THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

A change in the temperature of a body causes change in its dimensions. The

increase in the dimensions of a body due to the increase in its temperature is called
thermal expansion.
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in shape, area, and volume
in response to a change in temperature.
Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a
substance. When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules
increases. Thus, the molecules begin vibrating/moving more and usually maintain a
greater average separation. Materials which contract with increasing temperature
are unusual; this effect is limited in size, and only occurs within limited
temperature ranges. The relative expansion (also called strain) divided by the
change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of thermal expansion and
generally varies with temperature.
The expansion in length is called linear expansion. The expansion in area is called
area expansion. The expansion in volume is called volume expansion
LINEAR EXPANSION

Figure 1: Linear Expansion

When a solid is heated or cooled over a small ranged of temperature, it increases
and contracts in length respectively.
Experiments indicate that the change in length ∆L of almost all solids is, to a good
approximation, is directly proportional to the change in temperature ∆T as long as

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∆T is not too large. The change in length ∆L is also proportional to the original
length �0 of the object. That is, for the same temperature increase, a 4 m long iron
rod will increase in length twice as much as a 2 m long iron rod. This
proportionality can be written as;
∆L = αL0 ∆T (1)
Where α is the constant of proportionality and it is called the coefficient of linear
expansion for the particular material. Its S.I unit is the K-l or oC-1.
From Fig. 1, L = L0 + ∆L
L = L0 + αL0 ∆T
L = L0 1 + α∆T (2)
Where
L = length after Heating
L0 = Original length
∆T = Change in temperature
Example: A Norwegian tourist buys a 50 cm long decorated copper bar in Lagos
as souvenir in December when it was 28 °C at Lagos and flew immediately to
Norway where the temperature was -10 °C. Find the change in bar. Will he notice
this is the length of the bar? Coefficient of the linear expansion of the copper is 1.2
x 10-6 °C.
Solution
Given that L0 = 50 cm = 50 × 10−2 m, ∆T = 38 °C, ∆L = ?
∆L = αL0 ∆T = 1.2 × 10−6 × 50 × 10−2 × 38 = 2.28 × 10−5 m
Since the temperature decreases from 28 °C to -10 °C, thus the length contracts
L = L0 − ∆L = 50 × 10−2 − 2.28 × 10−5 = 49.99 × 10−2 m
Thus, no significant change in length i.e. the change is length is unnoticeable.

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Example: When a metallic bar is heated from 0°C to 100°C, its length increases
by 0.05 %. Obtain the coefficient of linear expansion of the metal.
Solution
By definition, % increase or decrease in length is
∆�
× 100 % = 0.05 %
�

∆� 0.05
= 100
�
∆L 0.0005
α = = = 5 × 10−6 ℃−1
L0 ∆T 100

SUPERFICIAL EXPANSION
The amount by which unit area of a material increases when the temperature is
raised by one degree is called the coefficient of superficial (i.e. area) expansion and
is represented by β.
Every linear dimension increases by the same percentage with a change in
temperature, including holes. This assumes that the expanding material is uniform.
If a material has an area A0, originally, and changes in length and breadth to a new
area A at a temperature increase of ∆T, the expression for superficial expansion can
be deducted thus;
From linear expansion (2) squaring all the terms,
�2 = �20 1 + �∆� 2

�2 = �20 1 + 2α∆T + α2 ∆T2

But Area, A = L2
� = �0 1 + 2α∆T + α2 ∆T2
In most cases the quadratic term α2 ∆T2 can be neglected since the typical
expansion coefficient is on the order of parts per million per degree oC. The
expression then becomes
A = A0 1 + 2α∆T (3)

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Expanding (3)
� = �0 + 2�0 α∆T
� − �0
�0
= 2α∆T
∆A
= 2α∆T
�0

Let 2α = β
∆A
�0
= β∆T

β is the coefficient of superficial expansion. Its unit is K-1 or °C-1.

Example: A silver plate has an area of 800 mm2 at 15 °C. Determine the increase
in the area of the plate when the temperature is raised to 100 °C. Assume the
coefficient of linear expansion of silver to be 1.9 x 10-6 K-1.
Solution
A = A0 1 + 2α∆T
A = A0 1 + 2α T2 − T1
A = A0 + 2A0 α T2 − T1
The increase in area, ∆A = 2A0 α T2 − T1
∆A = 2 × 800 × 10−6 1.9 × 10−6 100 − 15 = 2.584 × 10−7 m2
VOLUME EXPANSION
The volume of a solid substance increases if its temperature is increased. It is
called volume expansion. Over small temperature ranges, the thermal expansion is
described by the coefficient of linear expansion. If the linear expansion is put in the
form
L = L0 1 + α∆T
Take the cube of both sides
�3 = �30 1 + �∆� 3

Expanding

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L3 = L30 1 + 3α∆T + 3α2 ∆T2 + α3 ∆T3
But volume, V = L3
V = V0 1 + 3α∆T + 3α2 ∆T2 + α3 ∆T3
In most cases the quadratic and cubic terms above can be neglected, since the
typical expansion coefficient is on the order of parts per million per degree oC. The
expression then becomes
V = V0 1 + 3α∆T (4)
Let 3α = γ
V = V0 1 + γ∆T
� − �0
= �∆�
�0
∆�
= �∆�
�0

� is the coefficient of cubic expansion. Its unit is K-1 or oC-1.

Example: A glass flask of volume 100 cm3 is filled to the brim with liquid whose
coefficient of volume expansion is 1 x 10-3 oC-1. The flask and its liquid content are
originally at 20 °C. Determine the volume of liquid which will overflow upon
heating the flask (and the liquid) to 50 °C if the coefficient of linear expansion of
the flask is 8 x 10-6 oC-1.
Solution
V= 100 cm3, T1 = 20 °C, T2 = 50 °C, γ = 8 x 10-6 °C-1
Using the relation
V = V0 1 + γ∆T
V = 100 1 + 8 × 10−6 50 − 20 = 100.024 cm3
Change in volume, ∆V = V − V0
∆V = 100.024 − 100 = 0.024 cm3

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Example: A zinc sphere has a radius of 30 mm at a temperature of 20 °C. If the
temperature of the sphere is raised to 420 °C, determine the increase in (a) the
radius, (b) the surface area, (c) the volume of the sphere. Assume the coefficient of
linear expansion for zinc to be 3.1 x 10-6 K-1
Solution
(a) L = L0 1 + α∆T
L = 30 1 + 3.1 × 10−6 693 − 293 = 30.0372 mm
Increase in radius , ∆L = 30.0372 − 30 = 0.0372 mm
(b) Initial area of the sphere, A0 = 4πr2 = 4 × π × 302 = 11,311.2 mm2
A = A0 1 + α∆T = 11,311.2 1 + 2 3.1 × 10−6 400 = 11,339.6 mm2
∆A = A − A0 = 11,339.6 − 11,311.2 = 28.4 mm2
4
(c) Initial volume of the sphere, V0 = πr3
3
4
= × 3.142 × 303 = 1.131 × 105 mm3
3

Volume change at 693 K, V = V0 1 + 3α∆T

V = 1.131 × 105 1 + 3 3.1 × 10−6 693 − 293 = 1.135 × 105 mm3
∆V = V − V0 = 1.135 × 105 − 1.131 × 105 = 400 mm3
ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER
Anomalous expansion is the behaviour of water in the range from 0 °C to 4 °C.
Generally matter expands on heating and contracts on cooling. In case of water, it
expands on heating if its temperature is greater than 4°C. But in the range 0 °C to
4 °C, water contracts on heating and expands on cooling, i.e. g is negative.
The anomalous behavior of water arises due to the fact that water has three types of
molecules, viz., H2O, (H2O)2, and (H2O)3 having different volume per unit mass
and at different temperatures their properties in water are different.
At 4 °C, density of water is maximum while its specific volume is minimum.

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During winter when the water at the surface of a lake cools below 4 °C by cool air,
it expands and becomes lighter than water below. Therefore the water cooled
below 4 °C stays on the surface and freezes when the temperature of surroundings
falls below 0 °C. Thus the lake freezes first at the surface and water in contact with
ice has temperature 0 °C while at the bottom of the lake 4 °C [as density of water
at 4 °C is maximum) and fish and other aquatic animals remain alive in this water.
When matter is heated without any change in state, it usually expands. According
to atomic theory of matter, a symmetry in potential energy curve is responsible for
thermal expansion. As with rise in temperature the amplitude of vibration and
hence energy of atoms increases, hence the average distance between the atoms
increases. So the matter as a whole expands.
Thermal expansion is minimum in case of solids but maximum in case of gases
because inter-molecular force is maximum in solids but minimum in gases.
Solids can expand in one dimension (linear expansion), two dimension (superficial
expansion) and three dimension (volume expansion) while liquids and gases
usually suffers change in volume only.
APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL EXPANSION
Bi-metallic strip:
Two strips of equal lengths but of different materials (different coefficient of linear
Expansion) when join together, it is called “bi-metallic strip”, and can be used in
thermostat to break or make electrical contact. This strip has the characteristic
property of bending on heating due to unequal linear expansion of the two metal.
The strip will bend with metal of greater a on outer side i.e. convex side.
Effect of temperature on the time period of a simple pendulum:
A pendulum clock keeps proper time at temperature θ. If temperature is increased
to θ’(> θ) then due to linear expansion, length of pendulum and hence its time
period will increase.

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Time period
L
T = 2π
g

T' L' L 1 + α∆θ

⟹ T
= L
= L

T = 1 + α∆θ
1
�' = � 1 + �∆�
2
�' − � 1
= �∆�
� 2
∆� 1
= �∆�
� 2

(i) Due to increment in its time period, a pendulum clock becomes slow in summer
and will lose time.
1
Loss of time in a time period ∆� = 2
��∆�
1
Loss of time in any given time interval t can be given by ∆� = 2
��∆�.

(ii) The clock will lose time i.e. will become slow if �' > � (in summer) and will
gain time i.e. will become fast if �' < � (in winter).
(iii) The gain or loss in time is independent of time period T and depends on the
time interval t.
(iv) Time lost by the clock in a day (t = 86400 s)
1
∆� = ��∆� = 43200 �∆� ���
2

(v) Since coefficient of linear expansion α is very small for Invar, hence
pendulums are made of Invar to show the correct time in all seasons.
Expansion of cavity
Thermal expansion of an isotropic object may be imagined as a photographic
enlargement. So if there is a hole A in a plate C (or cavity A inside a body C), the
area of hole (or volume of cavity) will increase when body expands on heating, just

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as if the hole (or cavity) were solid B of the same material. Also the expansion of
area (or volume) of the body C will be independent of shape and size of hole (or
cavity), i.e., will be equal to that of D.
Example: A simple pendulum made up of aluminium wire 1 m long has a Period
T1 at 0 °C and T2 at 40 °C. Calculate T1 and T2. (linear expansivity of aluminium is
2.6 × 10-5 oC-1).
Solution
For a string made of aluminium, the changes in temperature alters the length of the
string. Thus determine the change in length:
∆L
α = ⟹ ∆L = αL∆θ = 2.6 × 10−5 × 1 40 − 0 = 0.00104 m
L∆ϑ

L 1
At 0 °C, T1 = 2π = 2π = 1.9869 s
g 10

L + ∆L 1.00104
At 40 °C, T2 = 2π = 2π 10
= 1.987 s
g

Example: A pendulum clock with a pendulum made of Invar has a period of 0.5 s
and is accurate at 25 °C. If the clock is used in a country where the temperature
averages 35 °C, what correction is necessary at the end of a month (33 days) to the
time given by the clock? (Linear expansivity of Invar is 7 x 10-7 oC-1).
Solution
In time interval, the clock will become slow (or will lose time) by
1
∆� = 2
��∆�
1
∆t = 2
7 × 10−7 30 × 86400 35 − 25 = 9.1 s

THERMAL STRESS
Thermal stress is the stress created by any change in temperature to a material.
These stresses can lead to fracture or plastic deformation depending on the other
variables of heating, which include material types and constraints.

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Temperature gradients, thermal expansion or contraction and thermal shocks are
things that can lead to thermal stress. This type of stress is highly dependent on the
thermal expansion coefficient which varies from material to material. In general
the larger the temperature change, the higher the level of stress that can occur.
Thermal stress is created by thermal expansion or contraction. Thermal stress can
be destructive, such as when expanding gasoline ruptures a tank. It can also be
useful, for example, when two parts are joined together by heating one in
manufacturing, then slipping it over the other and allowing the combination to cool.
Thermal stress can explain many phenomena, such as the weathering of rocks and
pavement by the expansion of ice when it freezes.
Relation for Thermal stress
Stress σ
Young's Modulus, E = Strain ε

σ = Eε (5)
Linear expansivity of a solid is given as:
e
α =
L0 ∆θ
e
But strain =
L0

Thus, ε = α∆θ

σ = Eα∆θ (6)
Thus, thermal stress depends on the Young’s Modulus E, the coefficient of thermal
expansivity. and the change in temperature.
Example: A steel rod 10 m and 10 cm² in area is heated from 0 °C to 40 °C.
Calculate the: (a) increase in length (b) Thermal stress when the rod is fixed
between the two rigid supports. (Young modulus of the rod is 2 x 1011 Nm-2, Linear
expansivity of the rod is 1.2 x 10-5 oC-1).

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Solution
L1
(a) α = ⟹ L1 = αL0 ∆θ
L0 ∆θ

L1 = 1.2 × 10−5 10 40 = 0.0048 m

Thus, increase in length L = L0 + L1 = 10 + 0.0048 = 10.0048 m
(b) σ = Eα∆θ = 2 × 1011 1.2 × 10−5 40 = 96 MNm−2
Example: There is some change in length when a 33000 N tensile force is applied
on a steel rod of area of cross-section 10-3 m2. What is the change of temperature,
required to produce the same elongation if the steel rod is heated. (The modulus of
Elasticity is 3 x 1011 Nm-2 and the coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 1.1 x
10-5 oC-1)
Solution
F
Thermal Stress, σ = Eα∆θ =
A
F 33000
∆θ = = 1 × 10−3 3 × 1011 1.1 × 10−5
= 10 °C .
AEα

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