Introduction to the Mobile

Cellular Communication
System
A mobile phone is a portable telephone that does not use a wired connection. It is also
known as a wireless phone, cell phone, or cellular telephone.
By 2025, the estimated mobile phone subscriber base in India will be 820 million and
India will become the second largest country in the world, next to China.
Present Scenario of Bangladesh
OPERATOR SUBSCRIBER (IN MILLIONS)
Grameen Phone Ltd. (GP) 78.781
Robi Axiata Limited (Robi) 49.690
Banglalink Digital Communications Limited 35.539
Teletalk Bangladesh Ltd. (Teletalk) 4.818
Total 167.829
The evolution of cellular communication systems is commonly known by the 1G, 2G,
3G, and 4G designations.

We are currently in the forth generation (4G) cellular communication

systems.
The cellular network provides wireless connection between mobile phones or
between a mobile phone and landline phone using radio waves.
The mobile phones connect to the cellular networks which are further
connected to the public switched telephone network (PSTN).s
The cellular network uses a number of low-power transmitters called base
stations (BSs) and each BS covers a unit area called a “cell”.
Analogue and digital cellular mobile systems
The 1G cellular mobile systems were introduced in the beginning of the
1980s. Examples of these early analogue systems are AMPS and NMT. It
used FDMA technology to achieve radio communications.
In the 1990s the analogue systems were replaced by digital technology,
which provided higher capacity, better quality, and new services. The
most widely used 2G mobile
system is GSM.

 Analogue cellular mobile radio systems (AMPS)

During the early 1980s, there were analogue technologies and the
1G cellular system was designed for analogue voice
communications only. The following are examples of 1G cellular
analogue radio system:

• Advanced mobile phone system (AMPS) in the United States

• Total access communication systems (TACS) in the United Kingdom

• Nippon advanced mobile telephone system (NAMTS) in Japan

Salient features of analogue cellular mobile systems
(AMPS)
• Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) is the analogue cellular
modulation standard.
• Cellular network uses a duplex mode of communication and two
channels are required for each call: one channel for transmitting and one
channel for receiving.
• User’s mobile phone transmits on 824–849MHz band known as uplink or
reverse channel.
• BS transmits on 869–894MHz band known as downlink or forward channel.
• In AMPS, the channel spacing is 30 kHz. Each uplink and downlink channel
occupies 30 kHz of bandwidth. Every AMPS cellular call actually occupies a
total of 60 kHz.

Limitations of AMPS include

• Low calling capacity
• Limited spectrum
• Poor data communication
• Minimal privacy
• Inadequate protection
Digital cellular mobile radio systems
While analogue cellular phone system (1G) was designed for analogue voice
communication, the digital cellular mobile radio system (2G) was mainly
designed for digitized voice. There are a number of different digital cellular
technologies including the following:
• Global system for mobile communications (GSM)
• General-packet radio service (GPRS)
• Code-division multiple access (CDMA)
• Evolution-data optimized (EV-DO)
• Enhanced data rates for GSM evolution (EDGE)
• Digital enhanced cordless telecommunications (DECT)
• Digital AMPS (IS-136/TDMA)
• Integrated digital enhanced network (IDEN)

Two main groups have evolved in the digital cellular mobile radio
system development.
One group is from Europe and another is from America. The digital
cellular mobile radio systems developed by the two groups are

• Global system for mobile communications (GSM) in Europe

• Code-division multiple access (CDMA)/Interim Standard (IS-95) in
the United States
The above cellular systems (GSM and CDMA) are not compatible
with each other.
Cellular Systems Evolution
Generations of Mobile Wireless Networks

1981 1992 2001 2011 2020

Analog voice Digital voice Data service OFDM mmWave
Cellular TDMA, CDMA Opportunistic MIMO Massive MIMO
FDMA scheduling HetNets MTC
NOMA

(Source: itinfozone.com)
 Generations of wireless mobile systems

Wireless communication is basically transmitting and receiving voice and

data using electromagnetic waves in open space. The origin of wireless
communications can be traced back to the year 1857, when the behavior
of electromagnetic waves was explained mathematically using four
equations by James Clerk Maxwell. Maxwell’s four equations describe the
electric and magnetic fields arising from varying distributions of electric
charges and currents, and how those fields change with time.
History of 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G technologies
4.5G
4.5G is a grouping of disparate mobile telephony and data technologies
designed to provide better performance than 4G systems, as an interim
step towards deployment of full 5G capability. The technology includes:
LTE Advanced and MIMO
5G
5G denotes the next major phase of mobile telecommunications standards
beyond the current 4G/IMT-Advanced standards.
NGMN Alliance or Next Generation Mobile Networks Alliance define 5G
network requirements as:
•Data rates of several tens of Mb/s should be supported for tens of thousands
of users.
•1 Gbit/s to be offered, simultaneously to tens of workers on the same office
floor.
•Several hundreds of thousands of simultaneous connections to be supported
for massive sensor deployments.
•Spectral efficiency should be significantly enhanced compared to 4G.
•Coverage should be improved.
•Signalling efficiency enhanced.
•Latency should be significantly reduced compared to LTE.
Next Generation Mobile Networks Alliance feel that 5G should be rolled out
by 2020 to meet business and consumer demands. In addition to simply
providing faster speeds, they predict that 5G networks will also need to meet
the needs of new use-cases such as the Internet of Things as well as
broadcast-like services and lifeline communications in times of disaster
Introduction to
cellular concept
 Introduction to cellular concept

The cellular concept was developed in response to the limitations of conventional

mobile radio services.
The main limitations of the previous mobile communication systems are as follows:

1. High-power transmitters were used to cover very large area.

2. Inefficient use of allocated radio spectrum.

3. If a user leaves the coverage area, they had to reinitiate the call on a different
frequency channel.
The cellular network concept is against the use of a single high-power transmitter with
antenna mounted on a tall tower as is the case in the early mobile radios (shown in Fig.
1.1(a)) to cover a large area.

The difficulty in the early mobile radio systems was the reuse of same frequencies
throughout the system resulting in significant interference and lot of bandwidth being
dedicated to a single call.

The cellular system shown in Figure 1.1(b) uses a number of low-power transmitters
called BSs to cover same area and to avoid the above difficulties.
Cellular geometry

Overlap in circular cells using a (a) Triangular

grid; (b) Rectangular grid; (c) Hexagonal grid
 Coverage area

Figure Coverage area within a regular polygon (a) Equilateral triangle; (b) Square; (c) Hexagon
 Cell shapes
There are only certain patterns of cells or tessellations which can be repeated over a
plane: the regular hexagon, the square, the circle, and the triangle.
The regular hexagon is favored by system designers for the following reasons:
It provides the best approximation to the circular omni-directional radio patterns
achieved in practice.
It is more economical to use since a hexagonal layout requires fewer cells and hence
fewer stations.
It combines ease of geometry with the practical realization of overlapping circles.
For a given distance between the centre of a polygon and its farthest perimeter
points, the hexagon has the largest area, and it almost approximates a circular
radiation pattern.
Hexagons are generally used to represent the cells due to geometry considerations and
calculation purposes.

Figure 1.5 Circle to hexagonal cell shape approximation

 Frequency reuse

Frequency reuse refers to the use of radio channels on the same carrier frequency to
cover different areas that are separated from one another by sufficient distances.
Since the users in different geographical areas (cells) may simultaneously use the same
frequency, this technique maximizes the number of mobile phones served in a given
geographical area and spectrum efficiency. Frequency reuse causes CCI which is a trade-
off link quality versus subscriber capacity. This concept is shown in Figure.
Cells with the same letter (A) use the same set of frequencies. A cell group or cluster is
outlined in bold and replicated over the coverage area. In Figure, the cluster size (N) is 7
and the frequency reuse factor is 1/7 since each cell contains 1/7 of the total number of
available channels.

Figure An illustration of the cellular frequency reuse concept

 Co-channel interference
Cells that use the same set of frequencies are denoted as co-
channel cells and the interference received from co-channel cells
is called co-channel interference.
The CCI occurs mainly due to reusing an identical frequency
channel. This has become a major problem in the mobile cellular
network.
To reduce the CCI, minimum frequency reuse distance must be
Figure : CCI used. If all cell sizes are fixed, CCI is independent of the
reduction using transmitted power of each cell. One method to reduce the CCI is
beam tilting by tilting down the BS antenna beam as shown in Figure due to
which the power outside the cell causing CCI reduces.
The following five types of approaches are followed in cellular communications to
increase the user capacity.

 Adding new channels: New channels are added between mobile unit & base station.
 Frequency borrowing: Frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells.
 Cell splitting: Cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells.
 Cell sectoring: Cells are divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each with their
own set of channels.
 Microcells: BS antennas move to buildings and lamp posts.
 Location of antenna to cover cellular region

Wherever the density of calls is more, the cells have to be split into individual
areas to make them more efficient and to let them carry more calls.
Sectorized antennas are used to cover these split areas by replacing the omni-
directional antenna at the BS with several directional antennas.
These antennas reduce the co-channel interference in a cellular mobile
communication system.
The cell site equipment provides each sector with its own set of channels. Each cell
site transmits and receives on three different sets of channels, one for each part or
sector of the three cells it covers.

Figure : Cell shapes and coverage shape

 Multiple access schemes

Multiple access refers to techniques that enable multiple users to share a finite portion of
given frequency spectrum efficiently. The five most common schemes are given below:

• Frequency division multiple access (FDMA), where the total spectrum assignment is
divided into a number of discrete frequencies.

• Time division multiple access (TDMA), where the total spectrum is divided in time
between a number of users.

• Code division multiple access (CDMA), where neither the frequencies nor the time are
divided but users are distinguished through the use of a special code.

• Orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA), where the spread spectrum
technique spreads the data over a number of carriers that are spaced apart at precise
frequencies.

• Space division multiple access (SDMA), where different users will be served on same
frequency channel at the same time.
Cellular Communication
System Capacity and
Resource Management
 Cellular system capacity and frequency reuse for a cluster size of
“N” with each cell allocated a group of “K” channels

For a better understanding of the frequency reuse concept, consider a cellular system
with a total of S duplex channels available for use in a cluster. If each cell is allocated
a set of k channels (k < S) and the cluster size is N, then the total number of available
radio channels can be expressed as:

S=k×N
Each cluster uses the same number of channels. If a cluster is replicated M times within
the system, then the total number of duplex channels, C, which is a measure of capacity
of the cellular system is given by

Cellular sysyem capacity C = M × k × N = M × S

The capacity of a cellular system is directly proportional to the number of times a

cluster is replicated in a fixed area.

The factor N is called the cluster size and it is typically equal to 4, 7, or 12.
Reuse pattern of cluster size, N = 4
We consider a cellular system in which the total available voice
channels to handle the traffic are 1,200. The area of each cell is 9 km2
and the total coverage area of the system is 3,600 km2.

a. Calculate the system capacity if the cluster size, N is 4.

b. Calculate the system capacity if the cluster size is 7. Does decreasing

the reuse factor N, increases the system capacity? Explain.

c. How many times should a cluster of size 7 be replicated to cover the

entire cellular area?
Solution
Total available channels = 1,200
Cell area = 9 km2
Total coverage area = 3,600 km2

a. N = 4
Area of a cluster with cluster size N = 4 is 4 × 9 = 36 km2
Number of clusters for covering total area with N equals 4 = 3,600/36 = 100
Number of channels per cell = 1,200/4 = 300
System capacity = 100 × 1,200 = 120,000 channels
Area of a cluster N = 7 is 7 × 9 = 63 km2
Number of clusters for covering total area with N equals 7 =3,600/63 =
57.14 ~ 57
Number of channels per cell = 1,200/7 = 171.42 ~ 171
System capacity = 57 × 1,200 = 68,400 channels

It is evident that when we decrease the value of N from 7 to 4, we

increase the system capacity from 68,400 to 120,000 channels. Thus,
decreasing the reuse factor (N) increases the system capacity.

c. To cover the entire circular area = Total coverage area/Area of a cluster

with reuse N = 7 = 3,600 km2/63 km2 = 57 times.
 Spectrum efficiency

Spectral efficiency, spectrum efficiency or bandwidth efficiency refers to the information

rate that can be transmitted over a given bandwidth in a specific communication system.
It is a measure of how efficiently a limited frequency spectrum is utilized by the physical
layer protocol, and sometimes by the media access control (the channel
access protocol).

The spectrum efficiency ηs expressed in Cable

•bit/s per Hz
In wireless Erlangs per square meter per hertz, yields a measure of how efficiently
space, frequency, and time are used, and it is given by:
 Propagation path loss
Propagation path loss: The propagation path loss of a signal is a function of
several factors, such as environment, location, antenna type, antenna
height, and so on.
 Propagation path loss
By considering omnidirectional antennas, the propagation path loss in a
mobile radio environment is normally taken as 40 dB per decade, that is,
the signal will suffer a 40 dB loss for each 10 km. The difference in power
reception at two different distances d1 and d2 would be:
where Pr1 is the received carrier power
at receiver 1, Pr2 is the received carrier
Pr 2 d1 4
( )
power at receiver 2, d1 is the distance
measured from the transmitter to
Pr1 d2 receiver 1, and d2 is the distance
measured from the transmitter to
receiver 2.
When expressed in decibels, Equation becomes
 Under the same conditions, but in free space, the propagation path
loss would be of 20 dB/10 km.

The propagation path loss will vary as:

Prloss = a d -g

Prloss (indB)  10 loga - 10g log d

where g is the propagation path loss factor, a is a constant and d is the

distance from the transmitter to the receiver.
The g parameter usually lies between 2 and 5; it cannot be lower than 2,
the free-space condition.
 Example problem
Calculate the change in received signal powers (in decibels) in mobile radio
propagation condition at two different distance points when the second distance
point is twice the distance of the first point.

Solution
Let the received carrier signal power at a distance d1 be Pr1 and at a distance d2
be Pr2. The change in received signal strengths (in decibels), Pr in mobile radio
propagation, between the distance points d2 and d1 is given by

Pr (indB) =40 log (d1/d2)dB

Hence, Pr  12dB

From this result we observe that signal strength decays at the rate of 12dB/octave in
the mobile radio-propagation environment condition.
 Radio Resource Management

How to share radio resources among multiple

users

1. Frequency reuse among cells

2. Multiple Access within cells:

 Frequency reuse factor

One important characteristic of cellular networks is the reuse of

frequencies in different cells.
The cells using the same set of channels (or frequencies) are known
as co-channel cells.
By reuse frequencies, a high capacity can be achieved.
However, the reuse distance has to be high enough, so that the
interference caused by subscribers using the same frequency (or
an adjacent frequency) in another cells is sufficiently low.
For proper functioning of any cellular system, the co-channel
interference needs to be minimized.

For example, to guarantee an appropriate speech quality,

the carrier-to-interference power- ratio (CIR) has to exceed a certain
threshold CIR which is 9 dB for the GSM system.
Unlike thermal noise which can be overcome by increasing the signal-
to-noise ratio (SNR), co-channel interference cannot be overcome by
simply increasing the carrier power because an increase in carrier
power increases the interference to neighbouring co-channel cells.
• To reduce co-channel
interference, co-channel cells
must be physically separated
by a minimum distance.

• In a cellular system of equal cell size,

the co-channel interference is a
function of a frequency reuse factor
or co-channel reuse ratio (q).

• The frequency reuse factor of a

cellular system is defined by the
ratio of distance between the
frequency reusing cell sites (D) and
the cell radius (R) of the serving cell
sites and is known as D/R ratio. Figure: Frequency reuse factor or co-
channel reuse ratio (q)
 Theoretical Network Planning

Honeycomb (hexagonal) cell structure

Cluster: set of different frequencies used in group of cells

Cluster is repeated by linear shift

i steps along one direction
j steps in the other direction
 Cluster Radius

Radius of a cluster

2
Ru i 2 + j + ij
Rc = = R
3 3
 Relationship between frequency reuse factor (D/R) and
cluster size (N)
Determination of relation between frequency reuse factor (D/R ratio) and the
cluster size (N) involves mainly two steps:
(i) finding the relation between the distance D (two co-channel cells) and R
and
(ii) locating
Proofthe
of dco-channel
= 3R
cells.

Figure: Centre-to-centre distance between two adjacent

hexagonal cells 1 and 2
From Figure, we can observe that OA  R, AB  R/2 and OAP is a right-angled
triangle. In the OAP triangle, OP  OA Sin 60  (3/2) R.
 Let d be the centre-to-centre (OQ) distance between two adjacent hexagonal
cells 1 and 2, then
OQ  OP + PQ
d  (3/2)R + (3/2)R  3R
Cell area of a small hexagon with radius R  6 X r R/2  ((33)/2).R2
23r2

Figure: Shift parameters i and j in a Figure: Locating co-channel cells in a

hexagonal geometry (N  19) hexagonal geometry for i  3,
To establish the relationship between N and
frequency reuse factor (D/R), we know that the
cluster size Figure: Relationship between N
N i2+ j2 + ij and shift parameters i, j
 Frequency Division Multiple Access: FDMA
Every user has its own frequency channel

Time Division Multiple Access: TDMA

Users share the same bandwidth but transmit one after the other

Code Division Multiple Access: CDMA

User signals overlap in frequency and time.
Orthogonality of waveforms is used to separate user signals
 EXAMPLE
As a total of 40 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular frequency division
duplex cellular telephone system which uses two 25 kHz simplex channels to
provide full duplex voice and control channels. Compute the number of channels
available per cell if a system uses (a) four-cell reuse, (b) seven-cell reuse, (c) 12-
cell reuse. If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated to control channels,
determine an equitable distribution of control channels and voice channels in each
cell for each of the three systems.

Solution
Given bandwidth = 40 MHz
Channels bandwidth = 25 kHz × 2 simplex channels = 50 kHz/duplex channel
Total available channels = 40,000/50 = 800 channels
(a) For N = 4,total number of channels available per cell = 800/4 = 200 channels
(b) For N = 7, total number of channels available per cell = 800/7 ≈ 114 channels
(c) For N = 12, total number of channels available per cell = 800/12 ≈ 67 channels
For 1 MHz, the total available channels = 1 MHz/50 kHz = 20 channels.
For N = 4, total number of channels per cell = 20/4 = 5 channels.
For N = 7, total number of channels per cell = 20/7 ≈ 3 channels.
For N = 12, total number of channels per cell = 20/12 ≈ 2 channels.
each cell for each of the three systems.
Improving coverage and capacity in cellular
systems

As demand increases, number of channels per cell become insufficient.

Therefore, new cellular design techniques are needed to provide more channels
per unit coverage area. Various techniques developed to expand the capacity of
system are as follows:

• Cell splitting: Reduce radius of cell to increase frequency reuse.

• Sectoring: Uses directional antennas to control interference and frequency

reuse.

• Repeaters for range extension: Use re-transmitters to cover areas subjected to

fading.

• Zone microcells: Distributes the coverage of a cell.

Cell splitting

Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system since it increases

the number of times that channels are reused.
By decreasing the radius R and keeping the co-channel reuse ratio D/R unchanged,
cell splitting increases the number of channels per unit area.
Cell splitting is the attractive feature of cellular concept and is the process of
dividing a larger congested cell into smaller cells, each with its own cell site with a
corresponding reduction in transmitter power and antenna height.

Figure: Original cell distribution and cell

splitting
Sectoring

Sectoring is another way to increase capacity. In sectoring, a cell has the

same coverage space but instead of using a single omni-directional antenna
that transmits in all directions, either three or six directional antennas are
used and each with beam width of about 120 or 60 as shown in Figure.

Figure : A cell divided into (a) 120 and (b) 60

 The CIR must now be modified from

where q is the co-channel interference reduction factor and g is the path loss
exponential constant.
The denominator has been reduced from 6 to 2 to account for the reduced
number of interference sources.
Example problem:
Find the signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) for a seven-cell-cluster layout with
180° sectors. Assume that the path loss exponent is g  4.
Solution
If N  7, we know that q  (3N).
Then from Equation
Range extension by the use of repeaters
The use of repeater in cellular mobile communication system is for extending
the range of the reception of the receiver. Especially, the repeater is used
when it is hard for the transmitted signal to reach up to the receiver set.
Repeaters are bidirectional in nature and simultaneously send signals to and
receive signals from a serving BS.

Figure: Range extension by the use of

repeater
 Microcell zone concept

By the use of sectorization technique, we can increase the system performance

(i.e. quality of the signal) but side by side, there will be a large increment of
handoffs which results in the increment of load on the switching and control link
elements of the mobile system. So a microcell zone concept is introduced which
leads to an increased capacity without any degradation in trunking efficiency
caused by sectoring.
Advantages of microcell zone
 A given channel is active only
concept
in a particular zone. Thus,
interference is reduced and
capacity is increased.
 Handoffs are reduced (also
compared to decreasing the
cell size) since the microcells
within the cell operate at the
same frequency; no handover
occurs when the mobile unit
moves between the microcells.
 Size of the zone apparatus is
Figure: Microcell zone concept (for three microcells) small. The zone site equipment
being small can be mounted on
Picocell zone concept
A picocell is a small cellular BS. The use of picocell sites by wireless
operators is driven by the desire to provide coverage and capacity to a given
area or application. The picocell has a very small service area where several
picocells in concept can cover the same area as a microcell.
The picocell is a spot coverage and low-capacity site, as compared to a
macrocell site. Picocell sites typically have a single omni-antenna, as do
microcells. However, the power and thus the coverage of the picocell is less
than a microcell.

Figure : Picocell zone concept

A cellular system uses a frequency reuse factor N = 4 (i = 0, j = 2). If the path loss
exponent γ = 4 and cell radius R = 5 km, find the following quantities in decibels: (a) The
SIR for the system with no cell sectoring (b) The SIR for the system when 120° cell
sectoring is used (note that worst occurs when mobile phone is at the furthest point
from the interfering towers) (c) The SIR for the system when 60° cell sectoring is used
(note that worst occurs when mobile phone is at the furthest point from the interfering
towers).
Cell Sizes Decrease with Growth of System

·
Macro-cellular 1 - 30 km
·
Micro-cellular 200 - 2000 m
·
Pico-cellular 4 - 200 meter
Interferences in
mobile
communications
 Types of interferences

Interference in mobile communications is of two types:

 Co-channel interference

 Adjacent-channel interference

The co-channel interference (CCI) is crosstalk from two different radio

transmitters using the same frequency. The CCI arises in the cellular mobile
networks due to the phenomenon of frequency reuse.
 Co-channel interference reduction factor

CCI is independent of the transmitted power of each cell as long as the size of
the cell is fixed. It is a function of a parameter q and is defined as

where
D is the distance between the centers of cells
R is the radius of the cell
q is the reuse ratio
N is the cluster size
Again, CIR

Here, q is the CCI reduction factor and N is the

cluster size. CCI decreases when q increases.
Further, the separation D in equation can be
written as a function of KI and C/I,

where
KI is the number of co-channel interfering cells in
the first tier C/I is the received CIR at the desired
Figure: Six effective interfering
receiver
cells of Tier 1
 Assume that the interference level is very high; the local noise can be
neglected. Then, C/I can be expressed as

Dk is the distance between

the mobile and the kth
interfering cell R is the cell
radius
where the actual terrain environment determines , the propagation path-loss
slope. Usually,  = 4 in a mobile radio medium.

where qk is the CCI reduction factor with kth co-channel interfering cell, and

From the above analysis, by

substituting KI = 6 , the C/I can
be obtained as
If we assume Dk to be the same for the six interfering cells for simplification, or D =
Dk, then Equation becomes

where q = D/R is the reuse factor.

Therefore,

q = (3N) , we have
Example problem:

Consider the AMPS in which the C/I of 18 dB is required for the accepted
voice quality. What should be the cluster size for the system? Assume =
4. What will be the cluster size of the GSM system in which a C/I of 12 dB
is required?
Solution:
Example problem:

Consider the AMPS in which the C/I of 18 dB is required for the accepted
voice quality. What should be the cluster size for the system? Assume =
4. What will be the cluster size of the GSM system in which a C/I of 12 dB
is required?
Solution:
Example problem:
Consider a cellular system with 395 total allocated voice channel
frequencies. Calculate the mean C/I for cell reuse factor equal to 4, 7, and 12.
Assume omnidirectional antennas with six interferers in the fi rst tier and a
slope for path loss of 40 dB/decade ( = 4).

Solution:
Example problem:
Consider a cellular system with 395 total allocated voice channel
frequencies. Calculate the mean C/I for cell reuse factor equal to 4, 7, and 12.
Assume omnidirectional antennas with six interferers in the fi rst tier and a
slope for path loss of 40 dB/decade ( = 4).

Solution:
For a reuse factor q = 4, the number of voice channels per cell site =
395/4 = 99.
Using Equation (3.10), then mean C/I for N = 4 is
Example problem
The base station transmitter antenna in a cell site radiates a +10 dBm RF
signal and is connected using an RF coaxial cable that induces a 3 dB loss.
The cable has two connectors at its either end that induce a loss of 2 dB each.
What is the signal level at the input of the antenna system?
Solution
Example problem
The base station transmitter antenna in a cell site radiates a +10 dBm RF
signal and is connected using an RF coaxial cable that induces a 3 dB loss.
The cable has two connectors at its either end that induce a loss of 2 dB each.
What is the signal level at the input of the antenna system?
Solution
Given data:
The RF output signal level of cell-site transmitter antenna = +10 dBm
In terms of dB = +10 − 30 = −20 dB
Signal loss due to RF coaxial cable = 3 dB
Determination of total loss in cable connectors
Signal loss due to one connector of RF coaxial cable = 2 dB
Number of connectors on a coaxial cable = 2
Therefore, signal loss due to both connectors = 2  2 = 4 dB
Determination of signal loss due to cable and connectors
Total signal loss due to cable and connectors = 3 + 4 = 7 dB
Determination of signal level at the input of the antenna
Signal level at the input of the antenna = −20 − 7 = −27 dB
In terms of dBm = −27 + 30 = 3 dBm
Hence, signal level at the input of the antenna system = +3 dBm.
 Reduction of co-channel interference

One of the major challenges in cellular mobile systems is the reduction of co-
channel interference.

A few methods which can be considered are

 increasing the separation distance between the two co-channel cells

 use of directional antennas at the base station

 decreasing the antenna heights at the base station.

 Adjacent-channel interference

The adjacent-channel interference (ACI), also known as inter-channel

interference, is the interference caused by extraneous power from a signal in
an adjacent channel.

An ACI may be caused by:

 inadequate filtering, such as incomplete filtering of unwanted modulation

products in frequency modulation (FM) systems,

 improper tuning, or poor frequency control, in either the reference channel

or the interfering channel, or in both.
 Teletraffic Engineering,
Trunking, GoS and Operational
Techniques
 Objectives of Teletraffic engineering

 To measure the traffic in well-defined units through mathematical

models and to derive relationships between GoS and system
capacity in such a way that the theory helps in planning
investments.

 The task of teletraffic theory is to design cost-effective systems with

a pre-defined GoS when we know the future traffic demand and the
capacity of system elements.
 Trunking

Trunking is a technique used in data communications

transmission systems to provide many users with access to a
network by sharing multiple lines or frequencies.

As the name implies, the system is like a tree with one trunk and
many branches.

Trunking is commonly used in very-high-frequency (VHF) radio

and telecommunication systems.
 Grade of service (GoS)
In the context of a telephone system, the term GoS is used to mean
the probability that a user’s request for service will be blocked
because a required facility such as a trunk or a cellular channel is
not available.
The two parameters that statistically characterize the user calling
habits are
the average number of call requests per unit time, user
and
the average holding time, H.
That is, the product of the average arrival rate and the average
holding time is called the offered traffic intensity or offered
load (Auser).
If the blocking probability or GoS is Pb, then 1– Pb represents the
fraction of call requests that actually result in the assignment of a
channel.
The carried load for an individual user is given by:
Example problem

Suppose during the busy hour, a user makes an average of three calls
per hour and holds each call an average of 15 min. Find the offered
traffic intensity. Suppose in the preceding example if the GoS during the busy
hour is 10 per cent, find the carried load for an individual user.

Solution

The average arrival rate is luser = 3 calls/h = 3 calls/60 min =

1call/20min.
Then,
Auser = 1/20 calls/min  15 min = 0.75 Erlang.
Example problem

How many mobile subscribers can be supported with 36 service

channels at 2 per cent GoS? Assume the average call holding
time equals 120 s and the average busy hour call per subscriber
is 1.2 calls/h.
Solution

From the Erlang B table,

For 36 channels at 2 per cent blocking, the offered load = 27.34 Erlang.

The carried load will be 27.34 × (1 – 0.02) = 26.79 Erlang.

Example problem

The maximum calls per hour in a mobile cell equals 8,000 and the
average call holding time is 80 s. If the GoS is 2 per cent, find the
offered load A. How many service channels are required to handle
the load?
Solution

Using the Erlang B table, N = 182 channels giving 168.3 Erlang at 2

per cent blocking.
 Poisson’s formula

The Poisson’s formula is used for designing trunks on a route for a given GoS. It
is used in the United States.

The assumptions in Poisson’s formula are as follows:

• Traffic originates from an infinite number of independent sources.

• Traffic density per traffic source is equal.
• Lost calls are held
• A limited number of trunks or service channels exist.

where pb = probability of blocking, A = offered load, and N = number of trunks

or service channels.
 Erlang B formula
The Erlang B formula is expressed as GoS or the probability of finding N
channels busy.
The assumptions made in the Erlang B formula are as follows:

 Traffic originates independently from an infinite number of traffic sources.

 Lost calls are cleared assuming a zero holding time.
 Number of trunks or service channels is limited.
 Full availability.
 Traffic requests are represented by a Poisson distribution implying
exponentially distributed call inter-arrival times.
blocking probability

where N = number of serving channels and A = offered load.

 Erlang C formula

The Erlang C formula assumes that a queue is formed to hold all requested
calls that cannot be served immediately.

The assumptions in the Erlang C formula are as follows:

 Traffic originates from an infinite number of traffic sources

independently.
 Lost calls are delayed.
 Number of trunks or service channels is limited.
 The probability of a user occupying a channel (called service time) is
based on an exponential distribution.
 Calls are served in the order of arrival.
 Increasing the traffic capacity
Increase in traffic capacity is accomplished in the following
manner:
 Reducing the size of the cell by controlling the radiation
pattern increases the traffic capacity.
 Increasing the number of radio channels in each cell.
 Enhancing the frequency spectrum.
 Queuing of hand-off calls.
 Coverage-hole filler. One method that is used to fill the holes is
to make use of diversity receiver. A diversity receiver has
an ability to receive signals that has lower signal levels.
Therefore, the hole that existed in a normal receiver
reception now becomes a no-hole or lesser hole situation.
The diversity schemes can be classified into different
categories. They are:
 Polarization diversity
 Field component energy density
 Space diversity
 Frequency diversity
 Time diversity and
 Angle diversity
Antennas
Introduction

 The antenna is the interface between the

transmission line and space
 Antennas are passive devices; the power
radiated cannot be greater than the power
entering from the transmitter
 When speaking of gain in an antenna, gain
refers to the idea that certain directions are
radiated better than others
 Antennas are reciprocal - the same design
works for receiving systems as for
transmitting systems
Properties of Antennas
• Antenna Gain
• Aperture
• Directivity and gain
• Polarization
• Effective length
• Polar diagram
 Radiation Pattern
The relative distribution of radiated power as a function of
direction in space is the radiation pattern of an antenna. Two
most important views are those of E-plane and H-plane
patterns. The E-plane pattern is a view of the radiation pattern
obtained from a section containing the maximum value of the
radiated field and in which the electric field lies in the plane of
the chosen sectional view.

4
(a)Power radiation pattern for a short current filament (b) Principal E-plane pattern
(c) Principal H-plane pattern
 Radiation Resistance
The radiation resistance of an antenna is an equivalent resistance
which would dissipate the same amount of power as the antenna
radiates when the current in that resistance equals the input current
to the antenna. For a dipole antenna, the radiation resistance Ra is
found from the relation
2
 dl 
Ra  80  
2

 0 
where dl is the length of the dipole and 0 is the operating
wavelength.

For example, considering dl=1 m, and 0 =300 m (corresponding to

1 MHz), the radiation resistance is 0.0084 ohm.
Example problem

Find the efficiency of an antenna whose radiation

resistance and loss resistance are 100  and 20 
respectively.
Solution
 Directivity and Gain
The shape, size and connectorization all affect the antenna radiation
pattern. Two key parameters in assessing the performance of
an antenna are directivity and gain. Directivity is a measurement of
the concentration radiation in a direction while gain represents the
power transmitted in the main beam.
The variation of the intensity with direction in space is described by
the directivity function defined as :

power radiated per unit solid angle

D
average power radiated per unit solid angle
dP / d dP / d
 r  4 r
Pr / 4 Pr
Example problem

An antenna operates with a bandwidth of 6 MHz

and the minimum and maximum operating
frequencies are 97 MHz and 103 MHz,
respectively. Find the bandwidth percentage?
Solution
Given data: Bandwidth of antenna = 6 MHz
Maximum and minimum operating frequencies = 97
MHz and 103 MHz, respectively
 Antenna Aperture
For a practical antenna with an aperture area of Ar, some of
the incident energy on the antenna is reflected away from
the aperture and absorbed by lossy components. This
reduction in efficiency is described by using an effective
aperture area Ae where

Ae = a Ar

and a is called the aperture efficiency of the antenna. For

antennas with paraboloidal reflector, a is typically 0.5 to
0.75.
The gain of a paraboloidal reflector antenna is given by
4
G A. a
20
PT = Transmitter output power = Power radiated from antenna

If the antenna is isotropic : Flux density at a distance d :

Wd = PT/(4d2) W/m2
If antenna is directional with gain GT : Wd = PTGT /(4d2)
W/m2
Effective isotropic radiated Power (EIRP) = PTGT
Received power, PR = Wd Ar
Ar= Aperture area of receiving antenna
Power received by the antenna with effective aperture Ae :
Pr = PTGT Ae /(4d2)

Receiving antenna gain Gr =4 Ae/2

Pr = PTGT Gr [ /4d]2 Lp = Path Loss = [ /4d]2

Friis Transmission Equation for radio or Satellite

Communication
 Example problem :

Two antennas are separated by 40 km and are aligned

for optimum reception. The transmitting antenna is a
paraboloid reflector with diameter 2 m. The transmitter
is operating at a frequency of 1 GHz. For reliable
communication, the receiving antenna must receive 10
mW power. Calculate the minimum power that must be
transmitted from the transmitter if the receiving
antenna is a dipole of gain is 2.15 dB.
Solution :

Distance between Tx and Rx , d = 40km = 40,000 m

Transmitting antenna diameter , D=2 m
Transmitting antenna gain,
4
GT  A. a
2
0
Wavelength, 0 = c/f = 3x108/1000x106 =0.3m
Aperture efficiency, a = 0.60

GR-dB = 2.15 dB GR = 10(2.15/10)

Pr = 10 mW = 0.01 watt

Pr = PTGT Gr [ /4d]2

PT = Pr [4d/]2 /{GTGR} = ...... Watt

 Types of Antennas
Log Periodic Antennas Travelling Wave Antennas
• Bow Tie Antennas • Helical Antennas
• Log-Periodic Dipole Array • Yagi-Uda Antennas
Wire Antennas Microwave Antennas
• Short Dipole Antenna • Rectangular Micro strip Antennas
• Dipole Antenna • Planar Inverted-F Antennas
• Monopole Antenna Reflector Antennas
• Loop Antenna • Corner Reflector
• Parabolic Reflector
 Log Periodic Antenna Bow Tie Antenna
Log Periodic Dipole Antenna

Wire Antenna Loop Antenna

Helical Antennas Yagi-Uda Antenna

Rectangular Micro strip Antennas

Corner Reflector Antenna Parabolic Antenna

 Cell-Site Antenna

 For cellular radio systems, there is a need for

omnidirectional antennas and for antennas with
beamwidths of 120º, and less for sectorized cells
 Cellular and PCS base-station receiving antennas are
usually mounted in such a way as to obtain space diversity
 For an omnidirectional pattern, typically three antennas
are mounted on a tower with a triangular cross section and
the antennas are mounted at 120º intervals
 Omnidirectional Antenna
In radio communication, an omnidirectional
antenna is a class of antenna which radiates equal
radio power in all directions perpendicular to
an axis (azimuthal directions), with power varying
with angle to the axis (elevation angle), declining to
zero on the axis.
The Five-Eighths
Wavelength Antenna

 The five-eighths wavelength

antenna is used vertically either
as a mobile or base antenna in
VHF and UHF systems
 It has omnidirectional response
in the horizontal plane
 Radiation is concentrated at a
lower angle, resulting in gain in
the horizontal direction
 It also has a higher impedance
than a quarter-wave monopole
and does not require as good a
ground
The Discone Antenna

 The discone antenna is

characterized by very wide
bandwidth, covering a 10:1
frequency range
 It also has an omnidirectional
pattern in the horizontal plane
and a gain comparable to that
of a dipole
 The feedpoint resistance is
typically 50 ohms
 Typically, the length of the
surface of the cone is about
one-quarter wavelength at the
lowest operating frequency
 Mobile and Portable Antenna
 Mobile and portable antennas
used with cellular and PCS
systems have to be
omnidirectional and small
 The simplest antenna is the
quarter-wavelength monopole
are these are usually the ones
supplied with portable phones
 For mobile phones, and
common configuration is the
quarter-wave antenna with a
half-wave antenna mounted
collinearly above it
 Antenna Matching

 Sometimes a resonant antenna is too large to be

convenient
 Other times, an antenna may be required to
operate at several widely different frequencies
and cannot be of resonant length all the time
 The problem of mismatch can be rectified by
matching the antenna to the feedline using an LC
matching network
 Reflectors
 It is possible to construct a conductive surface that
reflects antenna power in the desired direction
 The surface may consist of one or more planes or
may be parabolic
 Typical reflectors are:
 Plane and corner Reflectors
 The Parabolic Reflector
Figure: Sectorized antenna Figure: Parabolic dish and grid Figure: Radiation pattern of highly directional antennas
antennas

Figure Types of23

horn antenna
Figure Sectorized antenna radiation
pattern
 FREQUENCY
MANAGEMENT AND
CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT
Frequency Management

 Frequency management
 Designating set-up channels and voice channels (done by
the FCC),
 Numbering the channels(done by the FCC), and
 Grouping the voice channels into subsets (done by each
system according to its preference).
 Channel assignment

 Means the allocation of specific channels to cell sites and mobile

units.
 A fixed channel set – Cell site- long-term basis
 Ideally channel assignment should be based on causing the least
interference in the system.
Numbering the Channels

 The total number of channels are 832.

 But most mobile units and systems are still operating on
666 channels.
 A channel consists of two frequency channel
bandwidths,
 one in the low band
 one in the high band
Numbering the Channels

 Two frequencies in channel 1 are

 825.030 MHz (mobile transmit) and
 870.030 MHz (cell-site transmit)

 The two frequencies in channel 666 are

 844.98 MHz (mobile transmit) and
 889.98 MHz (cell-site transmit)
Numbering the Channels

 The 666 channels are divided into two groups:

 block A system
 block B system
Frequency-management chart
Numbering the Channels
 Each block has 333 channels
 The 42 set-up channels are assigned as follows.
 Channels 313 - 333 block A
 Channels 334 - 354 block B
 The voice channels are assigned as follows.
 Channels 1 - 312 (312 voice channels) block A
 Channels 355 - 666 (312 voice channels) block B
 Numbering the Channels
(additional spectrum allocation)
 New additional spectrum allocation - 10 MHz -additional 166
channels are assigned
a 1 MHz is assigned below 825 MHz (or 870 MHz)

 additional channels will be numbered up to 849 MHz (or 894

MHz) and will then circle back
 The last channel number is 1023 (=210)

 There are no channels between channels 799 and 991.

New additional spectrum allo
cation
Full Spectrum Frequency Management
Full Spectrum Frequency Management
Grouping into Subsets

 Voice channels for each system is 312

 We can group these into any number of subsets

 21 set-up channels for each system

 it is logical to group the 312 channels into 21 subsets

 Each subset then consists of 16 channels

 In each set, the closest adjacent channel is 21 channels

away
 Grouping into Subsets

 The 16 channels in each subset - connected to a channel combiner

 Wide separation between adjacent channels -requirement of

minimum isolation

 Each 16-channel subset is idealized for each 16-channel combiner

Grouping into Subsets

 In a seven-cell pattern system each cell contains three

subsets,
 iA + iB + iC


 where i is an integer from 1 to 7

 The total number of voice channels in a cell is about 45

 The minimum separation between three subsets is 7

channels (21/3)
Set-up Channels

 Set-up channels, also called control channels,

 Channels designated to set up calls
 Set-up channels can be classified by usage into two types
 access channels
 paging channels
Access channels - Operational
functions
 Change power at the mobile unit(Messages)
 Mobile station control message
 System parameter overhead message
 Control-filler message
 Direct call - retry
Paging Channels

 The Paging Channel (PCH) is used to alert a mobile that

there is a call or text message waiting.
 A better algorithm is used to page from all the cell
sites.
 Fixed and Dynamic Channel
• Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA):
Fixed Channel Allocation is a strategy in which fixed number of
channels or voice channels are allocated to the cells. Once the
channels are allocated to the specific cells then they cannot be
changed.

• Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA):

Dynamic Channel Allocation is a strategy in which channels are not
permanently allocated to the cells. When a User makes a call request
then Base Station(BS) send that request to the Mobile Station
Center(MSC) for the allocation of channels or voice channels. This
way the likelihood of blocking calls is reduced. As traffic increases
more channels are assigned and vice-versa.
 Fixed Channel Dynamic Channel
Fixed number of channels or voice channels Fixed number of channels are not allocated
are allocated to cells. to cells.
If all the channels are occupied and user
If all the channels are occupied and user
make a call then Base Station(BS) request
make a call then the call will be blocked in
more channel to the Mobile Station
FCA.
Center(MSC).
Frequency reuse is maximum because cells Frequency reuse is not that maximum in
channels are separated by minimum reuse DCA because of channel randomness
distance. allocation.
In DCA complex algorithms are used to
In FCA no such complex algorithms are
decide which available channel is most
used.
efficient.
Dynamic Channel Allocation Strategy is
Fixed Channel Allocation Strategy is less
costly because lot of computation is
costly than the DCA
required in real-time.

In DCA once the call is completed then the

In FCA allocated channels remains to the
channel or the voice channel return to the
cell, once the call is completed
MSC.

Mobile Station Center(MSC) has less Mobile Station Center(MSC) has more
responsibilities. signalling load and responsibilities.
Fixed Channel Assignment

 Adjacent-Channel Assignment
 Channel Sharing
 Sectorization
Adjacent-Channel Assignment

Adjacent channel assignment.

(a) Omnidirectional-antenna cells (b) directional-
antenna cells
Channel Sharing

 Channel Sharing
 Algorithm
Sectorization

 The 120o sector cell for both transmitting and receiving

 The 60o sector cell for both transmitting and receiving
 120o or 60o sector cell for receiving sectorization only ,
and transmitting antenna is omni-directional
Non-Fixed Channel
Assignment algorithms

 Dynamic Channel Assignment

 Hybrid channel Assignment
 Borrowing channel Assignment
Example problem
A full-duplex wireless cellular system is allocated a total spectrum of 25 MHz
and each simplex channel has 15 kHz RF bandwidth. Determine the following:
(a) Total number of full-duplex channels available.
(b) Number of channels per cell site if K = 7 cell reuse pattern is employed.
Solution
Given data:
Total allocated RF spectrum bandwidth = 25 MHz
Channel bandwidth per simplex channel = 15 KHz
(a) To determine number of full-duplex channel
Channel bandwidth per simplex channel = 15 kHz
Number of channels in a duplex link = 2
Therefore, duplex channel bandwidth = 15 × 2 = 30 kHz
Number of full-duplex channels = total bandwidth/duplex channel bandwidth
Number of full-duplex channels = 25 MHz/30 kHz
Hence, total number of duplex channels = 833 channels.
(b) To determine number of channels per cell site
Number of cells in one cluster, K = 7 (given)
Number of channels per cell site = total number of channels/K = 833/7 =119.
Hence, number of channels per cell site = 119 channels.
Example problem
Calculate the number of set-up and voice channels per cell for a cellular
system having a total spectrum allocation of 60 MHz which uses two 25 kHz
simplex channels to provide full duplex set-up and voice channels. Assume
that the system is designed with nine-cell frequency-reuse pattern and 1 MHz
of the total spectrum is exclusively allocated for set-up channels

Solution
Given data: Total allocated RF spectrum bandwidth = 60 MHz Channel
bandwidth per simplex channel = 25 kHz Number of cells in one cluster = 9
Allocated RF bandwidth for set-up channels = 1 MHz

• To determine duplex channel bandwidth Channel bandwidth per simplex

channel = 25 kHz Number of channels in a duplex link = 2

Therefore, duplex channel bandwidth = 25 × 2 = 50 kHz

• To determine number of full-duplex channels Number of full-duplex

channels = Total bandwidth/duplex channel bandwidth Number of full-
duplex channels = 60 MHz/50 kHz

Hence, total number of duplex channels = 1,200 channels

• To determine total number of set-up channels
Duplex channel bandwidth = 50 kHz (As calculated in Step 1) Total number of
available set-up channels = 1 MHz/50 kHz = 20

• To distribute number of set-up channels per cell

Total available 20 number of set-up channels can be distributed among nine
cells in a cluster as 7 cells can have 2 set-up channels each, and remaining 2
cells can then have 3 set-up channels each which means a total (7 × 2 + 2 × 3 )
of 20 set-up channels in a system.

• To determine total number of voice channels

Available RF bandwidth for voice channels = 60 MHz − 1 MHz= 59 MHz

Total number of available voice channels = 59 MHz/50 kHz = 1180

• To distribute number of voice channels per cell Total 1180 number of available
voice channels can be distributed among nine cells in a cluster as 8 cells can
have 131 voice channels each, and remaining 1 cell can then have 132 voice
channels which means a total (8 × 131 + 1 × 132) of 1180 voice channels in a
system
 Techniques for increasing
frequency spectrum
 Increasing the number of radio channels using narrow banding,
spread spectrum or time division
 Improving spatial frequency-spectrum reuse
 Frequency management and channel assignment
 Improving spectrum efficiency in time
 Reducing the load of invalid calls
 Voice storage service for No-Answer calls
 Call forwarding
 Call waiting for Busy-Call situations
 Queuing
 Off air call setup
 Reducing the customer keep dialling case
HANDOFFS AND DROPPED
CALLS
 HANDOFF STRATEGIES

Handoff: a mobile user moves to a different cell while conversation is in

progress, MSC transfers the call to a new BS.
 Identifying new BS
 New voice and control channels to be allocated
Handoff must be performed
 Successfully
 Infrequently
To achieve this, designer must specify optimum signal level at which
handoff initiates
NEED OF HANDOFF?

1. Power Consideration
2. Traffic Consideration
3. Channel Quality Consideration
4. Distance Consideration
5. Administrative Consideration
 Handoff Parameters

The handoff parameters are measured in the following way:

1. Signal strengths of BSs are measured by the mobile devices.

2. Channel availability status is known at the cellular network.

3. Cellular network makes the decision about when the hand over
is to take place in which channel of which cell.

4
SIGNAL COVERAGE CELLS
CASE 1: HANDOFF - SUCCESSFUL

Value of delta is large enough. When the PHandoff is reached, the MSC
initiates the handoff.
CASE:2 HANDOFF - UNSUCCESSFUL

In this case, the MSC was unable to perform the handoff before the
signal level dropped below the minimum usable level, and so the call
was lost.
HANDOFF – UNSUCCESSFUL (CONT’D)
Reasons for failed handoff:
 ∆ too small (i.e. PHANDOFF too low)
 high mobile speeds
 Excessive delay at MSC
 High traffic level
 Un-availability of channels
DWELL TIME

Dwell time: the amount of time over which a call may be maintained within
a cell without handoff.

The statistics of dwell time, vary greatly depending on the type of radio
coverage and user profiles within a cell, are important in the practical
design of handoff algorithms.
Handoff scenarios
Depending on the BS and MSC arrangement of the cellular network the handoff may occur
in the following scenarios, based on the movement of a mobile station (MS).
Classification based on natures of handoff
In this classification, the handoff mechanism is usually categorized as follows:
 Hard handoff : A hard handoff is also known as break-before-make handoff.
 Soft handoff : The soft handoff is also known as make-before-break handoff.
Comparison of hard handoff and soft handoff
 Classification based on purposes of handoff

In this classification the handoff can be of three types: intra-cell handoff, inter-cell
handoff, and inter-system handoff.

Figure: Intra-cell handoff Figure: Inter-cell handoff

Figure: Intra-cell and inter-cell handoff
16
Figure: Inter-system handoff or Inter-MSC handoff
(The new and the old BSs are connected to different
MSCs) 17
Figure: Basic cellular structures based on coverage
area
18
Handoff schemes based on algorithms of handoff (handoff protocols)

Three strategies have been proposed to detect the need for

handoff:

 MCHO (mobile-controlled handoff)

 NCHO (network-controlled handoff)
 MAHO (mobile-assisted handoff)
MOBILE-CONTROLLED HANDOFF
(MCHO)

The MS continuously monitors the signals of the surrounding BSs and

initiates the handoff process when some handoff criteria are met.
MCHO is used in DECT and PACS.
Digitally Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications system
Personal Access Communication System
NETWORK-CONTROLLED HANDOFF (NCHO)
The surrounding BSs measure the signal from the MS, and the network
initiates the handoff process when some handoff criteria are met.
NCHO is used in CT-2 Plus and AMPS.

MOBILE-ASSISTED HANDOFF (MAHO)

The network asks the MS to measure the signal from the surrounding
BSs. The network makes the handoff decision based on reports from
the MS.
MAHO is used in GSM and IS-95 CDMA.
 TWO CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE HANDOFFS ARE
NECESSARY BUT CANNOT BE MADE

When the mobile unit is located at a signal-strength hole within a cell but not at the
boundary

When the mobile unit approaches a cell boundary but no channels in the new cell are
available.

22
 DELAYING A HANDOFF
• When call traffic is heavy, the switching processor is loaded
heavily such that a lower number of handoffs would help the
processor to handle call processing more efficiently.
• When the mobile unit is located at a signal-strength hole
within a cell but not at the boundary.
• When the mobile unit approaches a cell boundary but no
channels in the new cell are available (neighbouring cells
are busy).

The following are the two approaches for delaying

handoffs:
1. Implementing a two-level handoff
2. Queuing the handoff calls
 FORCED HANDOFFS

A forced handoff is defined as a handoff that

would normally occur but is prevented from
happening, or a handoff that should not occur
but is forced to happen.

24
 QUEUING OF HANDOFFS
Queuing of handoffs is more effective than two-threshold-level handoffs
1/μ - average calling time in seconds, including new calls and handoff calls in each
cell
λ1 - arrival rate (λ1 calls per second) for originating calls
λ2 - arrival rate (λ2 handoff calls per second) for handoff calls
M1- size of queue for originating calls
M2 -size of queue for handoff calls
N- number of voice channels
a =(λ1 + λ2)/μ
b1 =λ1/μ
b2= λ2/μ
 CASE – 1
No queuing on either the originating calls or the handoff calls
The blocking for either an originating call or a handoff call is
 CASE-2
Queuing the originating calls but not the handoff calls
The blocking probability for originating calls is

The blocking probability for handoff calls is

CASE-3
Queuing the handoff calls but not the originating calls
In a cellular system the number of channels at the cell site
is 60. The call holding time is 0.024h. The number of
originating calls attempted per hour is 1,834, and the
number of handoff calls attempted per hour is 62.
Calculate the blocking probability of the system when
queuing is done for originating calls only, if the queue size
is 5.

29
When queuing of originating calls is done then blocking
probability of originating calls can be given calculated as

30
 Practical Handoff Consideration

• Different type of users

– High speed users need frequent handoff during a call.
– Low speed users may never need a handoff during a call.
• Micro cells to provide capacity, the MSC can become burdened if high
speed users are constantly being passed between very small cells.
• Large and small cells can be located at a single location (umbrella cell)
– different antenna height
– different power level
DROPPED CALL RATES
The dropped call is defined as an established call which leaves
the system before it is normally terminated
The Dropped Call Rate (DCR) parameter represents what
percentage of all established calls is dropped during a specified
time period
The DCR and voice quality are inversely proportional and high
DCR may indicate coverage, handoff, or channels accessibility
problems
The perception of dropped call rate by the subscribers can be
higher due to:
1. The subscriber unit not functioning properly (needs repair).
2. The user operating the portable unit in a vehicle (misused).
3. The user not knowing how to get the best reception from a
portable unit (needs education).
 FORMULA OF DROPPED CALL RATE

General Formula of Dropped Call Rate

The general formula of dropped call rate P in a whole system can be expressed as:

Where
And
Example problem
In a cellular system, the measurements of arrival rate of
data during busy hour (BH) is found to be 150 calls per
second. The average holding time of the call is
measured at 120 s. Find the estimated traffic in Erlang
and the departure rate per second for the system?
Solution

35
Example problem
In a system the probability that the signal below the
specified receiver threshold is 20 per cent and the
probability that the signal above the specified co-
channel interference level is 15 percent. Then what is
the probability of a dropped call when the call has gone
through three handoffs?
Solution

36
MODULATION AND
SIGNAL PROCESSING

1
Modulation can be done by varying the
Amplitude
Phase, or
Frequency of a high frequency carrier in
accordance with the amplitude of the
message signal.
Demodulation is the inverse operation: extracting
the baseband message from the carrier so that it
may be processed at the receiver.

2
Analog Modulation

The input is continues signal

Used in first generation mobile radio systems such as AMPS in USA.

Digital Modulation

The input is time sequence of symbols or pulses.

Are used in current and future mobile radio systems

3
Modulation is difficult task given the hostile mobile radio channels

Small-scale fading and multipath conditions.

The goal of a modulation scheme is:
Transport the message signal through the radio channel with best
possible quality
Occupy least amount of radio (RF) spectrum.

4
The input is discrete signals

Time sequence of pulses or symbols

Offers many advantages

Robustness to channel impairments

Easier multiplexing of variuous sources of information:
voice, data, video.
Can accommodate digital error-control codes
Enables encryption of the transferred signals
More secure link
5
A desired modulation scheme
 Provides low bit-error rates at low SNRs
o Power efficiency
 Performs well in multipath and fading conditions
 Occupies minimum RF channel bandwidth
o Bandwidth efficiency
 Is easy and cost-effective to implement
Depending on the demands of a particular system or application,
tradeoffs are made when selecting a digital modulation scheme.

6
Power efficiency is the ability of the modulation technique to preserve
fidelity of the message at low power levels.
Usually in order to obtain good fidelity, the signal power needs to be
increased.
Tradeoff between fidelity and signal power
Power efficiency describes how efficient this tradeoff is made

Eb: signal energy per bit 145

N0: noise power spectral density

PER: probability of error
Ability of a modulation scheme to accommodate data within a limited
bandwidth.
Bandwidth efficiency reflect how efficiently the allocated bandwidth is utilized

Bandwidth Efficiency :  R/B bps/Hz

B

R: the data rate (bps)

B: bandwidth occupied by the modulated RF signal

146
There are two major categories of digital modulation.

One category uses a constant amplitude carrier and carries the

information in phase or frequency variations, known as PSK or FSK.
The vast majority of frequency hopping wireless LAN and spread
spectrum-based systems today employs simple FSK modulation
schemes.

The other category conveys the information in carrier amplitude

variations and is known as ASK.

9
Figure: Digital modulation types (a) ASK (b) FSK (c) PSK
1
0
 Amplitude shift keying

In ASK, the two binary values, logic 1 and logic 0, of the

information data are represented by two different
amplitudes of the carrier signal, c(t)  A cos (2p f t).
c c

The probability of error (P ) is the main parameter which

e

improves the performance of a digital modulation

scheme. P of a ASK modulation scheme is given as
e

1
1
 Frequency shift keying

The most common form of FSK is binary FSK (BFSK), in which the two
binary values, logic 1 and logic 0, of the information data are represented
by two different frequencies of the carrier signal,
c(t) = Ac cos (2p fc t) near the carrier frequency fc.

The FSK signal for one-bit duration can be mathematically expressed as

where f1 and f2 are typically offset from the carrier frequency fc, by
an equal but opposite values.
The Pe of a FSK modulation scheme is given as

1
2
M-ary or multiple frequency shift keying (MFSK) is a higher level version of
the FSK modulation technique, in which more than two frequencies are
 Phase shift keying

PSK is a constant amplitude digital modulation scheme. When higher

data rates are required in a band-limited channel that cannot be
achieved with FSK, PSK is often used. PSK comprises the
manipulation of a carrier’s phase in accordance with the transmitted
bit stream. The general expression for PSK is

The Pe of a PSK modulation scheme is given as

1
3
 Binary phase shift keying

Binary phase shift keying (BPSK) is the simplest form of a PSK. BPSK
is an M-ary modulation scheme, with M = 2. In this, the two binary
values, logic 1 and logic 0, of the information data are represented by
two different phases separated by 180° of the carrier signal, c(t) = Ac
cos (2 fc t). The PSK signal for one-bit duration can be mathematically
expressed as:

1
4

Figure : Representation of a BPSK signal

The P for BPSK is same as that of PSK and can be given
e

as

Figure: BPSK modulator

The bandwidth efficiency of the BPSK is given as

where R = data rate and Bw = bandwidth. 1

5
Example problem

1
6
 Quadrature phase shift keying

In quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK), the information bits are

encoded into the phase of the carrier and the amplitude of the signal
remains constant.

1
7

Figure: Representation of a QPSK signal

Quadrature phase shift keying modulator

Figure : QPSK modulator 8

Quadrature phase shift keying demodulator

19
 DPSK modulation

Differential encoding of baseband signals is that where a binary

sequence is differentially encoded as the other sequence. Differential
phase shift keying (DPSK) is differentially coherent modulation
method.

2
0

Figure: DPSK waveforms

 DPSK modulation
From the above waveform, it is clear that b(t -Tb) is the delayed version
of b(t) by one period Tb. While drawing the waveforms the value of b(t-
Tb) is not known initially in the first interval.
Therefore, it is assumed to be zero and then waveforms are drawn. The
Pe for DPSK can be given as:

2
1
 MSK modulation

Minimum Shift Key Modulation is another type of digital

modulation technique used to convert a digital signal into
analog signals. It is also called Minimum-shift keying
(MSK) or Advance Frequency Shift Keying because it is
a type of continuous-phase frequency-shift keying.
Rules for drawing MSK Curve

2
2
 Working of MSK modulation

• In Minimum-shift keying, bits are separated in even and odd bits and
each bit's duration is doubled.
• After that, frequency is separated into two types of frequencies f1
and f2. Here, f1 determines/denotes the low frequency, and f2
denotes the high frequency.
• Original or inverted signals are chosen from the frequency
generating table according to the bit values if they are even or odd.
• The curve for higher frequency takes a complete wave from 0 to π,
and the curve for low frequency takes a wave 0 to π/2 within the
same interval of time.
• Let's take an example to demonstrate the working of Minimum-shift
keying and draw a curve for a given bit stream. Let's consider a bit
stream 1011010. Here, we have to find the MSK curve for this bit
stream.
2
3
MSK modulation

2
4
Key features of Minimum Shift Key Modulation

1. Minimum Shift Keying is the most effective digital

modulation technique. It can be implemented for almost
every stream of bits much easier than the Phase Shift
Key, Frequency Shift Key and Amplitude Shift Key of
digital modulation technique.
2. The Minimum Shift Keying's concept is based on the
positioning of bits such as even bits and odd bits for the
given bitstream and the bit positioning frequency
generating table.
3. MSK is the most widely used digital modulation
technology because of its ability and flexibility to handle
"One(1)" and "Zero(0)" transition of binary bits.
2
5
 GSM has to be as efficient as possible with the available bandwidth.
Therefore, it is not this technique but a more efficient development
of phase modulation that is actually used by the GSM air interface.
It is called Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK).

 Gaussian minimum shift keying or Gaussian filtered minimum shift

keying, is a form of modulation used in a variety of digital radio
communications systems. It has advantages of being able to carry
digital modulation while still using the spectrum efficiently.

 GMSK modulation is based on MSK, which is itself a form of phase

shift keying.

 One of the problems with standard forms of PSK is that sidebands

extend out from the carrier. To overcome this, MSK and its
derivative GMSK can be used

26
GMSK is mainly used in the following technologies:

 Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)

 Bluetooth

 Satellite Communications

 Automatic Identification System (AIS) for maritime

navigation.

It has high power consumption.

27
Advantage of Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)

 The biggest advantage of using GMSK is that it reduces the sideband

power, reducing out-of-band interference between signal carriers
inadjacent frequency channels.
 GMSK provides high spectral efficiency.

The disadvantage of Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)

 It increases the modulation memory in the system that causes

interference within a symbol, making it more challenging to differentiate
between different transmitted data values.
 It requires more complex channel equalization algorithms, such as an
adaptive equalizer at the receiver.
 It has high power consumption.

28
The GSM system uses the GMSK modulation scheme.
Show that the bandwidth efficiency of the standard GSM
system is 1.35 bps/Hz.

Solution
The channel bandwidth = 200 kHz (standard)
The channel data rate = 270.833 kbps (standard)
Bandwidth efficiency = channel data rate/channel
bandwidth Therefore, bandwidth efficiency = 270.833
kbps/200 kHz
Hence, bandwidth efficiency = 270.833 kbps/200 kHz =
1.35 bps/Hz

29
Show that the 3 dB bandwidth for a Gaussian LPF used to produce
B × Tb = 0.3 GMSK modulation in GSM standard is 81.3 kHz. The
channel data rate is 270.833 kbps.
Solution
Channel data rate, Rb = 270.833 kbps (given)
Baseband symbol duration, Tb = 1/Rb
Baseband symbol duration, Tb = 1/270.833 kbps = 3.69 μs
Product of 3 dB bandwidth and baseband symbol duration, B × Tb
= 0.3 (given)
Therefore, 3 dB bandwidth, B = 0.3/Tb
Hence, 3 dB bandwidth, B = 0.3/3.69 μs = 81.3 kHz
Hence, the 3 dB bandwidth for a Gaussian LPF used to produce
B × Tb = 0.3 GMSK modulation in GSM standard is 81.3 kHz.

30
CODING TECHNIQUES IN MOBILE
CELLULAR COMMUNICATION
 RECAP…

Source coding is a process that is used to encrypt information

removing unnecessary data so that bandwidth of signal is
adjusted for effective transmission.
Channel coding is more about adding some extra bits in form
of parity beats so that we can protect databases from being
becoming corrupt.
• Information is transmitted through channels (eg. Wires,
optical fibres and even air)
• Channels are noisy and we do not receive what was
transmitted
SHANNON–HARTLEY
THEOREM
• In information theory, the Shannon–Hartley
theorem tells the maximum rate at which
information can be transmitted over a
communications channel of a specified bandwidth in
the presence of noise.
• It is an application of the noisy-channel coding
theorem to the archetypal case of a continuous-
time analog communications channel subject
to Gaussian noise.
CHANNEL CAPACITY

The Shannon–Hartley theorem states the channel

capacity , meaning the theoretical tightest upper
bound on the information rate of data that can be
communicated at an arbitrarily low error rate using an
average received signal power through an analog
communication channel subject to additive white
Gaussian noise of power :
C = B * log2(1+ SNR)

where C is the achievable channel capacity, B is the bandwidth of the line, S is

the average signal power and N is the average noise power.
 HAMMING CODE

• Hamming code is a set of error-correction code s that

can be used to detect and correct bit errors that can
occur when computer data is moved or stored.
Hamming code is named for R. W. Hamming of Bell
Labs.
• Designed to correct single bit errors
• Like other error-correction code, Hamming code makes
use of the concept of parity and parity bit s, which are
bits that are added to data so that the validity of the
data can be checked when it is read or after it has been
received in a data transmission.
EXAMPLE
CONVOLUTIONAL CODES

• First used by NASA in the voyager space program

• Encoder consists of shift registers forming a finite state
machine
• Decoding is also simple – Viterbi Decoder which works by
tracking these states
• Extensively used in coding speech data in mobile phones
EXAMPLE
ACHIEVING CAPACITY

• Do Block codes and Convolutional codes achieve Shannon

Capacity?
Actually they are far away
• Achieving Capacity requires large k (block lengths)
• Decoder complexity for both codes increases exponentially
with k – not feasible to implement
TURBO CODES

• Proposed by
Berrou & Glavieux
in 1993
• Advantages
• Use very large block lengths
• Have feasible decoding complexity
• Perform very close to capacity

• Limitation – delay, complexity

BLOCK INTERLEAVING

• Data written to and read from memory in

different orders
• Data bits and corresponding check bits are
interspersed with bits from other blocks
• At receiver, data are deinterleaved to recover
original order
• A burst error that may occur is spread out over a
number of blocks, making error correction
possible
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TURBO ENCODER
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TURBO DECODER
 COMPARISON BETWEEN
CONVOLUTION AND TURBO CODES

 A turbo code is closer to the random code because it uses a

pseudorandom interleaver to separate its own two convolutional encoders.
 In higher code rates or low SNR value conditions, turbo codes exhibit
better performance than traditional convolutional codes.
 Convolutional codes and turbo codes perform better with soft decisions.
However, convolutional codes can also work with hard decisions.
 Convolutional codes do not have an error floor, whereas turbo codes do
have an error floor.
 It means that in turbo codes, the BER drops very quickly in the beginning,
but eventually settles down and decreases at a much slower rate.
BCH CODES

• BCH codes were invented in 1959 by French

mathematician Alexis Hocquenghem, and independently in
1960 by Raj Bose and D. K. Ray-Chaudhuri.
• One of the key features of BCH codes is that during code
design, there is a precise control over the number of symbol
errors correctable by the code.
• BCH codes are used in applications such as satellite
communications,compact disc players, DVDs, disk drives, solid-
state drives and two-dimensional bar codes.
• Correct combinations of fewer errors
• Flexibility in choice of parameters
• Block length, code rate
REED-SOLOMON CODES

• Subclass of nonbinary BCH codes

• Reed-Solomon codes are block-based error correcting codes with a
wide range of applications in digital communications and storage. Reed-
Solomon codes are used to correct errors in many systems including:

• Storage devices (including tape, Compact Disk, DVD, barcodes, etc)

• Wireless or mobile communications (including cellular telephones,
microwave links, etc)
• Satellite communications

• Digital television / DVB

• High-speed modems such as ADSL, xDSL, etc.
 LDPC CODE

History of LDPC Codes

Invented by Robert Gallager in his 1960 MIT Ph. D. dissertation.
Long time being ignored due to
1. Requirement of high complexity computation
2. Introduction of Reed-Solomon codes
Rediscovered by MacKay(1999) and Richardson/Urbanke
(1998).
 LDPC CODE

Features of LDPC Codes

Approaching Shannon capacity.
Good block error correcting performance.
Linear decoding complexity in time.
Suitable for parallel implementation.

Representations for LDPC codes

Basically there are two different possibilities to represent LDPC codes

- Like all linear block codes it can be described via
matrices.
- The second possibility is a graphical representation.
 LDPC CODE

Matrix Representation
The structure of a code is completely described by the
generator matrix G or the parity check matrix H.

In regular LDPC codes H contains exactly Wc 1's per column

and exactly Wr = Wc(n/m) 1's per row, where Wc << m and Wr
<< n. But Wc ≥3 is necessary for good codes.

Irregular LDPC codes number of 1's per column or row is not

constant. Usually irregular LDPC codes outperforms regular
LDPC codes.
 LDPC CODE

Graphical Representation
• Tanner introduced an effective graphical representation for
LDPC codes.
• The two classes of nodes in a Tanner graph are the bit nodes
and the check nodes.
SPACE-TIME BLOCK CODE

• Space time block coding (STBC) is a technique used in

MIMO to provide transmit diversity in communication over
fading channels.
• Although STBC has full diversity gain, the coding gain need
to be improved by using channel coding such as low density
parity check (LDPC
• An STBC is usually represented by a matrix. Each row
represents a time slot and each column represents one
antenna's transmissions over time.) codes or Turbo codes.
 SPACE-TIME BLOCK CODE

A space time block code is usually represented by a

matrix. Each row represents a time slot and each column
represents one antenna's transmissions over time.
Transmit antennas
 s11 s12 ... ... s1n 
s ... ... s2 n 
Time-slots

 21 s22
: : : 
 
: : : 
 sm1 sm 2 ... ... smn 

Within this matrix, Smn is the modulated symbol to be transmitted in time slot m
from antenna n. There are to be T time slots and nT transmit antennas as well as
nR receive antennas.This block is usually considered to be of 'length' T.
SPACE-FREQUENCY BLOCK CODE

Similar to STBC, another coding technique known as SFBC

where symbols are coded through frequency over multiple
subcarriers.

SFBC is a kind of coding scheme for TX diversity and I

hope you can figure out the meaning of SFBC directly
from following illustration.
ERROR CONTROL

• Mechanisms to detect and correct transmission errors

• Types of errors:
• Lost PDU : a PDU fails to arrive
• Damaged PDU : PDU arrives with errors

• Techniques:
• Timeouts
• Acknowledgments
• Negative acknowledgments
Decoder complexity is a serious restriction in using error
correcting codes. It is impractical to evaluate the above
equation directly, it is exponentially difficult. Various types of
codes:
 Reed-Solomon Codes
 BCH Codes
 Convolutional Codes
are used in practice not only because they are good codes,
but because the decoders have reasonable complexity
Mobile Radio Propagation
 Types of Waves

Ionosphere
(80 - 720 km)
Sky wave
Mesosphere
(50 - 80 km)

Space wave Stratosphere

(12 - 50 km)
Ground wave
Troposphere
(0 - 12 km)
Earth
 Propagation Mechanisms
• Reflection
– Propagation wave impinges on an object which is large as
compared to wavelength, e.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings,
walls, etc.
• Diffraction
– Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructed by
surface with sharp irregular edges
– Waves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS (line of sight)
does not exist
• Scattering
– Objects smaller than the wavelength of the propagation wave
- e.g. foliage, street signs, lamp posts
 Radio Propagation Effects

Reflected Signal

Direct Signal Scattered Signal

Diffracted Signal Receiver

Transmitter
 Free-space Propagation

hb

hm

G  d
Distance
r
Transmitter Receiver
• The received signal power Pr at distance d:

AeGtPt 4Ae Pr 
GrGtPt
Pr  , Gr  ,
4d 2
2 ( 4d /  ) 2
where Pt is transmitting power, Ae is effective area of an antenna, and Gt is
the transmitting antenna gain. Assuming that the radiated power is
uniformly distributed over the surface of the sphere.
 Land Propagation
• The received signal power:

Gt Gr Pt
Pr 
L
where L is the propagation loss in the channel, i.e.,
L = L P L S LF
Fast fading
Slow fading
Path loss
 Path Loss (Free-space)
 Path Loss: The signal strength decays exponentially
with distance d between transmitter and receiver;
The loss could be proportional to somewhere between d2
and d4 depending on the environment.
 The path loss LP is the average propagation loss over a
wide area.
P
LP  t
Pr

 Slow fading is long-term fading and fast fading is short-

term fading.
 Path Loss (Land Propagation)

 Simplest Formula:
Lp = A dα

where
A and α: propagation constants
d : distance between transmitter and receiver
α : value of 3 ~ 4 in typical urban area
 Path Loss

• Path loss in decreasing order:

– Urban area (large city)
– Urban area (medium and small city)
– Suburban area
– Open area
Example
 Two Ray Model

Ed

ht

Er

hr
Eref

d
 Two Ray Model
___ ___ ___
Er  Ed  Eref Ed

ht

Ed  E0 e jct
Er

hr
Eref
___
Eref  E0 e
jc t  
ar d

where
ar  complex reflective coefficient
  phase difference due to path difference L
2 2
 L  d
 
___
For perfect reflection, ar  1
 Two Ray Model
___
Er  E0 0  E0 180   Ed

ht

 E0 0  E0  Er

 E0  E0  cos   j sin   Eref

hr

 E0 1  cos    jE0 sin  d

Er  E0 2 1  cos    E0 2 sin 2 
2

 E0 1  cos    sin 2 
2

 E0 1  2 cos   cos 2   sin 2 

 E0 2  2 cos 
 E0 2 1  cos  

 E0 2.2 sin 2
2

 2 E0 sin
2
 Two Ray Model
A

Again, d  d 2  d 1
d1
In AEF
AE 2  AF 2  FE 2 ht
d2
d 2   ht  hr   d
2 C
2 H

In ACH hr
AC 2  AH 2  HC 2
d 2   ht  hr   d
2 D
2
d
hr
hr

F E
 Two Ray Model
A

1
  ht  hr  2 2
 d 2  d 1  
 d 2
 d1

  ht  hr 2   1
x2 
 d 1  2   1  x 
2 2 1  ht
 2 d   2 d2 C
H
similarly,
  ht  hr 2 
d1  d 1  2  hr
 2 d 
  ht  hr 2    ht  hr 2  D
d  d 2  d 1  d 1  2   d 1  2  d
 2 d   2 d 
hr
  ht  hr 2  ht  hr 2  hr
d 2
 2 
 2 d 2 d 
F E
2h h
 t r
d
 Two Ray Model
2
We know,   d

2 2ht hr
 .
 d
4 ht hr

d

Again, Er  2 E0 sin
2

 2 E0  sin    
2
4 ht hr
 E0   E0
d
 Two Ray Model
4 ht hr 
2

 Pr  Er   E0
2

  d 
 4 ht hr 
2

 E0 2  d 
 
 4 ht hr 
2

 P0  
 d 
 2 ht 2 hr 2
 16 P0
 2d 2
where
PG t Gr
P0  Power due to direct ray  t

 4 d 
2


PG t Gr  2 ht 2 hr 2
 Pr  16 t

 4 d   2d 2
2


2 2
PG t Gr ht hr
 t

d4
Two Ray Model
 Example problem
If 100 W is applied to a unit gain antenna with a 600 MHz
carrier frequency, find the received power in dBm at a free-
space distance of 200 m from the antenna. What is P (10 r

km)? Assume
unity gain for the receiver antenna.
Solution
 Complicated
Complicated Model
Model

General ray tracing

Empirical path-loss
model Olumura model
Hata model
Piecewise linear model
Hata Model
Model of Indoor Path Loss
 Fading
Fast Fading
(Short-term fading)

Slow Fading
(Long-term fading)

Signal
Strength
(dB) Path Loss

Distance
 Slow Fading
• Slow fading is caused by the long-term spatial and
temporal variations over distances large enough to
produce gross variations in the overall path
between transmitter and receiver.

• The long-term variation in the mean level is known

as slow fading. Slow fading is also called
shadowing or log-normal fading.
 Shadowing
• Shadowing: Often there are millions of tiny
obstructions in the channel, such as water droplets if
it is raining or the individual leaves of trees. Because
it is too cumbersome to take into account all the
obstructions in the channel, these effects are typically
lumped together into a random power loss.
 Fast Fading
• The signal from the transmitter may be reflected from
objects such as hills, buildings, or vehicles. Fast
fading is due to scattering of the signal by object near
transmitter.
• Fast fading (short-term fading)
 Observe the distance of about half a wavelength
 Such as multipath propagation
 Doppler Shift (1/2)
 Doppler Effect: When a wave source and a receiver
are moving towards each other, the frequency of the
received signal will not be the same as the source.
 When they are moving toward each other, the frequency of
the received signal is higher than the source.
 When they are opposing each other, the frequency
decreases.
 Thus, the frequency of the received signal is
f R  fC  f D

where fC is the frequency of source carrier, fD is the Doppler

frequency.
 Doppler Shift (2/2)
• Doppler Shift in frequency:
v
fD  cos

where v is the moving speed,  is the wavelength of
carrier.


MS
Moving
speed v

Signal
 Moving Speed Effect

V1 V2 V3 V4
Signal strength

Time
 Delay Spread

• When a signal
The signals from
propagates from a close by
transmitter to a receiver, reflectors

Signal Strength
signal suffers one or
The signals from
more reflections. intermediate
• This forces signal to reflectors
follow different paths. The signals
from far away
• Each path has different reflectors
path length, so the time
of arrival for each path is
different.
• This effect which spreads
out the signal is called
“Delay Spread”. Delay
 Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
Transmis
• Caused by time sion 1 1
delayed signal Tim
multipath e
signals 0

• Has impact on Received

burst error rate signal
of channel (short delay) Tim
e

• Second Propagation
Delayed
multipath is time
Received signals
delayed and is signal (long
received during delay) Tim
next symbol e
Diversity Techniques in
Wireless Communication
Systems
 What is Diversity?
Diversity schemes provides two or more inputs at the
receiver such that the fading phenomena among these
inputs are uncorrelated
If one radio path undergoes deep fade at a particular
point in time, another independent (or at least highly
uncorrelated) path may have a strong signal at that
input
If probability of a deep fade in one channel is p, then
the probability for N channels is pN
 Requirements for Diversity
1. Multiple branches
2. Low correlation between branches

14
 Diversity Techniques
Antenna Diversity
Space Diversity
Horizontal Space Diversity
Vertical Space Diversity
Field Component Diversity (Antenna Pattern Diversity)
Polarization Diversity
Angle Diversity (Direction Diversity)
Frequency Diversity
Time Diversity
Multipath Diversity
Diversity Techniques

Orthogonal Transmit Diversity (OTD)

Space-Time (S-T) Diversity
Space-Frequency (S-F) Diversity
Space-Time-Frequency (S-T-F) Diversity
Open Loop Transmit Diversity (for 3G)
Closed Loop Transmit Diversity (for 3G)
 Space Diversity
The space correlation properties of the radio channel
are used as mean of providing multiple uncorrelated
copies of the same signal
More hardware (antennas)
M different antennas are used at the receiver to
obtain independent fading signals
Space Diversity
 Frequency Diversity
Modulate the signal through M different carriers
The separation between the carriers should be at least the
coherent bandwidth (f)c
Different copies undergo independent fading
Only one antenna is needed
The total transmitted power is split among the carriers
 Time Diversity
Transmit the desired signal in M different periods of
time i.e., each symbol is transmitted M times
The interval between transmission of same symbol
should be at least the coherence time (t)c
Different copies undergo independent fading
Reduction in efficiency (effective data rate < real data rate)
Polarization Diversity
Polarization Diversity
Angle Diversity
 Diversity Combining
For a slowly flat fading channel, the equivalent lowpass of the
received signal of branch i can be written as
ri t   Ai e ji s t   zi t , i  0, 2,..., M 1

Where s t  is the equivalent lowpass of the transmitted signal

Ai e j is the fading attenuation of branch i
i

zi t  is the AWGN

Out of M branches, M replicas of the transmitted signal are

obtained
r  r1 t  r2 t  … rM 1 t 
M is the diversity order
Diversity Combining Techniques

Selection Combining
Equal Gain Combining
Maximal Ratio Combining
Switching Combining
 Selection Combining
Select the strongest signal

SNR Select max.

monitor SNR

Channel 1

Channel 2

Transmitter Receiver

Channel N
 Selection Combining

The combiner output is given by

y(t)  Ae ji s t   z t , with A  maxA , A ,…, A 
0 1 M 1

The received SNR can be written as follows:

A2 Eb
  max  0 , 1 ,…,  M 1
N0
With uncorrelated branches, the CDF of  is
M 1
P    Pr       Pi  
i0

For i.i.d branches, we have

M 1
P     P0   , and p    Mp0    P0  
M
 Selection Combining
For Rayleigh Fading channel

The outage probability P    1 e  

M

0
,  0  2 2 Eb N 0
Asymptotic behavior
 
M

P      ,  «  0
0 
 Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC)
Weight branches for maximum SNR

w1
Channel 1

w2


Channel 2
Transmitter Receiver

wN
Channel N
 Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC)
M 1
The combiner output is given by y t    w r t 
i i
i0

Choose the weights to be the channel gain conjugate [must be

estimated]
M 1 M 1
y t    Ai e  j i
ri t    Ai e  ji  Ai e ji s t   zi t 
i0 i0

 M 1 2  M 1
   Ai  s t    Ai e  ji zi t 
 i0  i0

The SNR of the combined signal is


M 1
Ai2 Eb M 1
 i0
  i
N0 i0
5 hafeth.hourani@ nokia.com
 Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC)
For Rayleigh Fading channel

 M
  0 i1
The outage probability P    1 e
 
0
(i 1)!
Asymptotic behavior i1

P   
 0 
M

,  « 0
M!
MRC vs. SC
 Equal Gain Combining (EGC)
Coherent combining of all branches with equal gain
A simplified version of MRC
Basic concept
Each branch signal is rotated by e ji
All branch signals are then added
The combiner output is given by
M
 M
 M
y t    e  ji ri t     Ai  s t    e  ji zi t 
i1  i0  i0

The SNR is given by

 Eb
2
 M 1
    Ai 
 i0  MN 0
ani@ nokia.com
Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC)
 Switched Diversity Combining (SDC)
When the signal quality of the used branch is good,
there is no need to look for (to use) other branches
Other branches are needed only when the signal
quality deteriorates
Two strategies can be used
Switch-and-examine strategy
Switch-and-stay strategy
Switching between branches will introduce
discontinuities is the combined signal
 Conclusions
 The diversity is used to provide the receiver with several
replicas of the same signal
 Diversity techniques are used to improve the performance of the
radio channel without any increase in the transmitted power
 As higher as the received signal replicas are
decorrelated, as much as the diversity gain
Diversity Combining
 MRC outperforms the Selection Combining
 Equal gain combining (EGC) performs very close to the MRC. Unlike
the MRC, the estimate of the channel gain is not required in EGC
Among different combining techniques
 MRC has the best performance and the highest complexity SC has
the lowest performance and the least complexity
Advanced Mobile Phone System
AMPS
 AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System)

AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) was an early analog

mobile phone system and one of the first cellular network
standards.
 AT&T Bell Labs developed the first cellular tel. system in the
late 70s.
 First system was deployed in Chicago in 1983.
 A total of 40 MHz spectrum in the 800 MHz band was
allocated by FCC.
 In 1989, additional 10 MHz (Called “Extended Spectrum”)
was allocated.
 Large cells and omni-directional BS antennas were used.
 AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System)

 Analog Technology: It used analog signal transmission, leading to

lower call quality and susceptibility to interference.
 Frequency Bands: AMPS operated in the 800 MHz frequency band,
dividing it into channels for mobile communication.
 Coverage: It provided extensive coverage over rural and urban
areas, but had limited capacity for users.
 Limited Data Support: AMPS was designed for voice calls only,
lacking support for data services like texting and browsing.
 Transition to Digital: AMPS was gradually replaced by digital
systems like GSM and CDMA starting in the late 1990s.
 Security: AMPS had basic encryption, making it vulnerable to
eavesdropping and security issues.
GSM Architecture
Network Elements – an overview
 AUC

HLR  MS Mobile Station = phone + SIM card

BSC  BTS Base Transceiver Station
 BSC Base Station Controller
 HLR Home Location Register
 MSC Mobile services Switching Centre
 VLR Visitor Location Register
VMS EIR  AUC Authentication Centre
Stand-alone or integrated in HLR
 EIR Equipment Identity Register
PrePaid For blacklisting stolen and unwanted
Node MSC SMSC
equipment
 SMSC Short Message Service ”Support” Centre
 VMS Voice Messaging System
IN INTERNET
 PrePaid Node Hosting prepaid service system
 IN Intelligent Network services
 PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
 PABX Private Automatic Branch Exchange

PSTN PSTN
PABX MSC BSC
Fixed network International
Mobile Station (MS)
 MS consists of the mobile equipment (the terminal) and a
smart card called the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).
 The SIM provides personal mobility, so that the user can
have access to subscribed services irrespective of a specific
terminal. By inserting the SIM card into a GSM terminal, the
user is able to receive and make calls at that terminal, and
receive other subscribed services. Without the SIM, the
terminal will not work.
 The mobile equipment is uniquely identified by the
International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI).
 The SIM card contains the International Mobile Subscriber
Identity (IMSI) used to identify the subscriber to the system, a
secret key for authentication, and other information.
 The IMEI and the IMSI are independent, thereby allowing
personal mobility.
 The SIM card may be protected against unauthorized use
by a password or personal identity number (PIN).
 Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
 The BTS corresponds to the transceivers and antennas
used in each cell of the network.
 It handles the radio-link protocols with the Mobile Station.
 A BTS may be placed in the center of a cell (omni-
directional) or shooting in one or more specific directions
(sectorized). Its transmitting power defines the size of a
cell.
 Each BTS has typically between one and sixteen
transceivers depending on the density of users in the cell.
 In a large urban area, there will potentially be a large
number of BTSs deployed, thus the requirements for a BTS
are ruggedness, reliability, portability, and minimum cost.
Cell concept
 Dominant coverage
area of one BTS sector
 A sectorized BTS
typically shoots in 3
antenna directions, thus
covering 3 sectors or
cells
 Because of limited
bandwith, frequency
channels have to be
reused
 Identical and
neighbouring
frequencies need to be
distributed away from
each other in order to
avoid noise in terms of
interference.
 Base Station Controller (BSC)
 The BSC controls a group of BTSs and
manages their radio resources.
 The physical area the BSC covers is
divided into one or more Location Areas.
 BSC handles radio-channel setup,
handover, frequency hopping and the
radio frequency power levels of the BTSs.
 The BSC is the connection between the
mobile station and the Mobile service
Switching Center (MSC).
 Before transmitting speech or data to the
MSC the information is transformed and
coded in an TRANSCODER.
 Handover (HO)
- Intra BSC Handover
- Inter BSC Handover (as illustrated)
- Inter MSC Handover

BSC
BSC
 Home Location Register (HLR)
 The HLR is a network database that contains all the
administrative information of each subscriber registered in
the GSM network, along with the current location of the
mobile.
 Subscription data states the logical identity of each
subscriber (MS) and which services that are accessible or
barred for the respective subscriber.
 The location of the mobile is typically in the form of the
address of the Visitor Location Register (VLR) associated with
the mobile station. This information is used to route calls and
SMS to the MSC/VLR where the mobile station is currently
located.
 The HLR also contains a number of functions for managing
these data, controlling services and enabling subscribers to
access and receive their services when roaming within and
outside their home GSM network.
 Mobile services and Switching Centre (MSC) /
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
 The MSC is a very central component of the GSM network. The
MSC performs the switching functions of the network and also
provides connection to other networks.
 It additionally provides all the functionality needed to handle a
mobile subscriber, such as registration, authentication, location
updating, handovers, and call routing to a roaming subscriber.
 The VLR is always implemented together with a MSC; so the
area under control of the MSC is also the area under control of
the VLR.
 The VLR contains selected information from a subscriber's HLR
necessary for call control and provisioning of the subscribed
services to the visiting user.
 Signaling between functional entities in the Network Subsystem
uses Signaling System Number 7 (SS7).
 Authentication Centre (AUC)
 The AUC generates authentication and ciphering data.
 The purpose of the authentication security feature is to
protect the network against unauthorized use. It also
protects subscribers by denying the possibility for
intruders to impersonate authorized users.
 The ciphering data is used to ensure that confidentiality
and integrity is kept on the physical radio channels.
Ciphering prevents user information and signalling to be
available or disclosed to unauthorized individuals.
GSM Call Setup
GSM Call Setup
 BSC HLR

VMS EIR
Voicemail

PrePaid MSC SMSC

IN INTERNET

MSC BSC
PSTN PSTN PABX
Fixed Network International
 BSC HLR

VMS EIR
Voicemail

PrePaid MSC SMSC

IN INTERNET

MSC BSC
PSTN PSTN PABX
Fixed Network International
 BSC
Base Station Controller

• The call request reaches the BSC from the BTS

and is forwarded to MSC.
• After call is established, the BSC will perform
decoding of the call (in typical config.)
 BSC HLR

VMS EIR
Voicemail

PrePaid MSC SMSC

IN INTERNET

MSC BSC
PSTN PSTN PABX
Fixed Network International
  Checks A number.
 To whom is A subscriber calling?
(Checks B number)
 Example : A subscriber has GP prepaid.

MSC
Mobile Switching Centre
 BSC HLR

VMS EIR
Voicemail

PrePaid MSC SMSC

IN INTERNET

MSC BSC
PSTN PSTN PABX
Fixed Network International
 Does the A subscriber have
money left on his/her account?
 When the call is established and
on-going the subscriber’s
account is decremented
accordingly.

PrePaid Node
 HLR
BSC

VMS EIR
Voicemail

PrePaid MSC SMSC

IN INTERNET

MSC BSC
PSTN PSTN PABX
Fixed Network International
  Where is the B subscriber?
 MSC interrogates in HLR.
(HLR = Home Location Register)

MSC
Mobile Switching Centre
 HLR
BSC

VMS EIR
Voicemail

PrePaid MSC SMSC

IN INTERNET

MSC BSC
PSTN PSTN PABX
Fixed Network International
  HLR says ’I am the home of the B subscriber and
I know where he/she is right now’ (i.e. which
VLR)
 Tells this VLR ’Give me a visitor address
for this subscriber’ (Roaming Number)

HLR
Home Location Register
 HLR
BSC

VMS EIR
Voicemail

PrePaid MSC SMSC

IN INTERNET

MSC BSC
PSTN PSTN PABX
Fixed Network International
 Hosting MSC/VLR returns B subscriber’s
assigned visitor address.

MSC
Mobile Switching Centre
 HLR
BSC

VMS EIR
Voicemail

PrePaid MSC SMSC

IN INTERNET

MSC BSC
PSTN PSTN PABX
Fixed Network International
  ’Thanks for the visitor address!’
 ’I will send this address to the MSC that
requested for it.’

HLR
Home Location Register
 HLR
BSC

VMS EIR
Voicemail

PrePaid MSC SMSC

IN INTERNET

MSC BSC
PSTN PSTN PABX
Fixed Network International
 ’Thank you, HLR!’
 Speech connection is set up towards the
MSC/VLR where the B subscriber is residing.

MSC
Mobile Switching Centre
 HLR
BSC

VMS EIR
Voicemail

PrePaid MSC SMSC

IN INTERNET

MSC BSC
PSTN PSTN PABX
Fixed Network International
 Setting up a speech connection towards BSC.

MSC
Mobile Switching Centre
 HLR
BSC

VMS EIR
Voicemail

PrePaid MSC SMSC

IN INTERNET

MSC BSC
PSTN PSTN PABX
Fixed Network International
  BSC will now send a paging signal to all the
BTSs that it covers.
 Coding of speech when call is established.

BSC
Base Station Controller
 HLR
BSC

VMS EIR
Voicemail

PrePaid MSC SMSC

IN INTERNET

MSC BSC
PSTN PSTN PABX
Fixed Network International
 The B subscriber has now many choices:
 He/she may answer.
 He/she may be busy.
 The mobile (MS) may be forwarded.
 The mobile may be turned off or outside coverage area.
 And more...

 What happens next depends on the B subscriber’s

condition and what he/she chooses to do.
 HLR
BSC

VMS EIR
Voicemail

PrePaid MSC SMSC

IN INTERNET

MSC BSC
PSTN PSTN PABX
Fixed Network International
 Speech calls in the GSM system
MSC: Mobile Switching Centre
BSC: Base Station Controller
HLR: Home Location Register BSC Location Area
VLR: Visitor Location Register
TC: Transcoder
MSC f1
f8
Capacity: f3
16 kb/s pr f6
user
f4
PSTN MSC BSC
TC
f7
64 kb/s 64 kb/s speech
Fixed Network 13 kb/s
pr speech speech
channel f2 f 2, TS 8
f9
X S
HLR VLR
BSC
Home Register Visitor Register
 Data calls in the GSM system
MSC: Mobile Switching Centre
BSC: Base Station Controller
HLR: Home Location Register
VLR: Visitor Location Register
BSC Location Area
TC: Transcoder MSC f1
IWU: Interworking Unit f8
Capacity: f3
16 kb/s pr f6
Modem pool user
f4
PSTN MSC IWU BSC TC f7
64 kb/s 64 kb/s data 9.6 kb/s
Fixed Network
pr data data
channel f2 f 2, TL 8
call marked
f9
with data ”flag”
X D
HLR VLR
BSC
Home Register Visitor Register
 Running a GSM network
technically speaking...
Technical disciplines within
a GSM operator company

 Radio planning
 Site allocation, frequency use and reuse.
 Switch planning
 Capacity of processor and links, new
nodes.
 Implementation
 Civil works, site acquisition, roll-out.
 Operation of existing network
 Fault monitoring and handling, quality supervision.
 Expertise on core network, including signaling system No. 7,
value added services and IN
(NSS = Network Switching System).
 Expertise on access network, i.e. radio and BSC
(BSS = Base Station System).
 Expertise on transmission and power.
 Provisioning of new elements into the network.
 Provisioning of computer network infrastructure for O&M (OSS).
 Local presence for rapid physical fault handling.
 Research and Development
GSM EVOLUATION
 GSM evolution
Functionality
& capacity IMT 2000
capable systems

UMTS/WCDMA
2 Mbps

EDGE
384 kbps
GPRS
115 kbps
Packet switched
HSCSD/14.4
57.6 kbps
Circuit switched
Circ. sw. data
<9.6 kbps
Speech

Time
 Difference Between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching

BASIS FOR COMPARISON CIRCUIT SWITCHING PACKET SWITCHING

Orientation Connection oriented. Connectionless.

Purpose Initially designed for Voice Initially designed for Data
communication. Transmission.
Flexibility Inflexible, because once a path is set Flexible, because a route is
all parts of a transmission follows created for each packet to travel
the same path. to the destination.
Order Message is received in the order, Packets of a message are
sent from the source. received out of order and
assembled at the destination.
Technology/Approach Circuit switching can be achieved Packet Switching has two
using two technologies, either Space approaches Datagram Approach
Division Switching or Time-Division and Virtual Circuit Approach.
Switching.
Layers Circuit Switching is implemented at Packet Switching is implemented
Physical Layer. at Network Layer.
Packet switching:
- Efficient use of radio resources

Circuit
switiched Time

GPRS
Time

Circuit
switched Time

GPRS
Time
GPRS (General Packet Radio Services)

 GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) is a packet based

upgrade to the GSM networks.
 It allows GSM networks to be truly compatible with the
Internet.
 GPRS uses a packet-mode technique to transfer bursty
traffic in an efficient manner.
 It promises data rates from 56 up to 114 Kbps and
continuous connection to the Internet for mobile phone
and computer users.
 Along the evolution path of the GSM network towards
3G and beyond, GPRS is referred as a 2.5G technology.
 In principle, GPRS can be compared to short messages
(SMS), but it can handle much bigger chunks of data.
 GPRS Network Architecture

Gateway GPRS support node

Serving GPRS support node
 EDGE
 Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) (also known
as Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC), or Enhanced
Data rates for Global Evolution) is a digital mobile phone technology that
allows improved data transmission rates as a backward-compatible extension
of GSM.
 EDGE is considered a pre-3G radio technology and is part
of ITU's 3G definition. EDGE was deployed on GSM networks beginning in
2003 – initially by Cingular (now AT&T) in the United States.
 EDGE is standardized also by 3GPPas part of the GSM family.
 EDGE can be used for any packet switched application, such as
an Internet connection.
EDGE Network Architecture
Code Division Multiple Access
Technology
 Interim Standard 95 (IS-95) was the first ever CDMA-based digital cellular
technology. It was developed by Qualcomm and later adopted as a standard by
the Telecommunications Industry Association in TIA/EIA/IS-95 release published
in 1995.The proprietary name for IS-95 is cdmaOne.

3G
2.5G
2G

IS-95B
IS-95

Cdma2000-3xRTT
Cdma2000-1xRTT

Cdma2000-1xEV,DV,DO
GSM-

3GPP2
HSCSD
Evolution from 2G

3GPP
GPRS

W-CDMA
IS-136 & PDC

TD-SCDMA
EDGE

EDGE
CDMA
Two problems exist with using conventional
wireless i.e. radio communications.

1. Frequencies operating near on at the same

narrowband will cause interference.

2. A constant frequency signal is easy to

intercept.
CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access or CDMA has it’s
roots in WWII era spread spectrum technology.

CDMA can be implemented in several ways, two of

which are frequency hopping and direct
sequencing.

In 1985, the FCC allocated three frequency bands

to spread spectrum communications.
CDMA
CDMA uses spread-spectrum technology to
minimize the problems.

Using spread-spectrum technology allows for the

signals to be transmitted over a wide spectrum
of the electromagnetic spectrum.

This is achieved by a specific but complex

mathematical function.

The receiver must recognize the frequency-versus-

time function employed by the transmitter.
CDMA
• All spread-spectrum systems have a
threshold or tolerance level of interference.

• This threshold is directly related to the

systems Processing Gain.

• The processing gain is the ratio between

the RF bandwidth and the information
bandwidth.

• There are two types of spread-

spectrum technologies.

• Frequency Hopping and Direct Sequencing.

CDMA – Frequency Hopping
• Frequency hopping conversation requires the addition
of pseudo-noise (PN) code generators.
• If both receiver and transmitter know in advances
what frequencies will be used this is not necessary.
De-hopping is achieved by a synchronized PN code
generator in the local receivers frequency synthesizer.
• The idea behind frequency hopping is to transmit
across a broad spectrum, switching frequencies rapidly
from one to another.
• Done randomly it is nearly impossible for someone to
eavesdrop or jam the signal.
CDMA – Direct Sequence
Direct Sequencing is the more practical and all
digital form of spread-spectrum.

A Direct Sequence system uses a locally generated

PN code to encode the data.

The local PN code runs faster and the encoded data

is transmitted at the higher rate of speed.
CDMA – Direct Sequence
 Carrier Modulations like Binary Phases Shift Keying or
BPSK is possible.

 The desired information can be voice, data, video and

so forth.

 A spread-spectrum correlator is a very special matched

filter that responds only to a PN code that matches its
own.

 A spread-spectrum correlator can be tuned to

different codes by simply changing its local code.

 It will respond only to identical PN codes matching its

own.
CDMA – Spread-Spectrum Operations
Spread-Spectrum signals use fast codes that
run at a rate many times faster than the
information bandwidth or data rate.

These special codes are called Pseudo

Random Noise Codes or Walsh codes.

The uses of these special codes make

signals appear wideband and noise like.
CDMA – Spread-Spectrum Operations
Two criteria must be met to qualify as a
Spread Spectrum Signal;

1. The signal bandwidth must be wider than the

information bandwidth.

2. Some code or pattern, other than the data to

be transmitted, determine the actual on air
transmit bandwidth
CDMA – Spread Spectrum Advantages
Interference Immunity – Spread Spectrum
radios are inherently more noise immune
than conventional radios.

Multichannel Capability – Spread Spectrum

radios offer the ability to have multiple
channels, which can be changed
dynamically through software
CDMA Basics
CDMA is an American Standard that was developed
by Qualcomm.

It was originally developed for the battlefield

because it is very hard if not impossible to
intercept due to their spread spectrum nature.

CDMA is now defined by a number of standards,

some of which are IS-95, J-STD-008 (PCS) and
CDMA 2000.
CDMA Basics
A unique code is assigned to all digital speech bits and the
signals spread across the broad spectrum of the RF.

Each CDMA base station can use the same 1.25 MHz carrier at
the same time.

There are a maximum of 64 Walsh noise codes per 1.25MHz in

a CDMAOne system.

CDMA networks have pilot channels which carry no data but

are used by the subscriber’s mobile unit to acquire the
system and assist in the soft handoff process.

A separate pilot channel is transmitted for each sector of a cell

site and is uniquely identified by it’s own PN code, just like
other users
CDMAOne and CDMA 2000
CDMA refers collectively to three CDMA
standards that were the first formal
specifications assigned to the
technology;

1. IS-95A
2. IS-95B
3. J-STD-008
CDMAOne
CDMAOne standards have evolved in the complexity
and effectiveness.

Earlier versions (IS-95A&B) had issues with voice

quality, data throughput and were limited in the
methods in which they transmitted data.

IS-95B and J-STD-008 allowed for Integrated

Service Digital Network or ISDN to be used.
More advanced calling features were accessible
CDMA 2000
CDMA 2000 falls under the specification
known as IS-2000 as is backward
compatible with earlier versions.

CDMA2000 is a 3G specification, which

allows for multidata platform usage.

More on Both Later!!!!

CDMA Architecture
CDMA Architecture – Power Control
Power control is necessary to maintain
system capacity.

A benefit is reduced cost at the base station

and longer battery life for the mobile
unit.

CDMA base stations control the power of all

mobile devices within their coverage area.
All mobile signals must arrive at the base
station at the exact power level.
CDMA Architecture – Rake Receivers
 Rake receivers derive their name from the fact that
they look like lawn rakes.
 Rake receivers exist in both the mobile unit and the
BTS transceivers.
 There are four rakes in a transceiver and three rakes in
a mobile unit.
 The signal from each is combined to generate
a composite signal.
 The strongest signal is combined with the multipath
(weaker) signal of the other rakes to form this
composite signal.
 The multipath signals are added to the direct signal
to obtain the cleanest signal. This process is
known as diversity combining.
Benefits of CDMA
• CDMA has increased capacity over the
older systems such as TDMA and
AMPS.

• Simpler RF engineering because of the N=1

reuse pattern. This reduces the time and
effort required to expand or modify a CDMA
system.

• Increased performance over the air interface

which is the weakest link in wireless systems.
Benefits of CDMA
• Lower transmitted power levels. Power
adjustments are constantly being made to the
system and mobile units. Costing less due to
less power usage.

• Greater security due to the encoding

(spread- spectrum) of the signals.

• Enhanced performance and voice quality due in

part to the soft handoff capabilities.
 GSM Evolution to 3G
High Speed Circuit Switched Data
Dedicate up to 4 timeslots for data connection ~ 50 kbps
Good for real-time applications c.w. GPRS
Inefficient -> ties up resources, even when nothing sent
Not as popular as GPRS (many skipping HSCSD)

Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution

GSM Uses 8PSK modulation
HSCSD
9.6kbps (one timeslot) 3x improvement in data rate on short distances
GSM Data Can fall back to GMSK for greater distances
Also called CSD Combine with GPRS (EGPRS) ~ 384 kbps
Can also be combined with HSCSD
GSM GPRS
WCDMA
General Packet Radio Services
Data rates up to ~ 115 kbps EDGE
Max: 8 timeslots used as any one time
Packet switched; resources not tied up all the time
Contention based. Efficient, but variable delays
GSM / GPRS core network re-used by WCDMA (3G)
WCDMA Background and
Evolution

3GPP Rel -99 3GPP Rel 4 3GPP Rel 5 3GPP Rel 6 3GPP Rel 7 Further Releases
12/99 03/01 03/02 2H/04 06/07

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Europe Europe HSDPA HSUPA

Japan
(pre-commercial) (commercial) (commercial) (commercial)
Comparison Between WCDMA and GSM
Technology
Parameter of Comparison WCDMA GSM
GSM is used in 2G mobile
WCDMA is a technology that is networks and it came into
Network
used in 3G mobile networks. existence much before the
WCDMA.
The speed and efficiency is
The speed and efficiency are not
better in WCDMA. This is
Speed up to the mark in GSM as
because of the technology that is
compared to WCDMA.
used in the network.
WCDMA is used all over the
world, so if you are using a GSM was evolved in Europe and
mobile that has WCDMA so it is mainly used there.Hence
Use
support, there won’t be any phones with GSM may be
issues in switching to different suitable in other regions.
networks.
WCDMA was first introduced in GSM was first introduced in
Year of first use
2001. 1991.
The area of coverage for The area of coverage for GSM is
Area of coverage
WCDMA is more. less.
 UMTS
 UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service) is a third-generation (3G)
broadband, packet-based transmission of text, digitized voice, video, and
multimedia at data rates up to 2 megabits per second (Mbps).
 UMTS offers a consistent set of services to mobile computer and phone users, no
matter where they are located in the world.
 UMTS is based on the Global System for Mobile (GSM) communication standard.
 It is also endorsed by major standards bodies and manufacturers as the planned
standard for mobile users around the world.
 Once UMTS is fully available, computer and phone users can be constantly
attached to the Internet wherever they travel and, as they roam, will have the same
set of capabilities.
UMTS Network Architecture
WCDMA System
• WCDMA is the most common radio interface for UMTS systems
• Wide bandwidth, 3.84 Mcps (Megachips per second)
• Maps to 5 MHz due to pulse shaping and small guard bands between
the carriers
• Users share the same 5 MHz frequency band and time
• UL and DL have separate 5 MHz frequency bands
• Users are separated from each other with codes and thus frequency
reuse factor equals to 1
• High bit rates
• With Release ’99 theoretically 2 Mbps
• The higher implemented is however 384 kbps
WCDMA System
• Fast power control (PC)
• Reduces the impact of channel fading and minimizes the interference
• Soft handover
• Improves coverage, decreases interference
• Robust and low complexity RAKE receiver
• Introduces multipath diversity
• Support for flexible bit rates
WCDMA System
• Multiplexing of different services on a single physical
connection
• Simultaneous support of services with different QoS
requirements:
• Real-time, (voice, video telephony)
• Streaming (video and audio)
• Interactive (web-browsing)
• Background (e-mail download)
3.5G (HSPA)
High Speed Packet Access (HSPA) is an amalgamation of two mobile
telephony protocols, High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) and
High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA), that extends and improves the
performance of existing WCDMA protocols
3.5G introduces many new features that will enhance the UMTS
technology in future. These include:
- Adaptive Modulation and Coding
- Fast Scheduling
- Backward compatibility with 3G
- Enhanced Air Interface
4G (LTE)
• LTE stands for Long Term Evolution
• Next Generation mobile broadband technology
• Promises data transfer rates of 100 Mbps
• Based on UMTS 3G technology
• Optimized for All-IP traffic
Advantages of LTE
Comparison of LTE Speed
Major LTE Radio Technogies
• Uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) for
downlink
• Uses Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA)
for uplink
• Uses Multi-input Multi-output(MIMO) for enhanced throughput
• Reduced power consumption
• Higher RF power amplifier efficiency (less battery power used by
handsets)
LTE vs UMTS
• Functional changes compared to the current UMTS architecture
 Standards Body: 3GPP
• An international standards body
• Evolves and standardizes GSM, UMTS, LTE among others

The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) unites [Six]

telecommunications standard development organizations

CS590 (Peng)
(ARIB, ATIS, CCSA, ETSI, TTA, TTC), known as
“Organizational Partners” and provides their members
with a stable environment to produce the highly
successful Reports and Specifications that define 3GPP
technologies

• We will primarily discuss 3GPP standards

16
 Cellular Network Standards
3GPP 3GPP 3GPP2 Wimax
Generation
Circuit Packet Forum
Switched Switched
2G GSM cdmaOne
GPRS
2.5G
2.75G EDGE
UMTS CDMA2000
3G
3.5G HSPA/+ CDMA EV-DO

4G LTE UMB WiMAX

Network Architecture Evolution

2G 3G 4G

• Circuit- • Circuit-switching • Packet-

CS590 (Peng)
switching for voice switching for
for voice • Packet-switching everything
for data • IP-based
Telecomm
IP-based Internet
Infrastructure 19
Inter-Generation Technologies
• CS networks need to be able to connect with PS networks and
other distinct cellular networks
• The internet is a good example of PS network
• GPRS (General packet radio service)
• 2.5G packet switched technology

CS590 (Peng)
• EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution)
• 2.75G packet switched technology
• HSPA (High Speed Packet Access)
• 3.5/3.75 packet switched data technology
• There were a few quick iterations on this technology, thus
“variants”
20
 3G/4G Network Architecture
4G Packet-Switched

4G PS Gateways Internet

MME 4G Core Network

Phone 4G BS

3G PS Gateways Internet

3G Packet-Switched
3G CS
Phone 3G BS Gateways Telephony
Data path
Signaling path 3G Core Network
3G Circuit-Switched
21
LTE advanced
• GSM – UMTS - LTE
• LTE advanced as candidate for IMT-advanced
• Worldwide functionality & roaming
• Compatibility of services
• Interworking with other radio access systems
• Enhanced peak data rates to support advanced services and
applications (100 Mbit/s for high and 1 Gbit/s for low mobility)
• 3GPP will be contributing to the ITU-R towards the development
of IMT-Advanced via its proposal for LTE-Advanced.
• Relay Nodes to increase coverage
• 100 MHz bandwidth (5x LTE with 20 MHz)
GENERATIONS IN MOBILE
COMMUNICATION
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 4G AND 5G
There are a few notable differences that allow 5G to do things 4G LTE
cannot.
Compared to 4G LTE, 5G brings the following benefits:
5G is faster than 4G with more bits-per-second able to travel the network.
With the new upload and download speeds, you could be downloading
movies in seconds versus minutes.
5G is more responsive than 4G with lower latency, which refers to the
time taken for device-to-network communications. Since devices can
"talk" to the network faster, you'll get data more quickly.
5G uses less power than 4G since it can rapidly switch to low-energy use
when cellular radios are not in use. This extends the device battery life to
let devices stay unplugged for longer.
5G gives secure, fast service more reliably than 4G due to better use of
bandwidth and more connection points. With less stress on the network,
data costs can fall lower than 4G networks.
5G can carry more devices than 4G as it expands the available radio
waves. Congestion issues that lead to slow service will be reduced once
5G steps in.
5G UPGRADES FROM 4G
 APPLICATION AREAS
The ITU-R has defined three main application areas for
the enhanced capabilities of 5G. They are

Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB),

Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communications (URLLC),

and

Massive Machine Type Communications (mMTC).

Only eMBB is deployed in 2020; URLLC and mMTC are

several years away in most locations.
 ENHANCED MOBILE BROADBAND

Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB) uses 5G as a

progression from 4G LTE mobile broadband services,
with

 faster connections

 higher throughput and

 more capacity

This will benefit areas of higher traffic such as stadiums,

cities, and concert venues.
 ULTRA-RELIABLE LOW-LATENCY
COMMUNICATIONS
Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications(URLLC)
refer to using the network for mission
critical applications that require uninterrupted and
robust data exchange.

The short-packet data transmission is used to meet

both reliability and latency requirements of the wireless
communication networks.
 MASSIVE MACHINE-TYPE
COMMUNICATIONS
Massive Machine-Type Communications (mMTC) would be
used to connect to a large number of devices. 5G
technology will connect some of the 50 billion connected
IoT devices. Most will use the less expensive Wi-Fi.

 Drones, transmitting via 4G or 5G, will aid in disaster

recovery efforts, providing real-time data for emergency
responders.

 Most cars will have a 4G or 5G cellular connection for

many services.

 Autonomous cars do not require 5G, as they have to be

able to operate where they do not have a network
connection. .
 PERFORMANCE
 Speed
5G speeds will range from ~50 Mbps to over 1 Gbps. The fastest 5G speeds
would be in the mmWave bands and can reach 4 Gb/s with carrier
aggregation and MIMO.
 Latency
In 5G, the "air latency" is of the order of 8–12 milliseconds. The latency to
the server must be added to the "air latency" for most comparisons.
 Error Rate
5G uses adaptive modulation and coding scheme (MCS) to keep the bit
error rate extremely low. Whenever the error rate crosses a (very low)
threshold the transmitter will switch to a lower MCS, which will be less error
prone.
 Range
The range of 5G depends on many factors. A key factor is the frequency
being used. mmWave signals tend to have a range of only a couple of
hundred meters whilst low band signals generally have a range of a couple
of kilometers.
 TECHNOLOGY
The air interface defined by 3GPP for 5G is known as New Radio (NR),
and the specification is subdivided into two frequency bands, FR1
(below 6 GHz) and FR2 (mmWave), each with different capabilities.

Frequency range 1 (< 6 GHz)

The maximum channel bandwidth defined for FR1 is 100 MHz, due to
the scarcity of continuous spectrum in this crowded frequency range.
The band most widely being used for 5G in this range is 3.3–4.2 GHz.
The Korean carriers are using n78 band at 3.5 GHz although some
millimeter wave spectrum has also been allocated.

Frequency range 2 (> 24 GHz)

The minimum channel bandwidth defined for FR2 is 50 MHz and the
maximum is 400 MHz, with two-channel aggregation supported in
3GPP Release 15. The higher the frequency, the greater the ability to
support high data-transfer speeds.
 TECHNOLOGY
Max. Max. distance
Deployment Output
Cell types number of from base
environment power (mW)
users station
Home: 4–8 indoors: 10–100
Femtocell Homes, businesses Businesses: 16– outdoors: 200– tens of meters
32 1000

Public areas like indoors: 100–

shopping malls, 250
Pico cell 64 to 128 tens of meters
airports, train outdoors:
5G NR FR2 stations, skyscrapers 1000–5000

Urban areas to fill outdoors: few hundreds

Micro cell 128 to 256
coverage gaps 5000−10000 of meters
Urban areas to
outdoors: hundreds of
Metro cell provide additional more than 250
10000−20000 meters
capacity
indoors: 20–100
Wi-Fi few tens of
Homes, businesses fewer than 50 outdoors: 200–
(for comparison) meters
1000
5G MOBILE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
 SIMPLIFIED
5G MOBILE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
 FUTURE CELLULAR PHONES
Burden for this
Everything performance
wireless is on the backbone network
in one device
San Francisco

BS
BS

LTE backbone is the Internet

Internet
Paris
Nth-Gen Phone Nth-Gen
Cellular System Cellular

BS

Much better performance and reliability than today

- Gbps rates, low latency, 99% coverage, energy efficiency
 MULTIPLE ACCESS AND
RADIO ACCESS NETWORK
WHY MULTIPLE ACCESS?

The base stations need to serve many mobile terminals at the same
time (both downlink and uplink)
All mobiles in the cell need to transmit to the base station
Interference among different senders and receivers
So we need multiple access scheme
MULTIPLE ACCESS SCHEMES

3 orthogonal Schemes:
• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

frequency

Each mobile is assigned a separate frequency channel for the duration of the
call
Sufficient guard band is required to prevent adjacent channel interference
Usually, mobile terminals will have one downlink frequency band and one
uplink frequency band
Different cellular network protocols use different frequencies
Frequency is a precious and scare resource. We are running out of it
 Cognitive radio
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

Guard time – signal transmitted by mobile

terminals at different locations do no arrive
at the base station at the same time

Time is divided into slots and only one mobile terminal transmits during each
slot
 Like during the lecture, only one can talk, but others may take the floor in turn

Each user is given a specific slot. No competition in cellular network

 Unlike Carrier Sensing Multiple Access (CSMA) in WiFi
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
Example:
Consider GSM, which is a TDMA/FDD system that uses 25MHz for the forward link,
which is broken into radio channels of 200kHz. If 8 speech channels are supported on
a single radio channel, and if no guard band is assumed, find the number of
simultaneously users that can be accommodated in GSM.
Solution:
number of simultaneously users that can be
accommodated in GSM
N = (25MHz/200kHz) x 8 = 1000
Example:
If a normal GSM time slot consists of six trailing bits, 8.25 guard
bits, 26 training bits, and two traffic bursts of 58 bits of data, find
the frame efficiency

Solution:
If a normal GSM time slot consists of six trailing bits, 8.25 guard bits,
26 training bits, and two traffic bursts of 58 bits of data, find the
frame efficiency
no. of data bits per time slot = 2 x 58 = 116
equivalent no. of bits per time slot = 2 x 58 + 6 + 8.25 + 26 =
156.25
frame efficiency = 116/156.25 = 74.24%
Example:
If GSM uses a frame structure where each frame consists of eight time slots and each
time slot contains 156.25 bits, and data are transmitted at 270.833 kbps in the channel,
find
 the time duration of a bit,
 the time duration of a slot,
 the time duration of a frame,
 how long must a user occupying a single time slot wait between two successive
transmissions.
Solution:
(a) the time duration of a bit Tb = 1/270.833 kbps = 3.692 μs
(b) the time duration of a slot Ts = 156.25 Tb = 0.577ms
(c) the time duration of a frame Tf = 8 Ts = 4.615 ms
(d) a user needs to wait one frame duration, i.e., 4.615 ms, between two successive
transmissions
ALTERNATIVE TO FDMA AND TDMA?
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
Use of orthogonal codes to separate different transmissions
Each symbol of bit is transmitted as a larger number of bits using
the user specific code – Spreading
 Bandwidth occupied by the signal is much larger than the information
transmission rate
 But all users use the same frequency band together
Orthogonal among users
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
Spreading Codes
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
Properties of Walsh Codes
WIDEBAND CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
WIDEBAND CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

 High Data Rates: WCDMA supports data rates up to 384 kbps for
mobile users and up to 2 Mbps for stationary users.
 Wideband CDMA Technology: It uses a wide 5 MHz bandwidth for
data transmission.
 Improved Spectrum Efficiency: Multiple users share the same
frequency band using unique codes.
 CDMA-based: It uses Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) for
channel allocation.
 Supports Voice and Data: WCDMA enables both voice and high-
speed data services.
 Soft Handover: It allows simultaneous connections to multiple base
stations for better call quality.
WIDEBAND CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

 High Voice Quality: It provides superior voice quality compared to 2G

technologies.
 Backward Compatibility: WCDMA is compatible with GSM and
GPRS for smooth transitions.
 Channelization: The spectrum is divided into channels, each
assigned a unique code to prevent interference.
 Quality of Service (QoS): Different QoS levels prioritize services like
voice and data based on user needs.
 Used in UMTS: WCDMA is the air interface standard for the 3G UMTS
network technology.
RADIO ACCESS NETWORK
RADIO ACCESS NETWORK

A Radio Access Network (RAN) is a critical part of a mobile

telecommunications system that connects individual mobile devices
(like smartphones) to the core network via radio connections. It
consists of the radio base stations, antennas, and other equipment
that handle the wireless communication between users and the
network.
 EVOLUTION OF RAN
 2G (GSM RAN): The early form of RAN used in GSM (Global System for
Mobile Communications), focusing on voice communication with basic data
support.

 3G (UMTS RAN): The RAN in 3G systems like UMTS (Universal Mobile

Telecommunications System) introduced higher data rates and multimedia
services.

 4G (LTE RAN): With LTE (Long-Term Evolution), the RAN became fully
packet-switched and provided faster data speeds, lower latency, and
better support for internet-based services.

 5G RAN: 5G introduced the concept of New Radio (NR), which improves

data throughput, network efficiency, and latency for emerging
applications like IoT (Internet of Things), autonomous vehicles, and
enhanced mobile broadband.
 TYPES OF RADIO ACCESS NETWORKS
 Macro RAN: Large-scale base stations covering extensive geographical
areas (typically towers).

 Small Cell RAN: Smaller base stations for localized coverage (like in
urban environments or indoor areas), enhancing network capacity and
coverage.

 Cloud RAN (C-RAN): A centralized, virtualized RAN architecture where

base station functions are moved to the cloud, improving flexibility and
resource optimization.
TETRAN – TRANS EUROPEAN TRUNKED
RADIO ACCESS NETWORK
Trunked radio systems
many different radio carriers
assign single carrier for a short period to one user/group of users
taxi service, fleet management, rescue teams
interfaces to public networks, voice and data services
very reliable, fast call setup, local operation
TETRA - ETSI standard
formerly: Trans European Trunked Radio
point-to-point and point-to-multipoint
encryption (end-to-end, air interface), authentication of devices, users and networks
group call, broadcast, sub-second group-call setup
call queuing with pre-emptive priorities
 TETRAN – TRANS EUROPEAN TRUNKED
RADIO ACCESS NETWORK
ETRA is the European version of trunked radio, similar to Project 25.

Terrestrial Trunked Radio (TETRA; formerly known as Trans-

European Trunked Radio), a European standard for a trunked radio
system, is a professional mobile radio and two-way transceiver
specification.

TETRA was specifically designed for use by government agencies,

emergency services, (police forces, fire departments, ambulance)
for public safety networks, rail transport staff for train radios,
transport services and the military.
TETRAN – CONTRACTS BY SECTOR
(PERCENTAGE)
Used in over 70 countries, more than 20 device manufacturers

others, 6
Industrial, 1

Oil/Gas, 3 Public safety &

security, 39
PAMR, 6

Military, 6

Government, 7

Utilities, 8

Transportation,
24
 TETRA – NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
TETRA infrastructure
switch PSTN, ISDN,
NMS Internet,
PDN

switch switch
BS other
TETRA
BS network
s
BS
AI: Air Interface
BS: Base Station
DMO: Direct Mode Operation
ISI: Inter-System Interface
NMS: Network Management
System
PEI: Peripheral Equipment
Interface
 UTRAN- UMTS TERRESTRIAL RADIO
ACCESS NETWORK

UTRAN (short for "UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network") is a

collective term for the network and equipment that connects mobile
handsets to the public telephone network or the Internet. It contains
the base stations, which are called Node B's and Radio Network
Controllers (RNCs) which make up the UMTS radio access
network.
UTRAN ARCHITECTURE
RNS

RNC: Radio Network Controller

UE1 Node B Iub
Iu RNS: Radio Network Subsystem
RNC CN
UE2
Node B
• UTRAN comprises several
RNSs
UE3
• Node B can support FDD or
Iur TDD or both
Node B
Iub • RNC is responsible for
handover decisions requiring
Node B
RNC signaling to the UE
• Cell offers FDD or TDD
Node B

RNS
Multicarrier Modulation
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM)

Fig. : Frequency spectra of individual subcarriers in one OFDM

symbol
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM)
Use of OFDM
Makes efficient use of the spectrum by allowing overlap.

By dividing the channel into narrowband flat fading subchannels, OFDM is
more resistant to frequency selective fading than single carrier systems.

Eliminates ISI and IFI through use of a cyclic prefix.

Using adequate channel coding and interleaving one can recover symbols
lost due to the frequency selectivity of the channel.

Is less sensitive to sample timing offsets than single carrier systems.

Provides good protection against co-channel interference and impulsive

parasitic noise.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM)
Spectral Efficiency

Fig. : Channel bandwidth and data rate for

FDM with guard band

Fig : Channel bandwidth and data rate for

OFDM

Fig. : Channel bandwidth and data rate

for OFDM with guard band
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM)
OFDM - Analogue Block Diagram
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM)OFDM (4G)
OFDM - Digital Block Diagram (in Practice)
 Cyclic Prefix, CP
Tke cyclic prefix is a guard interval (Gl) placed to protect OFDM signals
from intersymbol interference in the presence of multipath.

The last section of a symbol is used as a prefix in the front of the

symbol. The duration of the guard interval TGI should be
T > T ,
GI spread
to minimise inter−symbol inter1erence (ISI).
OFDMA Compared to CDMA

Feature OFDMA CDMA

Channel OFDMA chops its large CDMA requires a large

Equalization bandwidth into sub-channels bandwidtk (more difficult to
that are easyto equalize. equalize than OFDM).

Mobility Sensitive to Doppler shift. Robust to Doppler shift.

Scalability Easy to aggregate addi- Hard to support more
tional spectrum. users.
Security May require additional se- PN-codes are an addi-
cutity measures tional level of security.
FBMC Modulation

In this FBMC modulation type, set of synthesis & analysis filters are
designed and introduced in the chain. Hence desired bandwidth
efficiency along with spectral efficiency can be achieved.

In FBMC modulation, filters(usually low pass) are uniformly spaced and

are higher in selectivity to achieve minimum crosstalk. After this
modulation is applied using several subcarrier center frequencies to
generate synthesis and analysis filters. Subcarriers are arranged either
odd or even stacked. There is no center frequency used.
FBMC Modulation

Difference between OFDM and FBMC

FBMC Modulation
Difference between OFDM and FBMC
Feature OFDM FBMC
Fixed spacing (e.g., 15 Flexible spacing with
Subcarrier Spacing
kHz in LTE). individual filters.
Prone to Inter-Carrier Reduced ICI due to pulse
Interference
Interference (ICI). shaping filters.
Uses a cyclic prefix to No need for a guard
Guard Interval
avoid ISI. interval.
Less efficient due to More efficient, no cyclic
Efficiency
cyclic prefix overhead. prefix needed.
Computational Higher complexity due to
Lower complexity.
Complexity filter bank usage.
Synchronization Sensitive to timing and Less sensitive to
Sensitivity frequency errors. synchronization errors.
Potential for 5G and
Common in 4G LTE, Wi-
Use Case beyond, especially for
Fi, and DVB systems.
high spectral efficiency.
FBMC Modulation
FBMC Merits(Advantages)
• Provide spectrum efficient and more selective system
• CP(Cyclic Prefix) is not needed
• Provide robust narrowband jammers

FBMC Demerits/Challanges
• The development of MIMO based FBMC is very limited and is non-trivial.
• to design wider BW and higher dynamic range system will have more
challenges in achieving RF performance
• More complex as compared to OFDM. It introduces overhead in overlapping
symbols in the filter bank(in time domain).

Applications of FBMC
• Cognitive Radio Communications
• Multiple Access Networks
• Access to Television White Space(TVWS)
• Power Line Communication
• MIMO Communication
UFMC-Universal Filtered Multicarrier

UFMC is better for higher mobility environments, where

moderate complexity and reduced overhead are more
important. It offers a balance between performance and
practical implementation.

 UFMC retains backward compatibility also with the

algorithms of OFDM.

 Low complexity and noise enhancement is the

disadvantage of UFMC.

 UFMC has high spectral efficiency. UFMC is multicarrier

modulation technique is used to suppress the ICI and in
order to increase the performance of the system.
UFMC-Universal Filtered Multicarrier
Difference between FBMC and UFMC
Feature FBMC UFMC
Flexible subcarrier spacing with
Flexible spacing with individual
Subcarrier Spacing filtering applied to groups of
filters.
subcarriers.
Reduced Inter-Carrier
Reduced ICI, but slightly higher
Interference Interference (ICI) due to pulse
than FBMC due to group filtering.
shaping filters.
Uses guard bands for separation
Guard Interval No need for a guard interval. between groups, reducing
interference.
High efficiency with low
More efficient, no cyclic prefix
Efficiency overhead, but slightly less
needed.
efficient than FBMC.
Higher complexity due to the Moderate complexity, lower than
Computational Complexity
implementation of filter banks. FBMC, with group filtering.
Sensitive to synchronization
Less sensitive to synchronization
Synchronization Sensitivity errors, especially at the group
errors.
level.
Suitable for 5G, offering a
Suitable for 5G and beyond with
compromise between complexity
Use Case high spectral efficiency and low
and efficiency, especially for high
interference.
mobility scenarios.
Better for systems with higher
Better for scenarios requiring
mobility, where moderate
Which is Better? very low ICI and high spectral
complexity and reduced guard
efficiency.
interval overhead are prioritized.