Chapter11-DUALNATURE
Chapter11-DUALNATURE
Hallwachs’ observations
Hallwachs connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an electroscope. He observed that the zinc
plate lost its charge when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light. Further, the uncharged zinc plate
became positively charged when it was irradiated by ultraviolet light. Positive charge on a positively
charged zinc plate was found to be further enhanced when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light.
From these observations he concluded that negatively charged particles were emitted from the
zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light.
Lenard’s observations
Lenard observed that when ultraviolet radiations were allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an
evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the circuit. As soon
as the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current flow also stopped.
Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when ultraviolet light fell on the emitter plate, no
electrons were emitted at all when the frequency of the incident light was smaller than a certain
minimum value and it depends on the nature of the material of the emitter plate.
• The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from a metal surface when light of sufficiently high
frequency falls on it is known as photoelectric effect. The electrons so emitted were called as
photoelectrons.
• The minimum frequency above which photoelectric effect takes place is called as threshold
frequency (𝜈0 ).
When a suitable radiation is incident on the emitter, electrons are ejected from its surface. If the
collector is at a positive potential, w.r.t. the emitter, the electrons are attracted by it. It leads to
the flow of current called photocurrent in the circuit, which is measured by the microammeter.
The photocurrent can be increased or decreased by varying the potential of the collector w.r.t. the
emitter.
The experimental arrangement can be used to study the variation of photocurrent with
▪ intensity of radiation,
▪ frequency of incident radiation
▪ the potential difference between the plates 𝐴 and 𝐶, and
▪ the nature of the material of plate 𝐶.
Light of different frequencies can be used by putting appropriate coloured filter or coloured glass
in the path of light falling on the emitter 𝐶. The intensity of light is varied by changing the distance
of the light source from the emitter.
Now a negative retarding potential is applied to A w.r.t. 𝐶 and is increased gradually. The
photocurrent is found to decrease rapidly until it becomes zero, at a negative potential 𝑉0 on plate
A. For a particular frequency of incident radiation, the minimum negative(retarding) potential 𝑉0
given to the plate A for which the photocurrent stops or becomes zero is called the cut-off or
stopping potential.
Photoelectric current is zero when the stopping potential is sufficient to repel even the most
energetic photoelectrons, with maximum kinetic energy, so that
According to this picture, light is an electromagnetic wave consisting of electric and magnetic fields
with continuous distribution of energy over the region of space over which the wave is extended.
Wave theory failed to explain photoelectric effect due to the following reasons.
➢ According to the wave picture of light, the free electrons at the surface of the metal absorb the
radiant energy continuously. The greater the intensity of radiation, the greater are the
amplitude of electric and magnetic fields. In this picture, the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons on the surface is then expected to increase with increase in intensity. But as
per the experimental result the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends upon the
frequency of incident radiation and is independent of its intensity.
➢ According to wave theory, radiation of any strong frequency should eject electrons from the
metal. But experimentally it is observed that there is no ejection of electrons when the
frequency is less than the minimal frequency called threshold frequency.
➢ In the wave picture, the absorption of energy by electron takes place continuously over the
entire wavefront of the radiation. It can take hours or more for a single electron to pick up
sufficient energy to overcome the work function and come out of the metal. This conclusion is
again in striking contrast to the observation that the photoelectric emission is instantaneous.
According to Einstein, the emission of photoelectron was the result of interaction of a single photon
with an electron, in which the photon is completely absorbed by the electron.
The minimum amount of energy required to eject an electron out of the metal surface is called the
work function of the metal and is denoted by 𝜑0 . It is a characteristic of the metal and does not
depend on the nature of incident radiation. It is also called threshold energy of the metal.
1
(or) ℎ𝑣 = 𝜑0 +
2
𝑚𝑣2𝑚𝑎𝑥 -------------------------------> (1)
If 𝑣0 is the frequency that corresponds to threshold energy of the metal, then,
𝜑0 = ℎ𝑣0 -------------------------------> (2)
𝑣0 is called the threshold frequency. Substituting equation (2) in (1)
1
ℎ𝑣 = ℎ𝑣0 + 𝑚𝑣2𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
The above equation is called Einstein's photo electric equation. -------------------------------> (3)
For photoelectric emission to take place, the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons must be
positive. Equation (4) shows that kinetic energy can be positive only when ℎ𝑣 > ℎ𝑣0 or if
𝜑0
𝑣 > 𝑣0 , where 𝑣0 = . This proves that for photoelectric emission to take place, the
ℎ
frequency of the incident radiation must be greater than the threshold frequency of the metal.
2. According to equation (4) , the value of maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron
is found to be dependent linearly on the frequency. Since the equation, does not include intensity,
it concludes that the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron depends only on the
frequency of the incident radiation and not on the intensity of radiation.
3. In Einstein's picture, photoelectric effect arises from the absorption of a single quantum of
radiation by a single electron. The intensity of radiation is proportional to the number of energy
quanta per unit area per unit time. The greater the number of energy quanta, greater will be the
number of ejected electrons for 𝑣 > 𝑣0 . Thus for 𝑣 > 𝑣0 , photoelectric current is proportional
to intensity.
4. Photoelectric effect involves the light quantum by an electron according to Einstein. This process
is instantaneous. Thus, whatever be the intensity of radiation, the photoelectric emission is
instantaneous.
1 2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑉0 -------------------------------> (6)
2
From equations (5) and (6)
𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣0
ℎ ℎ
𝑉0 = 𝑣𝑣− -------------------------------> (7)
𝑒 𝑒 0
The above equation predicts that the 𝑉0 verses 𝑣 curve is
ℎ
a straight line with 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = , and
𝑒
ℎ 𝜑0
𝑌 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = − 𝑣0 = − , as in the
𝑒 𝑒
following graph. By measuring the slope of the graph and
using the known value 𝑒, Millikan determined the value of
ℎ. This value was close to Plank’s constant.
By definition, when light of threshold frequency 𝑣0 is incident, photoelectrons just come out and
no stopping potential is required. when 𝑣 > 𝑣0 , 𝑉0 = 0. (ie) the intercept on 𝑌 − axis gives the
value of threshold frequency, which when multiplied with ℎ, gives the work function of the metal.
Millikan verified photoelectric equation for a number of alkali metals, and they were in close
agreement with values obtained from other experiments. It verified the correctness of Einstein's
photoelectric equation.
Thus according to de-Broglie, a wave is associated with every moving particle. These waves are
called de-Brogleie waves or matter waves.
de Broglie relation
According to the quantum theory of radiation, energy of a photon is given by
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 -------------------------------> (8)
𝐸 = √ 𝑚20 𝑐4 + 𝑝2 𝑐2
Since photon is a particle∴∴ of zero rest mass, setting 𝑚0 = 0 in the above equation, we get
𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐 -------------------------------> (9)
𝑝𝑐 = ℎ𝜈
ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈
𝑝 = = ( ∵ 𝑐 = 𝜈𝜆)
𝑐 𝜈𝜆
ℎ
(Or) 𝑝 =
𝜆
ℎ
𝜆= ------------------------------> (10)
𝑝
The above equation applies to photons as well as other moving particles. Since the momentum of
the particle of mass 𝑚 and moving with the velocity 𝑣 is 𝑚𝑣 , equation (3) becomes
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = ------------------------------> (11)
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
There is always some uncertainty (∆ 𝑥) in the specification of position and some uncertainty
(∆𝑝 ) in the specification of momentum. The product of ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑝 is of the order of ħ (with
ħ = ℎ/2𝜋),
i.e., ∆𝑥 ∆𝑝 ≈ ħ ------------------------------> (12)
Equation (12) allows the possibility that ∆𝑥 is zero; but then ∆p must be infinite in order that the
product is non-zero. Similarly, if ∆𝑝 is zero, ∆𝑥 must be infinite. Ordinarily, both ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑝 are
non-zero such that their product is of the order of ħ.
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