Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) in

OFDM Systems and Reduction Techniques

4. Discuss the issue of Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) in OFDM systems.
Explain how PAPR can be reduced using different schemes.
6.Explain the techniques used in reducing the Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR)
in multicarrier modulation systems. Compare the performance of localized and
interleaved schemes.
 Introduction
• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is widely used
in modern wireless communication systems, including 4G LTE, 5G,
Wi-Fi, and Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB).
• It offers high spectral efficiency, robustness against multipath fading,
and simple equalization techniques.
• However, one major drawback of OFDM is the Peak-to-Average
Power Ratio (PAPR) problem.
 What is PAPR?
• PAPR is defined as the ratio of the maximum peak power of the OFDM signal to its average
power:

where:

• s(t) is the transmitted OFDM signal,

• E[|s(t)|2] represents the average power of the signal.

• A high PAPR means that the signal has occasional high peaks, which leads to inefficiencies in
power amplifiers, increased Bit Error Rate (BER), and spectrum distortion.
 Causes of High PAPR in OFDM
• Superposition of Multiple Subcarriers:
• OFDM signals are formed by the sum of multiple independent sinusoidal
signals.
• When these signals constructively interfere, they generate high peaks.
• Gaussian Distribution of Signal Amplitudes:
• The subcarriers have random phases, causing the signal amplitude to follow a
Rayleigh distribution in amplitude and Gaussian distribution in quadrature
components.
• Occasionally, all subcarriers may align, causing a very high peak power.
• Increase in the Number of Subcarriers:
• More subcarriers lead to a higher probability of high peaks.
• In the worst case, PAPR increases linearly with the number of subcarriers N.
 Problems Caused by High PAPR
Power Amplifier Non-Linearity:

• Power amplifiers in the transmitter must operate within a linear region.

• A high PAPR forces them into the non-linear region, causing signal distortion,
spectral regrowth, and adjacent channel interference.
Reduced Power Efficiency:
• To avoid distortion, amplifiers need a high power backoff, leading to lower efficiency.
• This increases power consumption, especially in battery-powered devices.
Interference and Performance Degradation:
• Non-linearity distorts subcarriers, increasing Bit Error Rate (BER) and reducing overall system
performance.
 PAPR Reduction Techniques
Several techniques have been proposed to mitigate PAPR. The most effective ones include:

1. Coding-Based PAPR Reduction

• Concept: Uses error-correcting codes to select OFDM symbols with lower PAPR.

• Method:

• Instead of using all 2^N possible codewords, only a subset 2^K with lower PAPR is transmitted.

• The transmitter and receiver predefine mappings for these codewords.

• The selected codewords guarantee a limited PAPR.

• Advantages: Guarantees a maximum PAPR reduction and provides error correction.

• Disadvantages: Requires high overhead, reducing spectral efficiency.

 2. Phase Adjustment Techniques

Concept: Modifies the phases of subcarriers to

minimize peak values.
Method:
• A set of phase adjustment vectors is predefined.
• Each OFDM symbol is tested with different phase
vectors, and the one with the lowest PAPR is
selected.
• The selected vector index is transmitted along with
the data.

Advantages: Requires low overhead and does

not introduce interference.
Disadvantages: No guaranteed PAPR reduction.
 3. Multiplicative Correction (Clipping & Filtering)

Concept: Limits high peaks by clipping the signal above a certain threshold.
• Method:
• If the signal amplitude exceeds a threshold A0, it is clipped to A0.
• A Gaussian correction function can also be applied to smooth out the peaks.

• Advantages: Simple and effective in reducing PAPR.

• Disadvantages: Causes Inter-Carrier Interference (ICI), increasing BER.

 4. Additive Correction (Peak Cancellation)

• Concept: Instead of multiplying the signal, an additional corrective

signal is added to reduce peaks smoothly.

• Advantages: Avoids severe spectral regrowth compared to clipping.

• Disadvantages: Requires complex design for effective peak

cancellation.
 5. Selective Mapping (SLM)
• Generates multiple versions of an OFDM symbol with different phase
sequences.
• The transmitter selects and transmits the version with the lowest
PAPR.
• The receiver needs extra information to recover the original data.
• Advantages: Good PAPR reduction without distortion.
• Disadvantages: Requires additional computational complexity and
side information transmission.
 6. Partial Transmit Sequences (PTS)
• The input data is divided into sub-blocks, each assigned a phase factor
to reduce PAPR.
• The best phase combination is selected before transmission.
• Advantages: Effective PAPR reduction without distortion.
• Disadvantages: Increases computational complexity and requires
additional information at the receiver.
 1. Localized Subcarrier Mapping Scheme
Definition:
• In Localized Mapping, consecutive subcarriers are assigned to a single user or data stream.
• This means that the allocated subcarriers are contiguous in frequency.
Advantages:
✔ Simple Implementation – Requires less computational complexity.
✔ Low Out-of-Band Radiation – Minimizes interference with adjacent bands.
✔ Efficient for Low-Mobility Scenarios – Performs well when the channel remains stable.
Disadvantages:
• ✘ High PAPR (Peak-to-Average Power Ratio) – Since subcarriers are closely packed, power peaks occur
frequently.
✘ Poor Frequency Diversity – If fading occurs in a particular frequency range, all subcarriers in that block
suffer, leading to performance degradation.
✘ Sensitive to Deep Fading – If a fading dip occurs in the allocated subcarrier band, the entire transmission
suffers.
Use Cases:
• Best suited for low-mobility users in environments with minimal frequency selectivity, such as fixed
broadband wireless systems.
 2. Interleaved Subcarrier Mapping Scheme

Definition:
• In Interleaved Mapping, subcarriers are assigned in a distributed manner across the entire frequency band.
• The allocated subcarriers for a user are evenly spaced apart, rather than being adjacent.
Advantages:
• ✔ Lower PAPR – Due to the spreading of subcarriers, PAPR is significantly reduced.
✔ Better Frequency Diversity – Since subcarriers are spread out, deep fading in a specific frequency does not
affect all subcarriers, improving reliability.
✔ Resistant to Fading – More robust against frequency-selective fading, making it suitable for high-mobility
applications.
Disadvantages:
• ✘ Higher Complexity – Requires more complex algorithms for synchronization and equalization.
✘ More Difficult Implementation – Demands precise control of subcarrier allocation and synchronization.
✘ Increased Sensitivity to Carrier Frequency Offset (CFO) – Due to the non-contiguous nature of
subcarriers, small frequency shifts can cause interference.
Use Cases:
• Ideal for high-mobility environments such as vehicular communication, mobile broadband, and satellite
communication where frequency-selective fading is more severe.
 Comparison of PAPR Reduction Techniques

Guaranteed PAPR Out-of-Band

Method Overhead ICI Impact
Reduction? Emissions

Coding-Based Yes High No No

Phase Adjustment No Low No No

Clipping &
Yes (Limited) None High Well-Controlled
Filtering

Peak Cancellation No Moderate Moderate Well-Controlled

 Performance Comparison Table

Feature Localized Mapping Interleaved Mapping

Subcarrier Allocation Consecutive subcarriers Spread across the spectrum
Computational Complexity Low High
Frequency Diversity Low High
Resistance to Fading Poor Strong
Peak-to-Average Power Ratio
High Low
(PAPR)
Implementation Simplicity Simple Complex
Sensitivity to Frequency Offset Low High
High-mobility users (e.g., vehicular
Best Use Case Fixed or low-mobility users
networks)
• Localized Mapping is suitable for low-mobility environments with a stable
frequency response but suffers from high PAPR and low frequency diversity.

• Interleaved Mapping provides better performance in fading channels,

reducing PAPR and enhancing frequency diversity, but it increases system
complexity.

• The choice between these schemes depends on system design requirements,

such as computational capacity, channel conditions, and mobility levels.
 Frequency Offset and Timing Offset in
OFDM Systems: Impact on Wireless
Communication

2. Provide an in-depth explanation of frequency offset and timing offset in

OFDM systems. How do they affect the performance of wireless
communication?
 Introduction

• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a widely used

modulation technique in modern wireless communication, including LTE, 5G,
Wi-Fi, and DVB. OFDM is highly efficient in mitigating inter-symbol
interference (ISI) caused by multipath propagation.

• However, frequency offset and timing offset are two major impairments that
degrade the performance of OFDM systems by introducing Inter-Carrier
Interference (ICI) and loss of orthogonality between subcarriers.
 1. Frequency Offset in OFDM Systems

Definition

Frequency offset occurs when there is a mismatch between the transmitter and
receiver local oscillators (LOs) or due to the Doppler effect in mobile
environments. This results in a shift of subcarriers, disrupting their orthogonality
and introducing Inter-Carrier Interference (ICI).
• Mathematically, the received OFDM signal with frequency offset Δf
can be represented as:

• where:
• s(t) is the transmitted signal
• ej2πΔft represents the frequency shift
• n(t) is noise.
• If Δf is non-zero, the received signal’s subcarriers no longer align
perfectly, causing leakage of energy between subcarriers (ICI).
 Causes of Frequency Offset
Doppler Shift:
• In mobile environments, the relative motion between the transmitter and receiver
leads to a Doppler frequency shift fd=vfc/c
• where:
• v = velocity of the user
• fc = carrier frequency
• c = speed of light
• High Doppler shifts cause severe ICI in high-mobility scenarios (e.g., trains,
vehicles).
A Doppler shift of one subcarrier can cause ICI in many adjacent subcarriers (see Figure 19.14). The
impact of time selectivity is mostly determined by the product of maximum Doppler frequency and
symbol duration of the OFDM symbol. The spacing between the subcarriers is inversely proportional
to symbol duration. Thus, if symbol duration is large, even a small Doppler shift can result in
appreciable ICI.
Local Oscillator Mismatch:
• The transmitter and receiver oscillators may not be perfectly
synchronized, causing carrier frequency mismatches. This leads to
subcarrier misalignment and results in ICI.

Synchronization Errors:
• If the receiver fails to estimate the carrier frequency accurately, it
introduces ICI, degrading Bit Error Rate (BER) performance.
 Effects of Frequency Offset on OFDM Performance
• Inter-Carrier Interference (ICI):
• A small frequency offset causes leakage of power from one subcarrier to adjacent subcarriers, leading to ICI.
• This results in signal degradation and an increase in BER.
• Loss of Orthogonality:
• OFDM relies on subcarrier orthogonality, meaning each subcarrier is a multiple of a base frequency.
• Frequency offset disrupts this orthogonality, corrupting received symbols.
• Reduced Spectral Efficiency:
• Due to ICI, additional guard bands or equalization techniques are required, reducing available bandwidth.
• Performance Degradation in Mobile Systems:
• Doppler-induced frequency shifts increase in high-speed scenarios, causing severe ICI and lowering
system performance.
 Mitigation Techniques for Frequency Offset
Pilot-Based Frequency Estimation:
• Pilot symbols (known reference signals) are inserted at predefined subcarriers. The receiver
estimates the frequency offset by comparing received and expected pilot signals.
Phase-Locked Loops (PLL):
• The receiver employs PLL circuits to dynamically correct frequency mismatches.
ICI Self-Cancellation Techniques:
• Information is spread across multiple subcarriers to reduce the impact of frequency
offset.However, this reduces spectral efficiency.
Adaptive Equalization:
• Frequency-domain equalizers (such as MMSE or Zero-Forcing) help compensate for ICI caused by
frequency offset.
 2. Timing Offset in OFDM Systems
Definition
• Timing offset occurs when the receiver’s sampling time is not aligned with the
actual symbol start, leading to a misalignment of OFDM symbols.
This results in:
• Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
• Inter-Carrier Interference (ICI) (if the cyclic prefix is insufficient)
• Mathematically, if the timing offset is Δt, the received signal is:
r(n)=s(n−Δt)+n(n)
where Δt is the delay in sampling.
 Causes of Timing Offset
Clock Synchronization Errors:
• Differences in clock rates between transmitter and receiver cause misalignment of
the sampling instant.
Multipath Propagation Delays:
• In wireless channels, multiple delayed versions of the same signal arrive at the
receiver due to reflections.If the cyclic prefix (CP) is too short, timing
misalignment leads to ISI and ICI.
Channel Variability:
• Time-varying channels cause symbols to shift unpredictably, making
synchronization harder.
 Effects of Timing Offset on OFDM Performance
Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI):
• If the timing offset exceeds the cyclic prefix duration, part of the previous symbol
overlaps with the current symbol, leading to ISI.
Inter-Carrier Interference (ICI):
• Timing misalignment causes distortion in subcarrier phases, introducing ICI and
BER degradation.
Synchronization Failure:
• If timing errors are severe, the receiver fails to decode the OFDM symbols
correctly.
 Mitigation Techniques for Timing Offset
Cyclic Prefix Optimization:
• A longer cyclic prefix ensures that any delay within its duration does not affect the
symbol.However, a very long CP reduces spectral efficiency.
Pilot-Based Synchronization:
• Known pilot symbols can be used to estimate and correct timing offsets.
Joint Estimation of Timing and Frequency Offsets:
• Advanced receivers use joint estimation algorithms to correct both offsets
simultaneously.
Guard Interval Adjustment:
• Some systems dynamically adjust the guard interval based on channel conditions.
 Comparison of Frequency Offset and Timing Offset

Parameter Frequency Offset Timing Offset

Cause Doppler shift, LO mismatch Clock drift, multipath delay

Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) +

Effect Inter-Carrier Interference (ICI)
ICI

Impact on OFDM Loss of orthogonality, BER increase Symbol misalignment, ISI

Pilot-based estimation, PLL, Cyclic prefix, pilot-based timing

Mitigation
equalization recovery
 Cont..
• Frequency offset and timing offset are two major challenges in
OFDM systems, affecting orthogonality, spectral efficiency, and
BER performance.
• Frequency offset mainly causes ICI due to Doppler shifts and LO
mismatches.
• Timing offset introduces ISI and ICI, especially if the cyclic prefix is
insufficient.
• Advanced synchronization, pilot-based estimation, equalization,
and adaptive techniques help mitigate these impairments, ensuring
reliable communication in wireless systems.
 ICI mitigation techniques

Assess the various techniques available for mitigating inter-carrier

interference (ICI) in OFDM systems. Provide a detailed evaluation of the
advantages and limitations of each technique.
 Optimum choice of carrier spacing and OFDM symbol
length:
To optimize carrier spacing and OFDM symbol length, we adjust the
symbol duration to minimize inter-carrier interference (ICI).
A shorter symbol duration helps reduce ICI caused by Doppler
effects, while a longer symbol duration improves spectral efficiency.
The cyclic prefix (CP), which mitigates delay spread, should be at
least 10% of the symbol duration to balance performance and
efficiency.
 Optimum choice of OFDM basis signal:
• To minimize Inter-Carrier Interference (ICI), we can optimize the
OFDM basis pulse shape. A rectangular pulse in the time domain
results in a sin(x)/x shape in the frequency domain, which decays
slowly and causes interference when Doppler shifts occur.
• To reduce ICI, we use pulses with a faster and smoother spectral
decay. However, this comes at the cost of increased
delay-spread-induced errors. A Gaussian-shaped pulse offers a
good balance between reducing ICI and minimizing delay errors.
 Self-interference cancellation techniques:

• Instead of modulating data onto a single subcarrier, this approach spreads

information across a group of subcarriers.
• This helps in reducing Inter-Carrier Interference (ICI) effectively. However, the
trade-off is a reduction in spectral efficiency, meaning the system uses more
bandwidth for the same data rate.
 Frequency domain equalizers:
• When the channel and its variations are known, their effect on the received
signal can be reversed using equalization techniques. However, this cannot
be done with a simple single-tap equalizer. Some key methods include:
• Inverting H or using a Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) criterion
to reduce errors.
• Multiuser detection techniques, where different subcarriers are treated like
different users to improve signal detection.
• Since the channel keeps changing, recalculating the inverse matrix for each
OFDM block can be computationally expensive. However, optimized
methods exist to reduce complexity while maintaining performance.
 Synchronization Errors
• Synchronization is crucial to maintain the orthogonality of OFDM
subcarriers. Errors in synchronization can cause a deviation in the
receiver’s local oscillator (LO) from its optimal frequency, leading to
Inter-Carrier Interference (ICI). Proper synchronization techniques
are required to minimize these errors and maintain system
performance.
 Phase noise of the transmitter and receiver:
• Phase noise arises due to oscillator inaccuracies, causing the local oscillator (LO)
signal to deviate from its ideal sinusoidal shape. It typically follows a Gaussian
distribution and is characterized by its power spectral density (PSD).
• A narrow spectrum indicates slow phase changes, which are easier to
compensate.
• Phase noise leads to spectral spreading, causing subcarrier interference (ICI)
by spilling power into adjacent subcarriers.
• Effective receiver algorithms can help mitigate its impact.
 Interleaved Subcarrier Mapping
Principle: Distributes data across subcarriers in a non-contiguous
fashion, reducing the impact of localized interference.
• Advantages:
✔ Improves robustness against localized interference and Doppler
shifts.
✔ Efficiently combats frequency-selective fading.
✔ Compatible with MIMO-OFDM systems.
• Limitations:
✖ Requires complex subcarrier mapping algorithms.
✖ Increased computational overhead in receiver design.
 Use of Orthogonal Pulse-Shaped OFDM (O-OFDM)

Principle: Replaces the conventional rectangular pulse with better

localized basis functions (e.g., Gaussian, Slepian functions) to
minimize ICI.
• Advantages:
✔ Effectively reduces ICI without requiring additional equalization.
✔ Works well in wireless sensor networks and IoT applications.
• Limitations:
✖ Requires major changes in OFDM transmitter/receiver architecture.
✖ Not widely standardized in current wireless systems.
 Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC)

Principle: Adjusts the modulation order and coding rate dynamically

based on the channel conditions to reduce susceptibility to ICI.
• Advantages:
✔ Enhances system reliability by adapting to channel variations.
✔ Maximizes spectral efficiency under different interference levels.
✔ Works well in cognitive radio and dynamic spectrum access
networks.
• Limitations:
✖ Requires real-time feedback and channel estimation.
✖ Increased complexity in transmitter and receiver design.
7. Analyze the role of diversity techniques in mitigating fading,
frequency offset, and PAPR in OFDM systems. Explain their practical
importance in wireless communications
 Introduction to Diversity Techniques in OFDM
• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is widely used in modern
wireless communication systems due to its high spectral efficiency and resistance
to multipath fading. However, fading, frequency offset, and high
Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) pose significant challenges that degrade
system performance.
• Diversity techniques play a crucial role in improving reliability and robustness
by ensuring that multiple independent signal paths contribute to the received
signal. These techniques help to reduce the probability of deep fades, minimize
interference due to frequency offset, and lower PAPR.
2. Diversity Techniques and Their Role in Mitigating Issues in
OFDM
Mitigating Fading using Diversity
• Fading occurs due to multipath propagation, where signals take
different paths with varying delays and strengths. Diversity techniques
help combat fading by ensuring that the transmitted signal reaches the
receiver through multiple independent channels.
 Types of Diversity for Fading Mitigation
Diversity Technique Description How it Mitigates Fading
Transmitting the same signal at
Ensures that even if one
different time slots using coding
Time Diversity transmission fades, another copy
techniques (e.g., interleaving and
arrives unaffected.
error correction).
Spreading data across multiple Reduces the impact of deep fading
frequencies or subcarriers. Used in in a specific frequency band by
Frequency Diversity
OFDM-based systems like LTE utilizing multiple frequency
and 5G. components.
Uses multiple antennas at the
Improves signal reception by
Spatial Diversity (Antenna transmitter (MIMO) or receiver
selecting the best available signal or
Diversity) (SIMO) to capture multiple signal
combining multiple signals.
versions.
Helps in urban environments where
Transmits signals with different
Polarization Diversity signals reflect differently based on
polarization (horizontal/vertical).
polarization.
 Mitigating Frequency Offset using Diversity

• Frequency offset in OFDM occurs due to Doppler shifts or synchronization

errors between transmitter and receiver oscillators. This results in
Inter-Carrier Interference (ICI), degrading system performance.
• Diversity Techniques for Frequency Offset Mitigation
• Pilot-Based Channel Estimation: Sends known pilot symbols at regular
intervals to estimate and correct frequency offsets.
• Adaptive Subcarrier Allocation: Dynamically assigns subcarriers based on
the channel state information to avoid subcarriers affected by interference.
• Interleaved Subcarrier Mapping: Distributes data across the spectrum to
reduce sensitivity to frequency shifts.
 Mitigating PAPR using Diversity
• OFDM suffers from high Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) due to
multiple subcarriers combining at peak values, leading to power inefficiency
and nonlinear distortions.
• Diversity Techniques for PAPR Reduction
• Selective Mapping (SLM): Transmits different versions of the signal with
different phase rotations and selects the one with the lowest PAPR.
• Partial Transmit Sequence (PTS): Divides the signal into multiple parts and
optimally combines them to minimize PAPR.
• Interleaved OFDM: Uses subcarrier interleaving to spread power over time
and reduce large peaks.
• MIMO-OFDM: Distributes the transmission across multiple antennas,
reducing PAPR per antenna.
 Practical Importance of Diversity in Wireless Communications

Diversity techniques play a vital role in ensuring reliable and efficient

wireless communication in real-world scenarios.
1 Enhancing Network Coverage and Capacity
• MIMO and Spatial Diversity are key technologies in 5G and Wi-Fi
6 to enhance network throughput.
• Time and frequency diversity improve reliability in mobile
networks and satellite communications.
• 3.2 Improving Signal Quality in Harsh Environments
• Vehicular Communications: High mobility induces Doppler effects, mitigated using frequency
diversity and pilot-based frequency estimation.
• Indoor Wireless Networks: Multipath fading in buildings is countered using antenna diversity and
polarization techniques.
• 3.3 Energy Efficiency and Power Optimization
• Reducing PAPR in OFDM improves power amplifier efficiency, leading to longer battery life in
mobile devices and lower energy consumption in base stations.
• 3.4 Support for High-Speed and High-Data-Rate Applications
• Massive MIMO in 5G networks improves capacity and performance using antenna diversity.
• Interleaved subcarrier mapping in OFDM reduces the effect of frequency offsets in high-speed
trains and aerial networks.
• Diversity techniques are essential for mitigating fading, frequency offset, and PAPR in
OFDM-based wireless communication systems. By leveraging time, frequency, spatial, and
polarization diversity, modern wireless networks achieve higher reliability, improved
efficiency, and better user experiences. These techniques are fundamental in 4G LTE, 5G,
satellite communication, and next-generation wireless networks, ensuring seamless and robust
connectivity even in challenging environments.