether we accept it or not, government-formulated policies have a role to play in the growth and
development of the nation.

Hence, public administration ensures the impact these policies have on us is positive

Political socialization

socialization is the process by which individuals learn and frequently internalize a political lens
framing their perception of how power is arranged and how the world around them is (and should
be) organized; those perceptions, in turn, shape and define individuals' definition of who they are
and how they should behave in the political and economic institutions in which they live. Political
socialization also encompasses the way in which people acquire values, attitudes beliefs and norms
which shape their political stance and ideology.

Through the agents of socialization like family, schools, Media, religion, political parties enhance
the development of Africa as they provide us with relevant information and perpetuates values that
supports political authorities that in turn contribute to growth of a country. it's through political
socialization where by two or more countries come together and support each other politically
enhancing growth among them. The socialization enables the countries to solve similar problems
together and moreover advice each other on development plans which in turn makes the countries
more successful and developing.

The attitudes, values and opinions developed through the socialization of the countries enables them
to a bid by the agreement formed and work together. This creates trust among the countries and
makes it easier for them to interact hance encouraging development in social economic sectors.

Serves as the basis of Government

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From the definition of public administration, it entails not only the formulation of government
policies but also their implementation. Consequently, public administration is often regarded as
including also some responsibility for determining the policies and programs of governments.
Specifically, it is the planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, and controlling of government
operations. Moreover, it comprises the provision of services and regulation of inter-group relations
in society.

However, the civil service should not be contrasted with other bodies serving the state full time,
such as the military, the judiciary, and the police. Specialized services, sometimes referred to as
scientific or professional civil services, provide technical rather than general administrative support.
Accordingly, A civil servant, therefore, is one of a body of persons who are directly employed in
the administration of the internal affairs of the state and whose role and status are not political,
ministerial, military, or constabulary.

Within African nations, public administration is practiced at the central, intermediate, and local
levels. Indeed, the relationships between different levels of government within a single nation
constitute pursuing equality and social justice

Social equality is the active commitment to fairness, justice and equality in the formation of public
policy, distribution of public service, implementation of public policy and management of all
institution serving the public direct or by contact.

administration is all about the management of public affairs either through the government.
administration runs the fore front in ensuring that equality and social justice is adhered to fully
without being biased or discriminative.

Those who stive for social justice seek the redistribution of power to enhance the well-being of
individuals through equal access to health, justice and economic opportunity. The administration
will always champion for equality the distribution of state resources should always be equally
among all the citizens or areas that need to have the resources distributed to them.

Therefore, administration brings the unification of a nation and its members. Once the citizens
knows that their government if free and fair, it runs its activities with equality regardless of the race,
status and tribe distributing its resources to the minor places of the nation this brings proudness of
self-nation and proudness is one source of development of a nation

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Pursuing equality and social justice

Social equality is the active commitment to fairness, justice and equality in the formation of public
policy, distribution of public service, implementation of public policy and management of all
institution serving the public direct or by contact.

Administration is all about the management of public affairs either through the government.
Administration runs the fore front in ensuring that equality and social justice is adhered to fully
without being biased or discriminative

Those who stive for social justice seek the redistribution of power to enhance the well-being of
individuals through equal access to health, justice and economic opportunity. The administration
will always champion for equality the distribution of state resources should always be equally
among all the citizens or areas that need to have the resources distributed to them.

Therefore, administration brings the unification of a nation and its members. Once the citizens
knows that their government if free and fair, it runs its activities with equality regardless of the race,
status and tribe distributing its resources to the minor places of the nation this brings proudness of
self-nation and proudness is one source of development of a nation.

Challenges Facing Public Administration

Public administration faces various challenges that can vary depending on the country, level of
government (local, regional, national), and specific circumstances. Here are some common
challenges facing public administration:
Political Interference: Public administrators often face challenges related to political interference,
where elected officials may try to exert undue influence over administrative decisions and
processes.
Bureaucratic Inefficiency: Bureaucracies can become cumbersome and slow-moving, leading to
inefficiencies in delivering services and making decisions.
Resource Constraints: Limited budgets and resources can hinder the ability of public
administrators to effectively carry out their responsibilities, resulting in a strain on service delivery.

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Technological Advancements and Integration: Staying updated with rapidly evolving technologies
and effectively integrating them into administrative processes is a significant challenge.
Transparency and Accountability: Ensuring transparency in decision-making and accountability
for actions taken by public officials is crucial for maintaining public trust.
Economic and Social Inequality: Addressing and mitigating economic and social disparities within
a society is a complex challenge that often falls within the realm of public administration.
Managing Complex Policies: Designing and implementing policies that are effective, fair, and
responsive to changing societal needs can be a daunting task.
Globalization and Interconnectedness: Public administrators must navigate an increasingly
globalized world, considering international relations, trade, and cooperation in their decision-
making processes.
Demographic Shifts: Changes in population demographics, such as aging populations or shifts in
urbanization, can significantly impact the demands placed on public services.
Environmental Sustainability: Addressing environmental challenges, such as climate change and
natural resource management, requires proactive policies and administration.
Cybersecurity and Data Privacy: Protecting sensitive information and ensuring the security of
digital infrastructure is becoming more critical as technology advances.
Crisis Management and Emergency Response: Responding effectively to natural disasters,
pandemics, and other crises requires careful planning, coordination, and resource allocation.
Ethical Dilemmas and Integrity: Upholding high ethical standards and maintaining integrity in
decision-making can be challenging, especially in the face of competing interests.
Workforce Management: Recruiting, retaining, and managing a skilled and diverse workforce is
crucial for the effective functioning of public administration.
Changing Public Expectations: Meeting the evolving expectations of citizens, who may have
higher demands for efficiency, transparency, and responsiveness, is an ongoing challenge.
Legal and Regulatory Compliance: Public administrators must navigate complex legal
frameworks, ensuring compliance with laws and regulations while still achieving organizational
objectives.
Crisis of Trust in Government: Rebuilding and maintaining public trust in government institutions,
which can be eroded by scandals or perceived inefficiencies, is an ongoing challenge.

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Cultural and Diversity Sensitivity: Public administrators need to be culturally sensitive and
inclusive to ensure fair and equitable service delivery to diverse populations.
Long-term Planning and Vision: Balancing short-term political priorities with long-term planning
and vision for the betterment of society can be a delicate task.
Adapting to Rapid Change: Public administrators need to be agile and adaptable in the face of
rapid societal, technological, and economic changes.
These challenges require a combination of strategic planning, effective leadership, policy
innovation, and stakeholder engagement to navigate successfully. Moreover, it's important for
public administrators to work collaboratively with citizens, elected officials, and other
stakeholders to address these challenges and create effective and responsive public policies and
services.

Specific role of Public Administration in Policy Formulation

Public administration plays a crucial role in the formulation of government policies. Here's how:

Policy Analysis and Research: Public administrators often conduct extensive research and analysis
to understand societal needs, identify problems, and assess potential solutions. They gather data,
evaluate existing policies, and analyze their effectiveness in addressing public issues.

Policy Formulation: Public administrators collaborate with policymakers, elected officials,

experts, and stakeholders to develop policy proposals. They provide insights based on their
research findings and expertise to help shape the direction of policies.

Legal and Regulatory Expertise: Public administrators are knowledgeable about legal and
regulatory frameworks. They ensure that proposed policies comply with existing laws and
regulations and assess the potential legal implications of new policies.

Budgeting and Resource Allocation: Public administrators are responsible for budgeting and
resource allocation within government agencies. They provide input on the financial feasibility of
proposed policies, estimate costs, and allocate resources to implement and sustain them.

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Public Engagement and Consultation: Public administrators facilitate public engagement and
consultation processes to gather input from citizens, community groups, and other stakeholders.
They ensure that diverse perspectives are considered in the policy formulation process and promote
transparency and accountability.

Implementation and Evaluation: Public administrators oversee the implementation of government

policies, coordinating the efforts of various agencies and departments involved. They establish
performance metrics and evaluation criteria to assess the impact and effectiveness of policies over
time, making adjustments as needed.

Interagency Coordination: Public administrators foster collaboration and coordination among

different government agencies and levels of government to address complex policy challenges that
require a multi-sectoral approach.

Policy Adaptation and Innovation: Public administrators monitor evolving societal needs,
emerging issues, and changing circumstances. They adapt existing policies or propose innovative
solutions to address new challenges and opportunities effectively.

In summary, public administration serves as a bridge between policymakers, government agencies,

and the public, facilitating the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of government policies
aimed at addressing societal needs and promoting the public interest.
ChatGPT
Public administration plays a pivotal role in the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of
national development programs. Here's how public administration contributes to the process:

Policy Formulation: Public administrators are involved in the initial stages of developing national
development programs. They conduct research, gather data, and analyze trends to identify key
areas of focus for development. They work closely with policymakers, government officials,
experts, and stakeholders to formulate policies and strategies that address national priorities and
goals.

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Coordination and Collaboration: Public administrators facilitate coordination and collaboration
among various government agencies, departments, and stakeholders involved in national
development programs. They ensure that resources, expertise, and efforts are effectively aligned
to achieve program objectives.

Resource Allocation and Budgeting: Public administrators are responsible for allocating resources
and preparing budgets for national development programs. They assess funding requirements,
prioritize initiatives, and allocate funds to different projects and activities based on their
importance and potential impact.

Implementation Oversight: Public administrators oversee the implementation of national

development programs to ensure that activities are carried out according to plan and within budget.
They monitor progress, address challenges, and make adjustments as necessary to keep programs
on track and achieve desired outcomes.

Performance Monitoring and Evaluation: Public administrators establish performance metrics,

indicators, and evaluation criteria to assess the effectiveness and impact of national development
programs. They track progress, measure results, and evaluate the success of interventions to inform
future decision-making and resource allocation.

Stakeholder Engagement and Participation: Public administrators engage with a wide range of
stakeholders, including government officials, civil society organizations, private sector entities,
and local communities, to solicit input, build consensus, and foster ownership of national
development programs. They promote transparency, accountability, and inclusivity throughout the
process.

Policy Adaptation and Innovation: Public administrators continuously monitor changing

economic, social, and environmental conditions to adapt national development policies and
strategies accordingly. They identify emerging challenges, explore innovative solutions, and
integrate new approaches to address evolving needs and opportunities.

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Capacity Building and Institutional Strengthening: Public administrators invest in building the
capacity of government agencies, civil servants, and other stakeholders involved in national
development programs. They provide training, technical assistance, and institutional support to
enhance skills, knowledge, and effectiveness in implementing development initiatives.

Overall, public administration serves as a key enabler and facilitator of national development by
providing leadership, coordination, expertise, and accountability in formulating and implementing
development programs that contribute to the socio-economic progress and well-being of the

Specific role of Public Administration in Evaluation of National Development Programmes.

User
role of Public Administration in Evaluation of National Development Programmes.
ChatGPT
The evaluation of national development programs is essential for assessing their effectiveness,
efficiency, relevance, and impact. Public administration plays a crucial role in conducting
evaluations and utilizing evaluation findings to inform decision-making and improve program
performance. Here's how public administration contributes to the evaluation of national
development programs:

Establishing Evaluation Frameworks: Public administrators develop evaluation frameworks,

methodologies, and criteria to assess the performance and outcomes of national development
programs. They define key performance indicators, set evaluation objectives, and establish
benchmarks for measuring progress and success.

Conducting Evaluations: Public administrators oversee the conduct of evaluations, either

internally within government agencies or through external evaluators and consultants. They
coordinate data collection, analysis, and reporting processes, ensuring that evaluations are
conducted objectively, transparently, and rigorously.

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Analyzing Results: Public administrators analyze evaluation findings to identify strengths,
weaknesses, challenges, and areas for improvement in national development programs. They
assess program performance against predetermined objectives, examine factors contributing to
success or failure, and draw lessons learned for future program design and implementation.

Informing Decision-Making: Public administrators use evaluation results to inform policy

decisions, resource allocation, and program adjustments. They provide evidence-based
recommendations to policymakers, government officials, and other stakeholders on strategies for
enhancing program effectiveness, maximizing impact, and optimizing resource utilization.

Promoting Accountability and Transparency: Public administrators promote accountability and

transparency by sharing evaluation findings and reports with relevant stakeholders, including
government agencies, oversight bodies, civil society organizations, and the public. They
communicate program successes, challenges, and areas needing improvement to foster trust and
accountability in the implementation of national development programs.

Facilitating Learning and Knowledge Sharing: Public administrators facilitate learning and
knowledge sharing by disseminating evaluation findings, best practices, and lessons learned across
government agencies and sectors. They organize workshops, seminars, and training sessions to
promote dialogue, collaboration, and continuous improvement in program evaluation and
management.

Adapting and Innovating: Public administrators use evaluation findings to adapt and innovate
national development programs in response to changing circumstances, emerging challenges, and
evolving priorities. They explore new approaches, strategies, and interventions based on insights
gained from evaluations to enhance program relevance, effectiveness, and sustainability.

Building Evaluation Capacity: Public administrators invest in building the capacity of government
agencies, civil servants, and other stakeholders to conduct evaluations effectively. They provide
training, technical assistance, and resources to enhance skills, knowledge, and expertise in
evaluation methodologies, data analysis, and interpretation.

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In summary, public administration plays a critical role in the evaluation of national development
programs by establishing evaluation frameworks, conducting rigorous evaluations, analyzing
results, informing decision-making, promoting accountability and transparency, facilitating
learning and knowledge sharing, adapting and innovating programs, and building evaluation
capacity. Effective evaluation practices contribute to evidence-based policymaking, improved
program performance, and better outcomes for citizens and communities.

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