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Chapter11-DUALNATURE

The document discusses the dual nature of radiation and matter, focusing on the discovery and properties of electrons, as well as the photoelectric effect. It details key experiments by Hertz, Hallwachs, and Lenard that established the principles of photoelectric emission, including the concepts of threshold frequency and work function. Additionally, it introduces Einstein's photoelectric equation, which explains the relationship between the energy of incident photons and the kinetic energy of emitted electrons.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
7 views9 pages

Chapter11-DUALNATURE

The document discusses the dual nature of radiation and matter, focusing on the discovery and properties of electrons, as well as the photoelectric effect. It details key experiments by Hertz, Hallwachs, and Lenard that established the principles of photoelectric emission, including the concepts of threshold frequency and work function. Additionally, it introduces Einstein's photoelectric equation, which explains the relationship between the energy of incident photons and the kinetic energy of emitted electrons.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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CHAPTER 11

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER


Cathode rays were discovered, in 1870, by William Crookes who later, in 1879, suggested that these
rays consisted of streams of fast moving negatively charged particles. J. J. Thomson was the first
to determine experimentally the speed and the specific charge [charge to mass ratio (e/m )] of the
cathode ray particles. They were found to travel with speeds ranging from about 0.1 to 0.2 times
the speed of light (3 ×108 m/s).
In 1887, it was found that certain metals, when irradiated by ultraviolet light, emitted negatively
charged particles having small speeds. Also, certain metals when heated to a high temperature
were found to emit negatively charged particles. The value of e/m of these particles was found to
be the same as that for cathode ray particles. These observations thus established that all these
particles, although produced under different conditions, were identical in nature. J. J. Thomson, in
1897, named these particles as electrons, and suggested that they were fundamental, universal
constituents of matter. J. J. Thomson was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906, for the
discovery of electron.
In 1913, the American physicist R. A. Millikan performed the pioneering oil-drop experiment for
the precise measurement of the charge on an electron. He found that the charge on an oil-droplet
was always an integral multiple of an elementary charge, 1.602 × 10 –19 C.
Millikan’s experiment established that electric charge is quantised. From the values of charge (e)
and specific charge (𝑒/𝑚 ), the mass (𝑚) of the electron could be determined.
Electron emission
The minimum energy required by an electron to escape from the metal surface is called the work
function of the metal. It is generally denoted by ∅0 and measured in eV (electron volt).
One electron volt is the energy gained by an electron when it has been accelerated by a potential
difference of 1 volt, so that 1 eV = 1.602 ×10 –19 J.
The work function (∅0 ) depends on the properties of the metal and the nature of its surface.
The minimum energy required for the electron emission from the metal surface can be supplied to
the free electrons by any one of the following physical processes:
i. Thermionic emission: By suitably heating, sufficient thermal energy can be imparted to the free
electrons to enable them to come out of the metal.
ii. Field emission: By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of 108 Vm–1) to a metal,
electrons can be pulled out of the metal, as in a spark plug.
iii. Photo-electric emission: When light of suitable frequency illuminates a metal surface,
electrons are emitted from the metal surface. These photo(light)-generated electrons are
called photoelectrons.
Photoelectric Effect
Hertz’s Observations
The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was discovered in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz during his
electromagnetic wave experiments. In his experimental investigation on the production of

Dual Nature Of Radiation And Matter 50


electromagnetic waves by means of a spark discharge, Hertz observed that high voltage sparks
across the detector loop were enhanced when the emitter plate was illuminated by ultraviolet light
from an arc lamp.
When light falls on a metal surface, some electrons near the surface absorb enough energy from
the incident radiation to overcome the attraction of the positive ions in the material of the surface.
After gaining sufficient energy from the incident light, the electrons escape from the surface of the
metal into the surrounding space.

Hallwachs’ observations
Hallwachs connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an electroscope. He observed that the zinc
plate lost its charge when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light. Further, the uncharged zinc plate
became positively charged when it was irradiated by ultraviolet light. Positive charge on a positively
charged zinc plate was found to be further enhanced when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light.
From these observations he concluded that negatively charged particles were emitted from the
zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light.

Lenard’s observations
Lenard observed that when ultraviolet radiations were allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an
evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the circuit. As soon
as the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current flow also stopped.

Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when ultraviolet light fell on the emitter plate, no
electrons were emitted at all when the frequency of the incident light was smaller than a certain
minimum value and it depends on the nature of the material of the emitter plate.

• The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from a metal surface when light of sufficiently high
frequency falls on it is known as photoelectric effect. The electrons so emitted were called as
photoelectrons.
• The minimum frequency above which photoelectric effect takes place is called as threshold
frequency (𝜈0 ).

Experimental Study Of Photoelectric Effect

Fig. 1 depicts a schematic view of the


arrangement used for the experimental study
of the photoelectric effect. It consists of an
evacuated glass tube fitted with two
electrodes. The photosensitive plate 𝐶 is
called emitter and the other electrode 𝐴 is
called collector or anode. A transparent quartz
window is sealed on to the glass tube, which
permits ultraviolet radiation to pass through it
and irradiate the photosensitive plate 𝐶. A
varying potential difference can be applied
across the two electrodes. The polarity of the
electrodes can be reversed using commutator. Fig.1
Dual Nature Of Radiation And Matter 51
Thus, the collector 𝐴 can be maintained at a positive or negative potential w.r.t. the emitter 𝐶. The
intensity and frequency of light incident on the emitter can also be varied.

When a suitable radiation is incident on the emitter, electrons are ejected from its surface. If the
collector is at a positive potential, w.r.t. the emitter, the electrons are attracted by it. It leads to
the flow of current called photocurrent in the circuit, which is measured by the microammeter.
The photocurrent can be increased or decreased by varying the potential of the collector w.r.t. the
emitter.

The experimental arrangement can be used to study the variation of photocurrent with
▪ intensity of radiation,
▪ frequency of incident radiation
▪ the potential difference between the plates 𝐴 and 𝐶, and
▪ the nature of the material of plate 𝐶.

Light of different frequencies can be used by putting appropriate coloured filter or coloured glass
in the path of light falling on the emitter 𝐶. The intensity of light is varied by changing the distance
of the light source from the emitter.

• Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent


The collector A is maintained at a positive potential w.r.t.
the emitter. Keeping the frequency of the incident radiation
and the accelerating potential fixed, the intensity of light is
varied and the resulting photoelectric current is measured.
It is found that the photocurrent increases linearly with
intensity of incident light as in Fig.2. Since the photocurrent
is directly proportional to the number of emitted
photoelectrons, it implies that the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional
to the intensity of incident radiation. Fig.2

• Effect of potential on photoelectric current


The plate 𝐶 is illuminated with light of fixed frequency 𝑣 and fixed intensity 𝐼1 . The positive
accelerating potential of A is increased gradually. The photoelectric current increases with increase
in accelerating positive potential. For a certain positive potential of A, it collects all the emitted
electrons and the photoelectric current becomes maximum. This maximum value of photoelectric
current is called saturation current.

Now a negative retarding potential is applied to A w.r.t. 𝐶 and is increased gradually. The
photocurrent is found to decrease rapidly until it becomes zero, at a negative potential 𝑉0 on plate
A. For a particular frequency of incident radiation, the minimum negative(retarding) potential 𝑉0
given to the plate A for which the photocurrent stops or becomes zero is called the cut-off or
stopping potential.
Photoelectric current is zero when the stopping potential is sufficient to repel even the most
energetic photoelectrons, with maximum kinetic energy, so that

Dual Nature Of Radiation And Matter 52


𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑉0
The experiment is repeated with incident
radiation of same frequency of higher intensity
𝐼2 and 𝐼3 . The saturation current is found to
increase with the increase in intensity and the
stopping potential remains the same as in Fig.3.
Thus for a given frequency of the incident
radiation, the stopping potential remains the
same.
Fig.3
• Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential
For the same intensity of radiation, the
frequency of the incident light is varied and
the variation of photocurrent with collector
plate potential is studied. Different values
of stopping potential but the same value of
saturation current is obtained for incident
radiation of different frequencies as in
Fig.4. The stopping potential is more
negative for higher frequencies of incident
radiation. Greater the frequency of incident Fig.4
light, greater is the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons and hence greater retarding
potential is needed to stop them completely.

• Effect of material on stopping potential


The plot a graph between the frequency of incident radiation and the corresponding stopping
potential for different metals give a straight line, as shown in Fig.5.

The graph shows that


➢ The stopping potential 𝑉0 varies
linearly with the frequency of incident
radiation for a given photosensitive
material.
➢ There exists a minimum cut-off
frequency 𝜈0 for which the stopping
potential is zero and is called threshold
frequency.
Fig.5
The above observations have two implications:
➢ The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies linearly with the frequency of
incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
➢ For a frequency 𝜈 of incident radiation, lower than the cut-off frequency 𝜈0 , no
photoelectric emission is possible even if the intensity is large.

Dual Nature Of Radiation And Matter 53


This minimum, cut-off frequency 𝜈0 , is called the threshold frequency. It is different for different
metals.

Laws of photoelectric emission


i. For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency of the
incident radiation, called the threshold frequency, below which no emission of photoelectrons
takes place.
ii. The emission of photoelectrons starts as soon as light falls on metal surface.
iii. The photoelectric current depends only on the intensity of incident light and is independent of
its frequency.
iv. The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends upon the frequency of incident
radiation and is independent of its intensity.

Photoelectric Effect And Wave Theory Of Light

According to this picture, light is an electromagnetic wave consisting of electric and magnetic fields
with continuous distribution of energy over the region of space over which the wave is extended.

Wave theory failed to explain photoelectric effect due to the following reasons.

➢ According to the wave picture of light, the free electrons at the surface of the metal absorb the
radiant energy continuously. The greater the intensity of radiation, the greater are the
amplitude of electric and magnetic fields. In this picture, the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons on the surface is then expected to increase with increase in intensity. But as
per the experimental result the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends upon the
frequency of incident radiation and is independent of its intensity.
➢ According to wave theory, radiation of any strong frequency should eject electrons from the
metal. But experimentally it is observed that there is no ejection of electrons when the
frequency is less than the minimal frequency called threshold frequency.
➢ In the wave picture, the absorption of energy by electron takes place continuously over the
entire wavefront of the radiation. It can take hours or more for a single electron to pick up
sufficient energy to overcome the work function and come out of the metal. This conclusion is
again in striking contrast to the observation that the photoelectric emission is instantaneous.

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation: Energy Quantum Of Radiation

According to Einstein, the emission of photoelectron was the result of interaction of a single photon
with an electron, in which the photon is completely absorbed by the electron.

The minimum amount of energy required to eject an electron out of the metal surface is called the
work function of the metal and is denoted by 𝜑0 . It is a characteristic of the metal and does not
depend on the nature of incident radiation. It is also called threshold energy of the metal.

When a photon of energy ℎ𝑣 is absorbed by an eledron, at least 𝜑0 amount of energy is used in


liberating the electron and the difference (ℎ𝑣 − 𝜑0 ) becomes available to the electron as its

Dual Nature Of Radiation And Matter 54


maximum kinetic energy. If 𝑚 is the mass of the electron and 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the mass of the
photoelectrons, then,
1 2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜑0
2

1
(or) ℎ𝑣 = 𝜑0 +
2
𝑚𝑣2𝑚𝑎𝑥 -------------------------------> (1)
If 𝑣0 is the frequency that corresponds to threshold energy of the metal, then,
𝜑0 = ℎ𝑣0 -------------------------------> (2)
𝑣0 is called the threshold frequency. Substituting equation (2) in (1)
1
ℎ𝑣 = ℎ𝑣0 + 𝑚𝑣2𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
The above equation is called Einstein's photo electric equation. -------------------------------> (3)

Deducing laws of photoelectric emission from Einstein's photoelectric equation


1. From equation (3) , the value of maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons is given
by
1 2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣0 -------------------------------> (4)
2

For photoelectric emission to take place, the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons must be
positive. Equation (4) shows that kinetic energy can be positive only when ℎ𝑣 > ℎ𝑣0 or if
𝜑0
𝑣 > 𝑣0 , where 𝑣0 = . This proves that for photoelectric emission to take place, the

frequency of the incident radiation must be greater than the threshold frequency of the metal.

2. According to equation (4) , the value of maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron
is found to be dependent linearly on the frequency. Since the equation, does not include intensity,
it concludes that the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron depends only on the
frequency of the incident radiation and not on the intensity of radiation.
3. In Einstein's picture, photoelectric effect arises from the absorption of a single quantum of
radiation by a single electron. The intensity of radiation is proportional to the number of energy
quanta per unit area per unit time. The greater the number of energy quanta, greater will be the
number of ejected electrons for 𝑣 > 𝑣0 . Thus for 𝑣 > 𝑣0 , photoelectric current is proportional
to intensity.
4. Photoelectric effect involves the light quantum by an electron according to Einstein. This process
is instantaneous. Thus, whatever be the intensity of radiation, the photoelectric emission is
instantaneous.

Verification of Einstein's photoelectric equation


Millikan performed a series of experiments on photoelectric effect, aimed at disproving Einstein's
photoelectric equation. But instead of disproving, his experiments proved the correctness of
Einstein's photoelectric equation. ·

Dual Nature Of Radiation And Matter 55


From Einstein's photoelectric equation,
1 2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣0 -------------------------------> (5)
2
lf 𝑒 is charge on electron and 𝑉0 is the stopping potential, then

1 2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑉0 -------------------------------> (6)
2
From equations (5) and (6)
𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣0
ℎ ℎ
𝑉0 = 𝑣𝑣− -------------------------------> (7)
𝑒 𝑒 0
The above equation predicts that the 𝑉0 verses 𝑣 curve is

a straight line with 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = , and
𝑒
ℎ 𝜑0
𝑌 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = − 𝑣0 = − , as in the
𝑒 𝑒
following graph. By measuring the slope of the graph and
using the known value 𝑒, Millikan determined the value of
ℎ. This value was close to Plank’s constant.

By definition, when light of threshold frequency 𝑣0 is incident, photoelectrons just come out and
no stopping potential is required. when 𝑣 > 𝑣0 , 𝑉0 = 0. (ie) the intercept on 𝑌 − axis gives the
value of threshold frequency, which when multiplied with ℎ, gives the work function of the metal.
Millikan verified photoelectric equation for a number of alkali metals, and they were in close
agreement with values obtained from other experiments. It verified the correctness of Einstein's
photoelectric equation.

Particle Nature Of Light: The Photon


The photon picture of electromagnetic radiation can be summarised as follows:
i. In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles called
photons.
ii. Each photon has energy 𝐸 (= ℎ𝜈) and momentum 𝑝 (= ℎ 𝜈/𝑐), and speed 𝑐 , the speed
of light.
iii. All photons of light of a particular frequency 𝜈 , or wavelength 𝜆, have the same energy
𝐸 (= ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝑐/𝜆) and momentum 𝑝 (= ℎ𝜈/𝑐 = ℎ/𝜆), whatever the intensity of
radiation may be. By increasing the intensity of light of given wavelength, there is only an
increase in the number of photons per second crossing a given area, with each photon having
the same energy. Thus, photon energy is independent of intensity of radiation.
iv. Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
v. In a photon-particle collision (such as photon-electron collision), the total energy and total
momentum are conserved. However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a
collision. The photon may be absorbed, or a new photon may be created.

Dual Nature Of Radiation And Matter 56


Wave Nature Of Matter
Radiation behaves as wave and particle. de- Broglie put forward a hypothesis that matter should
also possess dual nature based on the following observations.
• The whole energy in this universe is in the form of matter and electromagnetic radiation.
• The nature is symmetrical and the two basic physical entities nature and energy must have
symmetrical character. If radiation shows dual aspect, so should matter.

Thus according to de-Broglie, a wave is associated with every moving particle. These waves are
called de-Brogleie waves or matter waves.
de Broglie relation
According to the quantum theory of radiation, energy of a photon is given by

𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 -------------------------------> (8)

The energy of the relativistic particle is given by,

𝐸 = √ 𝑚20 𝑐4 + 𝑝2 𝑐2

Since photon is a particle∴∴ of zero rest mass, setting 𝑚0 = 0 in the above equation, we get

𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐 -------------------------------> (9)

𝑝𝑐 = ℎ𝜈
ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈
𝑝 = = ( ∵ 𝑐 = 𝜈𝜆)
𝑐 𝜈𝜆

(Or) 𝑝 =
𝜆

𝜆= ------------------------------> (10)
𝑝

The above equation applies to photons as well as other moving particles. Since the momentum of
the particle of mass 𝑚 and moving with the velocity 𝑣 is 𝑚𝑣 , equation (3) becomes
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = ------------------------------> (11)
𝑝 𝑚𝑣

de Broglie wavelength of electron

Consider an electron of mass 𝑚 and charge 𝑒 is accelerated through a potential difference


𝑉 . If 𝐸 is the energy gained by the particle, then 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑉 .
1
If 𝑣 is the velocity of the electron, then 𝐸 =
2
𝑚𝑣2
1
∴ 𝑒𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣2
2
2𝑒𝑉 2𝐸
( or ) 𝑣= √ = √
𝑚 𝑚

Dual Nature Of Radiation And Matter 57


Now, de Broglie wavelength of electron is given by
ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = =
𝑚𝑣 √2𝑚𝐸 √2𝑚𝑒𝑉

Substituting the numerical values of ℎ, 𝑚 & 𝑒, we get


1.227
𝜆= 𝑛𝑚
√𝑉
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
Statement: It is not possible to measure both the position and momentum of an electron (or any
other particle) at the same time exactly.

There is always some uncertainty (∆ 𝑥) in the specification of position and some uncertainty
(∆𝑝 ) in the specification of momentum. The product of ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑝 is of the order of ħ (with
ħ = ℎ/2𝜋),
i.e., ∆𝑥 ∆𝑝 ≈ ħ ------------------------------> (12)

Equation (12) allows the possibility that ∆𝑥 is zero; but then ∆p must be infinite in order that the
product is non-zero. Similarly, if ∆𝑝 is zero, ∆𝑥 must be infinite. Ordinarily, both ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑝 are
non-zero such that their product is of the order of ħ.

If an electron has a definite momentum 𝑝,


(i.e. ∆𝑝 = 0), by the de Broglie relation, it has a
definite wavelength 𝜆. A wave of definite (single)
wavelength extends all over space as in Fig.6. By Born’s
probability interpretation this means that the electron is
not localised in any finite region of space. That is, its Fig.6
position uncertainty is infinite (∆𝑥 → ∞), which is consistent with the uncertainty principle.
In general, the matter wave associated with the
electron is not extended all over space. It is a wave
packet extending over some finite region of space. In
that case ∆𝑥 is not infinite but has some finite value
depending on the extension of the wave packet. A
wave packet of finite extension does not have a single
wavelength. It is built up of wavelengths spread
around some central wavelength as a localised wave Fig.7
packet [Fig.7]. By de Broglie’s relation, then, the momentum of the electron will also have a spread
– an uncertainty ∆𝑝 as expected from the uncertainty principle.

===============================================================================

Dual Nature Of Radiation And Matter 58

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