VIVEKANANDA INSTITUTE OF PROFESSIONAL STUDIES - TECHNICAL CAMPUS

Grade A++ Accredited Institution by NAAC

NBA Accredited for MCA Programme; Recognized under Section 2(f) by UGC;
Affiliated to GGSIP University, Delhi; Recognized by Bar Council of India and AICTE
An ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Department of Applied Science & Humanities

(Physics)

Applied Physics-II

Lab Manual

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 VISION OF INSTITUTE

To be an educational institute that empowers the field of engineering to build a

sustainable future by providing quality education with innovative practices that
supports people, planet and profit.

MISSION OF INSTITUTE

To groom the future engineers by providing value-based education and

awakening students' curiosity, nurturing creativity and building
capabilities to enable them to make significant contribution to the world.

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE & HUMANITIES

VISION OF DEPARTMENT

MISSION OF DEPARTMENT

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 PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO)

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge acquired in mathematics, science,

engineering for the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify research gaps, formulate and analyse complex engineering
problems drawing substantiated conclusions using basic knowledge of mathematics, natural
sciences and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for the identified complex engineering
problems as well as develop solutions that meet the specified needs for the public health and
safety, and the cultural, societal and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods, including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Work on the latest technologies, resources and software tools including
prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of their
limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply the basic acquired knowledge to measure societal, health,
safety, legal and cultural issues and identifying the consequential responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and Sustainability: Comprehend the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in context of society and environment and demonstrate the need and knowledge for
sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning.

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Academic Year: 2023-2024

Semester: 2nd

Course Code: BS 152

TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.No. Page No.

1 Course Details
1.1 Course Objectives
1.2 Course Outcomes
1.3 CO-PO Mapping
1.4 Evaluation Scheme
1.5 Lab Safety Instructions
1.7 Lab Assignment Writing Instructions
2 List of Experiments as per GGSIPU
3 Course Beyond Syllabus
4 Course Exit Survey

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 COURSE DETAILS

1.1 COURSE OBJECTIVE

1. To learn about the quantum nature of reality.

2. To learn about quantum statistics and its significance.
3. To understand the structures of crystals.
4. To learn about the band theory of solids and properties and characteristics of diodes.

1.2 COURSE OUTCOMES

At the end of the course student will be able to:

BS152.1 Understand and appreciate the quantum nature of reality.
BS152.2 Understand quantum statistics and its significance
BS152.3 Understand Crystalline Structure.
BS152.4 Understand the band theory of solids and properties and characteristics of diodes.

1.3 MAPPING COURSE OUTCOMES (CO) AND PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO)

1.4 EVALUATION SCHEME

1.5 GUIDELINES FOR CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT FOR EACH EXPERIMENT

1.6 The Rubrics for Experiment execution and Lab file+ viva voce is given below:

1.6.1 Class Response & Participation (8 Marks Each):

Status Auxiliary Auxiliary Logically Unacceptable

Completed Completed Incorrect efforts/Absent
and but or
Executed Partially errors
perfectly Executing
Marks 0

1.6.2 Viva-Voce (8 Marks Each):

Status Viva Viva Viva Viva

(Excellent) (Average) (Unsatisfactory)
Marks 0

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1.6.3 Laboratory Assignment (6 Marks Each):

Status File File File

Contents & Contents & Contents &
Checked Checked not Checked
Timely Timely (after After two
one week) weeks
Marks 5-6 4-5 3-2

1.6.4 Safety Guidelines/Rules for laboratory(AS PER SUBJECT/LABORATORY)

1. Come to lab prepared to perform the experiment. Follow all written and verbal
instructions.
2. Be attentive at all times.
3. Report all accidents, injuries or breakage to the instructor immediately.
4. Dress appropriately.
5. Use equipment with care for the purpose for which it is intended.
6. Be careful when working with apparatus that may be hot.
7. If a thermometer breaks, inform the instructor immediately. Do not touch either
the broken glass or the mercury with your bare skin.
8. Check all electrical circuits before you turn on the power. Take help of the
instructor if required.
9. When working with electrical circuits, be sure that the current is turned off
before making adjustments in the circuit.
10.Do not connect the terminals of a battery or power supply to each other with a
wire. Such a wire will become dangerously hot.
11.Return all equipment to the designated location at the end of the lab period.
12. Keep your lab area clean.

1.7 Laboratory Assignment Writing Instructions

Instructions for Applied Physics Practical File

1. Use A4 size sheets for writing the experiments (one side ruled and one side plane)
2. Between two experiments attach a plane A4 size sheet.
3. One the ruled sheet the following order of topics is to be followed (to be written with
pen):
(i) Aim
(ii) Apparatus
(iii) Theory
(iv) Calculations
(v) Result (with percentage error )
(vi) Precautions and Sources of Error
4. One the left side of plane sheet (the one attached between two experiments) the
following order of topics is to be followed (to be written with pencil):
(i) Aim
(ii) Diagrams
(iii) Observation Tables

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 (iv) Calculations
(v) Result (with percentage error ) (with pen)

All of the above (i-v) to be written on plane sheet

5. All figures should include descriptions. (with pencil)
(Example--- Figure 1: Circuit Diagram of Forward Bias of Zener Diode)
6. Index should include both Allotment Date and Submission Date.
7. The auxiliary sheets (with pen) & graph (with pencil) should be attached after the
ruled sheets on which the experiment is written.

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 Applied Physics Practical File Index

S.No Name of Date of Date of Laboratory Viva Class Rem

. Experiment Allotment Submission Assignment (8 Participation arks
(6 marks marks and Response
each) each)
(8 marks
each)

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2. List of Experiments

Sr. no Name of Experiment

1 To determine the frequency of AC mains using a Sonometer.

2 To verify Stefan’s Law.

3 To study the I-V characteristics of a Zener diode.

4 To study the charging and discharging of a capacitor and determine the time constant.

5 To determine the frequency of an electrically maintained tuning fork using Melde's

method.

6 To measure the frequency of a sine wave voltage using a signal generator and obtain
the Lissajous pattern on a CRO/DSO screen by feeding two wave signals from two
signal generators.

7 To determine the e/m ratio of an electron using J.J. Thomson's method.

8 To determine the Energy Band Gap of a semiconductor using the four-probe method
or by measuring the variation of reverse saturation current with temperature.

9 To measure thermal emf using a thermocouple.

10 To study the Hall effect.

11 To determine the thermal conductivity of a poor conductor using Lee's disk method.

12 Computer simulation (simple application of Monte Carlo): Brownian Motion.

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Here is a short list of references to books which may be useful for further reading in Physics
or instrumentation relevant to the experiments. Also included are some references to books of
general interest with regard to science and experimentation.

1. “Fundamentals of Physics”, 6th Ed., D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J.Walker, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., New York, 2001.

2. “The Feyman Lectures in Physics (Vols. 1, 11 and 111)”, R.P. Feyman, R. B. Leighton
and M. Sands, Addison Wesley, 1963.

3. “Students Reference Manual for Electronic Instrumentation Laboratories”, S.E. Wolf

and R.F.M. Smith, PHI, 1990.

4. “Practical Physics”, G.L. Squires, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985.

5. “Great experiments in Physics”, M.H. Shamos, Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc. 1959.

6. B.Sc Practical Physics by C. L. Arora, S. Chand & Co. , 2020.

7. Practical Physics by R. K. Shukla and A. Srivastava, New Age Int. (P) Ltd., 2006.

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Innovation/ Content beyond Syllabus

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 Marking Scheme for Continuous Evaluation

Practical File

S.No. Topic Marks Allotted

1 Aim & Apparatus

2 Theory

3 Calculations

4 Result (with percentage error)

5 Precautions and Sources of Error

Total

Auxiliary Sheet

S.No. Topic Marks Allotted

1 Aim & Apparatus

2 Theory

3 Calculations

4 Result (with percentage error)

5 Precautions and Sources of Error

Total

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 Experiment No: 01
Aim: To determine frequency of A.C. Mains using sonometer.
Materials Used: NVIS Trainer kit 6052 and connecting wires.
Theory: A wave is a disturbance that propagates through space and time, usually with transfer
of energy. While a mechanical wave exists in a medium (which on deformation is capable of
producing elastic restoring forces), waves of electromagnetic radiation (and probably
gravitational radiation) can travel through vacuum, that is, without a medium. Waves travel
and transfer energy from one point to another, often with little or no permanent displacement
of the particles of the medium (that is, with little or no associated mass transport); instead there
are oscillations around almost fixed positions. Periodic waves are characterized by crests
(highs) and troughs (lows), and may usually be categorized as either longitudinal or transverse.
Transverse waves are those with vibrations perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of
the wave; examples include waves on a string and electromagnetic waves. Longitudinal waves
are those with vibrations parallel to the direction of the propagation of the wave; examples
mostly include most sound waves.
Frequency of AC is=

Procedure:
1. Assemble the setup as shown in figure below.

2. Firstly, tie the wire, as its one is fixed and other end passes over pulley and carries a hanger
of weights.
3. Mount the L-clamp of coil with the screws of sonometer base at a distance 2-3 mm above
the wire.
4. The core of electromagnet should be lies at the center of coil.
5. Now connect mains cord between mains and sonometer.
6. Take two patch cords from the accessory box and connect the 6 V AC supply from
sonometer to the coil with polarity.
7. Now hang the weight of 500gm to the hanger connected with one end of steel wire.
8. Switch on the AC supply.
9. Now adjust two knife edges near and far to each other so that you get some vibrations in
wire.
10. Now slowly adjust both knife edges for maximum vibration in the wire.

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11. Note the length (l) of wire between two knife edges by given meter scale.
12. Also note load (W) in kg.
13. Now increase load by 500 gm and again get the position of maximum vibration by adjusting
both knife edges. 14. Again note the length (l) of wire between two knife edges.
15. Repeat the same procedure by increasing weight by 500 gm and take reading of l for
maximum vibration.
16. Note all values in observation table below

Result: The calculated frequency of a.c. mains is …………….Hz while the standard value
is 50Hz. The calculated percentage error is: ………….

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 Experiments No: 2
Aim: To verify the Stefan's law by electrical method
Materials Required: Stefan's law trainer kit, Patch cords, and Mains cord etc.
Theory: The Stefan–Boltzmann constant (also Stefan's constant), a physical constant denoted
by the Greek letter σ, is the constant of proportionality in the Stefan– Boltzmann law: the total
energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body in unit time is proportional to the fourth
power of the thermodynamic temperature. The Boltzmann’s constant is the physical constant
relating to temperature to energy. If E is the total amount of heat radiated per unit area of the
body per unit time and T is the absolute temperature of the body, then according to Stefan's
law:

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Procedure:
1. Connect the mains cords to the mains.
2.Connect the circuit as shown in figure through patch cords.

3.Switch ON the Stefan law trainer.

4. Now switch ON the DC supply.
5. Increase the DC voltage with the help of variable resistance till the bulb beings to glow
(i.e. the filament appears faint red).
6. Note down the reading of current (in mA) corresponding to the given voltage (in volt)
from the given ammeter and voltmeter.
7. Vary the voltage by variable resistance knob.
8. Now at different values of voltages, note down the readings of current.
9. Tabulate all readings in the given observation table.
10. Calculate the power by using formula P = VI (watt)
11. Calculate the resistance of filament of bulb with R = V/I (ohm).

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12. Take log10 of P and R values and tabulate in observation table.

S.No. Voltage Current Current Power Resistance Log10P Log10R

(V) (mA) (x 10-3 A) P=VI R=V/I
1 1V
2 2V
3 3V
4 4V
5 5V
6 6V
7 7V
8 8V
9 9V
10 10V

13. Plot a graph by taking Log10P along Y- axis and Log10R along X-axis.
14. The graph plotted between Log10P and Log10R is a straight line as shown in figure.

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Result: The graph between Log10P and Log10R is a straight line with slope of 4. This
verifies Stefan’s Law.

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 Experiment No:3
Aim: Study of characteristics of Zener diode in Forward bias & Reverse bias.
Materials Required: Patch cords, and NVIS Trainer kit 6501.
Theory: Zener Diode is the reverse-biased heavily-dopped silicon (or germanium) P-N
Junction diode which is operated in the breakdown region where current is limited by both
external resistance and power dissipation of the diode. Silicon is preferred to diode because of
its higher temperature and current capability. Zener breakdown occurs due to breaking of
covalent bonds by the strong electric field set up in the depletion region by the reverse voltage.
It produces an extremely large number of electrons and holes, which constitute the reverse
saturation current (called Zener current Iz) whose value is limited only by the external
resistance in the circuit.
I-V Characteristic Plot: The forward characteristic is simply that of an ordinary forward-biased
junction diode. The important points of the reverse characteristic are:
Vz = Zener breakdown voltage.
Iz min = Minimum current to sustain breakdown
Iz max = Maximum Zener current limited by, maximum power dissipation. Since its reverse
characteristic is not exactly vertical, the diode possesses some resistance called Zener dynamic
impedance. Its value is given by
Zz = Vz / Iz. Zener diode are available having zener voltage of 2.4V to 200V. This voltage
is temperature dependent. The product Vz, Iz, gives their power dissipation. Maximum ratings
vary from 150mV to 50W.

Procedure:
For forward characteristic of Zener diode:

1. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

2. Connect Ammeter between TP8 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA) & set Ammeter
at 200mA range.

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 3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage VD & set Voltmeter at
20V range.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of Zener voltage Vz from zero to 1V
in steps and measure the corresponding values of Zener current Iz in mA & note down in the
Observation Table 3.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage Vz and diode current Iz as shown in figure 4 (First
quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 3. This curve is the required
Forward Characteristics of Zener diode.
7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.

For Reverse Characteristics of a Zener diode proceed as follows:

1. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

2. Connect Ammeter between TP9 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA) & set Ammeter
at 200mA range.
3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage VD & set Voltmeter at
20V range.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from zero to 6.8V
in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode current Iz in mA & note down in the
Observation Table.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage Vz and diode current Iz as shown in figure (third
quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table. This curve is the required
Reverse Characteristics of Zener diode.
7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.

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Observation Table:

For forward-bias:

For Reverse Bias:

Sr No Zener Doide Voltage (Vz) Zener Current(Iz) mA

1 1v
2 2v
3 3v
4 4v
5 5v
6 6v
7 6.7v
8 6.8v
9 6.9v
10 7.0v

Plot the Graph between Vz versus Iz both in reverse and forward bias.

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Result: The dynamic resistance in forward bias is………..ohms and the dynamic
resistance in reverse bias is ………..ohms.

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 Experiment No: 4

Aim: To study the charging and discharging of a capacitor and find out the time constant.
Materials Required: Trainer Kit, Stop watch, and Connecting wires.
Theory: Any arrangement of two conductors separated by an electric insulator (i.e., dielectric)
is a capacitor. An electric charge deposited on one of the conductors induces an equal charge
of opposite polarity on the other conductor. As a result, an electric field exists between the two
conductor surfaces and there is a potential difference between them. The electric field
anywhere between the conductor surfaces is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
charge Q on the conductors. And the potential difference V is also directly proportional to the
charge Q. The ratio Q/V is thus a constant for any electric field distribution as determined by
the shape of the conductors, the distance of separation, and the dielectric in which the field
exists. The ratio Q/V is called the capacitance, C, of a particular arrangement of conductors
and dielectric. Thus, C = Q/V, where Q and V are in units of coulomb and volt. C has the units
farad (F).

Procedure:
1. Take a suitable given resistance and capacitor. Note their given value.
2. Connect the voltmeter across supply socket the voltage = 20 volt DC kept charge discharge
selector at the ‘HOLD’ position.
3.Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram and check the connection for the for their
right polarities particularly for voltmeter and electrolytic capacitor.
4. Select highest range of milliammeter. Select charge mode by charge- discharge selector and
instantly start the stop watch.
5. Note charge current and voltage value for each 5 second intervals. Select next lower range
of milliammeter as current declines.
6. When lower possible charge current approach, note voltage and current readings with the
time of stop charging selecting ‘HOLD’ mode by selector.
7. Note the start values of the voltage across the capacitor, while selector switch is in ‘HOLD’
mode. Select highest range of milliammeter.
8. Select ‘discharge ’and instantly start stop watch. Note voltage and current in 5 second
intervals.
9. Select next lower range of milliammeter as current declines.
10. Tabulate your results.
11. Change the value of C and repeat the experiment.
12. Change the value of R and repeat the experiment.
13. Plot the graph time and current and time and voltage separately for charge and discharge.
Draw the graph and find the time constants.

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Circuit Diagram:

Graph for Charging of Capacitor:

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Graph for Charging and Discharging of the Capacitor:

Observation Table for capacitor charging:

Capacitor charging Discharging

Sr. no Time in seconds Voltage in Volts Time in Voltage in Volts
seconds
1 5 5
2 10 10
3 15 15
4 20 20
5 25 25
6 30 30
7 35 35
8 40 40
9 45 45
10 50 50
11 55 55
12 60 60

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Calculations:

The theoretical value of time constant is:

The calculated value of time constant is:

The percentage error is:

Result: The calculated value of time constant for the capacitor is ……… second with
percentage error of ……..%

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 Experiment No:5
Aim: Determine the frequency of electrically maintained tuning fork by Melde's
method.
Materials Required: NVIS Trainer kit 6056 1 no’s, Weights 1 gm, 2 gm, 5 gm etc.
Theory:

Procedure:
1. Assemble the setup as shown in figure below.
2. Firstly, tie the string (thread), as its one is fixed and other end passes over pulley which is
fitted on pulley stand and carries a pan of weights.
3. The core (soft iron rod) of electromagnet should be lies at the center of coil.
4. Now connect mains cord between mains and Melde’s Electrical Vibrator.
5. Take two patch cords from the accessory box and connect the 6 V AC supply to the coil.
6. Now place the permanent magnet with opposite polarities on either side of core as shown in
figure.
7. Switch on the AC supply.
8. Now adjust the distance between magnets for getting some vibrations in string.
9. Vibrations of maximum amplitude are obtained by adding some amount of weight in the
pan.
10. Note the number of loops p formed in the length L of thread.
11. Length of string can be adjusted with the help of pulley stand for better result.
12. Take the readings for different number of loops by increasing the weight in the pan for fix
distance of string. Note: Increase the weight in the pan till the loops are seen clearly.
13. Note the all values in below observation table:

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Result: The calculated frequency of electrically maintained tuning fork is………..Hz with
percentage error of ………….%.

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 Experiment No:6
Aim: To measure the frequency of sine wave voltage obtained from signal generator and to
obtain Lissajous pattern on the CRO/DSO screen by feeding two wave signal from two signal
generator.
Materials Required: Cathode ray oscilloscope, Function generator, and Connecting Leads.
Theory: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is very important electronic device. CRO is very
useful to analyze the voltage wave form of different signals. The main part of CRO is CRT
(Cathode Ray Tube). When both pairs of the deflection plates (horizontal deflection plates
and vertical deflection plates) of CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) are connected to two
sinusoidal voltages, the patterns appear at CRO screen are called the Lissajous pattern- Shape
of these Lissajous pattern changes with changes of phase difference between signal and ration
of frequencies applied to the deflection plates (traces) of CRO. Which makes these Lissajous
patterns very useful to analysis the signals applied to deflection plated of CRO. These lissajous
patterns have two Applications to analysis the signals. To calculate the phase difference
between two sinusoidal signals having same frequency. To determine the ratio frequencies of
sinusoidal signals applied to the vertical and horizontal deflecting plates. When two sinusoidal
signals of same frequency and magnitude are applied two both pairs of deflecting plates of
CRO, the Lissajous pattern changes with change of phase difference between signals applied
to the CRO. For different value of phase differences, the shape of Lissajous patterns is shown
in figure below:

Sr No Angle in Degree Pattern

1 0o & 360o

2 30o & 330o

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3 45o & 315o

4 60o & 300o

5 90o & 270o

6 150o & 210o

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 7 180o & 180o

There are two cases to determine the phase difference ø between two signals applied to the
horizontal and vertical plates,
Case I:
When, 0 < ø < 90o or 270o < ø < 360o : –
o o
As we studied above it clear that when the angle is in the range of 0 < ø < 90 or 270 < ø <
360o, the Lissajous pattern is of the shape of Ellipse having major axis passing through origin
from first quadrant to third quadrant:
Let’s consider an example for 0 < ø < 90o or 270o < ø < 360o, as shown in figure below

In this condition the phase difference will be,

Another possibility of phase difference,

From Above given Lissajous pattern

Another Possibility of Phase Difference,

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Case-2
To determine the ratio of frequencies of signal applied to the vertical and horizontal deflecting
plates:
Then the ratio of frequencies of signals applied to deflection plates,

Or

Sr No Ratio of frequency Pattern

Fy/Fx
1

Fy/Fx= 4/2 =2

2 Fy/Fx= 3/1 =3

3 Fy/Fx= 6/4 =3/2

4 Fy/Fx= 6/8 =3/4

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 5 Fy/Fx= 4/3 =4/3

Result:
1. Different phase differences result in distinct Lissajous patterns, such as ellipses or
straight lines.
2. Specific phase differences correspond to identifiable patterns.
3. Patterns change smoothly with adjustments in phase difference or frequency ratio.

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 Experiment No:7
Aim: To determine the e/m ratio of an electron by J.J Thomson method.
Materials Required: Deflection Magnetometer, Two Bar Magnets, CRT (Cathode Ray Tube),
Compass, and Stand Arrangement
Theory: J.J. Thomson (1897) Thomson used a cathode-ray tube to conduct an experiment
which showed that there are small particles inside atoms. This discovery identified an error in
Dalton‘s atomic theory. Atoms can be divided into smaller parts. Because the beam moved
away from the negatively charged plate and toward the positively charged plate, Thomson
knew that the particles must have a negative charge. He called these particles corpuscles. We
now call these particles electrons. Electrons – The negatively charged particles found in all
atoms. Thomson changed the atomic theory to include the presence of electrons. He knew there
must be positive charges present to balance the negative charges of the electrons, but he didn‘t
know where. Thomson proposed a model of an atom called the ―plum-pudding‖ model, in
which negative electrons are scattered throughout soft blobs of positively charged material.
In this method cathode ray tube is used in which cathode emits electrons, anode accelerate
them, passes through a small hole, to another anode which concentrate them into a fine beam.
Then passes through between two parallel plates, which can deflect the beam in a vertical plane
by an electric field E applied between both the plates. The beam of electron can also be
deflected in same plane applying a magnetic field B perpendicular to the plane of plates. This
narrowed collimated beam of accelerated electrons than strikes the fluorescent screen to
produce a glowing spot. Three terms arise as

34
Procedure:
1. Using compass needle, find and note North-South and East-West directions. Place CRT in
between stand in such a way that the marked area of CRT should be parallel to its screen is
faced towards North and both arms of stand to East – West direction.

35
2. Adjust the Intensity and Focus potentiometer in its mid position.
3. Connect the CRT to octal socket of instrument (socket provided upon the panel). Care should
be taken while inserting CRT plug.
4. Keep instrument to south direction far from CRT.
5. Select Polarity selector switch at ‗0‘ position.
6. Set the Deflection Voltage potentiometer at anti clockwise direction.
7. Switch on the Power Supply and wait for some times (3-5 minutes) to warm up the CRT. A
bright spot appears on the screen.
8. Adjust intensity and focus controls to obtain sharp spot.
9. Bring the spot at the middle position of the CRT by the help of X-plate deflection voltage
pot given to back side of the instrument.
10. Set polarity selector to ‗+‘ position, adjust Deflection Voltage to deflect the spot 1cm away
towards upward. Note the deflection voltage from the meter as V1 and spot deflection as y.
11. Now place the bar magnets (on the stand arm) to both sides of CRT such that their opposite
pole faces each other. Adjust position of magnets to get spot back downward to original
position.
12. Note the distances of bar magnet (poles facing the screen) as r1 and r2 from the scale.
13. Now remove magnets from the arms of stand.
14. Select ‘– ‘position from polarity switch. Apply DC voltage to deflect the spot 1 cm away
in downward direction. Note deflection voltage from display as V2 and deflection as y.
15. Place bar magnets again and adjust the position of magnets to bring spot back to original
position. Note the distance of the magnets (poles facing the screen) as R1 ’ and R2 ’ .
16. Remove CRT and magnets. Place Magnetometer arrangement in between stand such that
its center lies on the center of the stand arm. Note: Position of stand should not be disturbed.
17. Rotate Magnetometer and adjust the needle to read 0º - 0º.
18. Now place magnets at a distance equal to r1 & r2 as previous polarity adjusted. The pointer
deflects along the scale. Note the deflections as θ1 and θ2.
19. Repeat similar procedure placing magnets at r1 ’ and r2 ’ distances. Note the deflection of
compass needle as θ3 and θ4.

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Observation Table:

Applied Mean of Distance θ1+θ2 Mean of θ= Bar magnet d =2.85

voltage + V1+V2/2 of spot in θ1+θ2+θ3+θ4/4 distance cm
side (V1) cm (y)+ (L) r1+r2 l = 3.15
side cm
Applied Distance Θ3+θ4 R1+R2
voltage – of spot in
side (V2) cm (y) –
side

Result: The calculated e/me/me/m ratio of the electron is…………………………..with

percentage error…………………

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 Experiment No:8
Aim: Determination of Resistivity and Band Gap of Semiconductors by Four Probe Method at
different temperatures.
Materials Required: Measurement unit with oven arrangement for Four probe method.
Theory: Band Gap In solid state physics and related applied fields, the band gap, also called
an energy gap or stop band, is a region where a particle or quasi particle is forbidden from
propagating. For insulators and semiconductors, the band gap generally refers to the energy
difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band. Band
Theory of Solids A useful way to visualize the difference between conductors, insulators and
semiconductors is to plot the available energies for electrons in the materials. Instead of having
discrete energies as in the case of free atoms, the available energy states form bands. Crucial
to the conduction process is whether or not there are electrons in the conduction band. In
insulators the electrons in the valence band are separated by a large gap from the conduction
band, in conductors like metals the valence band overlaps the conduction band, and in
semiconductors there is a small enough gap between the valence and conduction bands that
thermal or other excitations can bridge the gap. With such a small gap, the presence of a small
percentage of a doping material can increase conductivity dramatically. An important
parameter in the band theory is the Fermi level, the top of the available electron energy levels
at low temperatures. The position of the Fermi level with the relation to the conduction band is
a crucial factor in determining electrical properties.

Procedure:
1. Take Measurement Unit of Band Gap and connect mains cord.
2. Sample crystal is attached with the probe arrangement, in case if it is not making proper
contact with probes then adjust the horizontal screw provided on the four-probe arrangement
such that all four probe hold the crystal tightly. The Ge crystal is very brittle so handle it
carefully.
3. Place the four-probe arrangement in the oven.
4. Connect four probe (eight pin connector) to the given eight pin socket of measurement unit.
5. Connect the heater terminals (three pin socket) of the oven to the Measurement unit.
6. Set the controls of measurement unit as follows: Oven toggle switch at ‘Off’ position and
Potentiometer at fully anticlockwise.
7. Connect the heater terminals (three pin socket) of the oven to the Measurement unit.
8. Switch ‘On’ the Measurement unit of four probe setup.
9. At starting Current & Voltage will be zero & the oven temperature is displayed.
10. Adjust the constant current to a desire value say 5 mA.
11. Now keep Oven toggle switch at ‘On’ position.
12. Now temperature will increase slowly.
13. Record the value of voltage corresponding to the fixed interval of temperature rise.
(Example: -For every 5C rise in temperature.) The temperature increases upto 120C.
14. Now using following equation, we can find the value of ρ.

38
39
Observation Table:
Temperature Temperature Voltage 𝑽 𝝆 1000/T(K) log10𝝆𝟎
𝝆𝟎 = 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟔
(ºC) (K) (V) 𝑰

30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100

Result: The caculated band gap is ………….eV with percentage error of ………..%

40
 Experiment No:9
Aim: To measure the electromotive force (EMF) generated by a thermocouple when its
junctions are maintained at different temperatures.

Materials Required: Thermocouple kit with heat source to create a temperature gradient,
digital voltmeter (to measure EMF), Thermometer (to measure temperatures of the hot
junction), and Wires for connections.

Theory:
A thermocouple is a device that measures temperature by utilizing the thermoelectric effect,
specifically the Seebeck effect. It consists of two wires made of different metals or alloys joined
at two points: the hot junction, exposed to the temperature to be measured, and the cold
junction, maintained at a constant reference temperature. When a temperature difference exists
between the two junctions, an electromotive force (EMF) is generated due to the Seebeck
effect. This phenomenon occurs because charge carriers, such as electrons or holes, diffuse
from the hot region to the cold region in response to the temperature gradient. The difference
in the diffusion rates between the two metals creates a potential difference, or voltage.

The relationship between the temperature difference (Δ𝑇) and the EMF (V) is approximately
linear for small temperature differences:

V=S⋅ΔT

where S is the Seebeck Coefficient.

The relationship between the generated EMF and the temperature difference is approximately
linear for small temperature ranges and is characterized by the Seebeck coefficient, a material-
specific property that indicates the voltage generated per unit temperature difference. The
Seebeck coefficient depends on the type of material used and may vary slightly with
temperature. Thermocouples are widely used in temperature measurement, thermoelectric
power generation, and industrial monitoring systems.
Following are the major components of the thermocouple setup:

Reference Junction: Kept at a known constant temperature (room temperature)

Hot Junction (Measuring Junction): Exposed to the high temperature using oven (to be
measured).

41
EMF Measurement: The voltage is proportional to the temperature difference between the
reference and hot junctions.

Procedure:
1. Setup: Connect the thermocouple to the voltmeter. Place one junction (reference junction)
in the ice bath or maintain it at a constant temperature. Place the other junction (hot junction)
in the heat source.

2. Record Temperatures: Use a thermometer to measure the temperature of the hot junction.
Note the temperature of the reference junction (usually 25°C).

3. Measure EMF: Observe and record the voltage (EMF) displayed on the voltmeter.

4. Repeat for Different Temperatures: Vary the temperature of the hot junction using the heat
source (oven) and take the measurements of voltmeter.

5. Tabulate Data: Record the temperature of the hot junction using thermometer and the
corresponding EMF for each measurement .

Observation Table:

S. No. Temperature of Hot Junction (°C) Voltage (V)

10

42
Results:
The EMF generated by the thermocouple increases with the temperature difference between
the junctions. A graph of EMF (mV) vs. Hot Junction Temperature (°C) can be plotted,
showing a linear relationship for small temperature ranges.

The calculated value of Seebeck coefficient is……………

Precautions and Sources of Errors:

1. Poor connections can lead to inaccuracies in EMF readings.
2. Inconsistent temperature at the junctions can affect measurements.
3. Inaccurate voltmeter readings may introduce errors.
4. Non-ideal Conditions: Deviations from the assumed linear relationship at very high or
low temperatures.
5. Ensure proper insulation of wires to prevent heat loss or interference.

43
 Experiment No:10
Aim: To study and measure the Hall voltage

Materials Required: Gauss and Tesla meter Nvis 621, Measurement unit Nvis 622, Constant
current power supply Nvis 623, Electromagnet, Hall probe.

Theory: The Hall Effect comes about due to the nature of the current flow in a conductor.
Current consists of the movement of many small charge-carrying "particles" (typically, but not
always, electrons). These charges experience a force, called the Lorentz Force, when a
magnetic field is present that is not parallel to their motion. When such a magnetic field is
absent, the charges follow an approximately straight, 'line of sight' path. However, when a
perpendicular magnetic field is applied, their path is curved so that moving charges accumulate
on one face of the material. This leaves equal and opposite charges exposed on the other face,
where there is a dearth of mobile charges. The result is an asymmetric distribution of charge
density across the hall element that is perpendicular to both the 'line of sight' path and the
applied magnetic field. The separation of charge establishes an electric field that opposes the
migration of further charge, so a steady electrical potential builds up for as long as the current
is flowing. Hall Voltage for Positive Charge Carriers The transverse voltage (Hall Effect)
measured in a Hall probe has its origin in the magnetic force on a moving charge carrier.
The magnetic force is Fm = eVdBWhere Vd is the drift velocity of the charge.

44
Procedure:
1 Take Constant Current Power Supply & set the Current Adjust potentiometer at fully
anticlockwise position. Connect electromagnet with Constant Current power supply such that
two coils of electromagnet is in series i.e. the direction of current in both the coils should be
same otherwise little or no magnetic field would results.
2 Keep the Poles of electromagnet at some distance of 20mm.
3. Take Gauss & Tesla meter from the set of Hall Effect Setup .
4. Connect In As probe and switch on the Gauss & Tesla meter.
5. Adjust zero reading on display by Zero Adjust potentiometer and keep ready for
measurement.
6 Now take measurement unit and set it as follows Heater current potentiometer at minimum
position (anticlockwise position). Probe current potentiometer at minimum position
(anticlockwise position).
7. Connect Hall Probe in given probe socket (Nvis 622).
8. Switch on the Constant Current Power supply and set some low value of current.
9. Switch on the Measurement unit and increase probe current by probe current potentiometer
and fix it at 5mA.

45
10. There may be some voltage reading even outside the magnetic field. This is due to imperfect
arrangement of the four contact of the hall probe and generally known as the “Zero field
potential. In all cases, this error should be subtracted from the hall voltage reading as we
consider it as a reference.
11 Now place the Hall probe between magnetic poles using stand such that the magnetic and
electric field should be perpendicular to each other.
12. Due to this arrangement a force is generated in semiconductor, therefore a potential
difference is developed in semiconductor wafer, which is perpendicular of both field (magnetic
and electric). This potential difference is called Hall voltage.
13 You can measure & record this potential difference on the display (Nvis 622).
14 Measure Hall voltage for both sides of probe subtract Zero field potential and take the mean
of both sides Hall voltages readings. This is Hall voltage VH.

Observation Table:

Probe Magnetic Zero Hall Hall Hall Hall Mean

Current Field field Voltage Voltage Voltage Voltage Voltage
I(mA) B potenti with with from from one V=
(Gauss) al first side second one side side (V1+V2)/
(offset with side without without 2
voltage offset with offset offset
) voltage offset voltage voltage
Vzero V1’ voltage V1=V1’ V2=V2’-
V2’ -Vzero Vzero
1mA
2 mA
3 mA
4 mA
5 mA
6 mA
7 mA
8 mA

Graph:

Result: The calculated value of Hall voltage is………………

46
 Experiment No: 11
Aim: To determine the Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity of bad conductors of given
material by Lee’s Disc method.
Materials Required: Lee’s Disc Apparatus, Measurement Unit with digital display, Steam
generator, Steam chest, Heater, Sample metallic disc, Adaptor, and Thermometer.
Procedure:
1.Arrange the setup as shown in figure bellow:

2. Measure the diameter D and thickness d of the sample disc Measure the mass M of disc A
Lee’s Disc Apparatus.
3. Place any of sample disc of the material in between the both base discs C & A.
4. Insert the temperature sensors T1 and T2 in given position.
5. Fill the water in steam generator near about half of it.
6. Now put the steam generator on the heater and connect a plastic pipe between the steam
generator and inlet of steam chest.
7. Connect another plastic pipe to outlet of steam chest.
8. Connect adaptor to measurement unit and switch it on.
9. Now switch on the heater and wait for 15-20 minutes.
10. After some time steam passes through the steam chest and temperature will increase of disc
C.
11. Now heat passes from disc C to disc A through sample disc and temperature of disc A also
increase.
12. Wait till the steady state is reached. At this time the temperature T1 and T2 on the
measurement unit are steady (constant with time).
13. Note down the temperature T1 and T2.
14. Interchange the temperature sensors T1 and T2 and again note down both temperature.
15. Now remove the steam chest and also the sample disc. Note: Take precaution when
removing steam chest and sample disc.
16. Heat the disc A by putting steam chest directly on the disc A till the temperature of A 10 o
C above the steady temperature.
17. Now remove the steam chest and allow it cool.
18. Now press timer switch on the measurement unit and note down the time and temperature
in the observation table, at intervals of about 30 seconds, till the temperature falls about 10 o
C below the steady current.
19. Plot a graph between temperature and Time.

47
Observation Table:

S. No. Time in Seconds Temperature in Degree

1 30

1. 60
2. 90
3. 120
4. 150
5. 180
6. 210
7. 240
8. 270
9. 300
10. 330
11. 360
12. 390
13. 420
14. 450
15. 480
16. 510

48
 17. 540
18. 570
19. 600
20. 630
21. 660
22. 690

Repeat the Observation Table for three discs of Card Board, Glass, and Ply Board.

Result: The calculated value of coefficient of thermal conductivity is ……………with

percentage error of …………..%

49
 Experiments No: 12
Aim: To simulate the random motion of particles (Brownian motion) using Python and
visualize the results.
Materials Required: Python installed on a computer
Theory:
Brownian motion describes the random movement of particles suspended in a fluid, caused by
collisions with molecules of the fluid. This motion can be modeled mathematically as a random
walk.
1. Random Walk: The particle's movement at each time step is random and independent of its
past movements.
2. Simulation: The displacement in each dimension is modeled using a Gaussian (normal)
distribution.
3. 2D/3D Brownian Motion: The particle's position is updated in two or three dimensions for
visualization.

Code:
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Parameters
num_particles = 10
num_steps = 1000
step_size = 1

# Initialize positions
positions = np.zeros((num_particles, num_steps, 2)) # 2D motion (x, y)

# Simulate Brownian motion

for i in range(num_particles):
for t in range(1, num_steps):
step = np.random.normal(0, step_size, 2)

# Random displacement (x, y)

positions[i, t] = positions[i, t-1] + step

# Plot the trajectories

plt.figure(figsize=(10, 8))
for i in range(num_particles):
plt.plot(positions[i, :, 0], positions[i, :, 1], label=f'Particle {i+1}')

plt.title('2D Brownian Motion of Particles')

plt.xlabel('X Position')
plt.ylabel('Y Position')
plt.grid()
plt.legend()
plt.show()

The code simulates Brownian motion for multiple particles in 2D space. It initializes the
positions of all particles at the origin and iteratively updates their positions over a specified
number of steps. For each step, the displacement in the x and y directions is generated using a

50
random normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a specified step size, ensuring that the motion
is random and independent for each particle. The updated positions are stored in a 3D array,
where each particle's trajectory is tracked. Finally, the code visualizes the trajectories of all
particles using a 2D plot, showing their random paths over time.

Observations:

1. The particles move in a seemingly random manner, forming unpredictable trajectories.

2. The spread of the particles increases over time.
3. The motion of each particle is independent of others.

Results:
The simulation successfully replicated the random motion of particles characteristic of
Brownian motion. The results align with the theoretical expectations of a random walk in two
dimensions.

Precautions and Sources of Errors:

1. Finite Time Steps: The simulation uses discrete time steps, which may not perfectly capture
the continuous nature of Brownian motion.
2. Step Size: Inaccurate choice of step size could lead to unrealistic results.
3. Boundary Conditions: No boundary effects are considered, which may not be suitable for all
systems.

51