Social Control, Deviance and Social Conformity

Theories about Details and Description Relevant Sociological Counter-evidences/Evaluation

Social Order Materials/Evidences Points
Structuralist Structuralist theories, such Durkheim and Marx laid the Interactionist perspectives
Theories as functionalism and foundation for structuralist theories challenge the deterministic view of
Marxism, view society as a in sociology. Durkheim focused on structuralist theories, arguing that
powerful force shaping social solidarity and the individuals have agency and actively
individuals' thoughts and importance of social norms in shape social life through their
behaviors. These maintaining order (Durkheim, interactions. While structuralist
perspectives emphasize the 1893), while Marx analyzed class theories provide valuable insights into
role of social structures in conflict and the role of capitalism in societal organization and control,
organizing and controlling shaping society (Marx, 1867). they may oversimplify the complexity
social life. Functionalism, as advocated by of human behavior and overlook the
Parsons, highlights the role of individual agency in social
interdependence of social dynamics.
institutions and their roles in
maintaining social order (Parsons,
1937). Conflict theorists, following
Marx's ideas, emphasize power
struggles and inequalities as driving
forces in society (Marx, 1848).
Functionalism Functionalism and Marxism Functionalism, as exemplified by Functionalism's emphasis on stability
vs. Marxism offer contrasting views on Parsons, views society as a system and consensus may overlook social
how order and control are of interrelated parts, each serving inequalities(Davis and Moore) and
created and maintained in specific functions to maintain social power dynamics, while Marxism's
society. Functionalists order (Parsons, 1937). Institutions focus on conflict may overlook
emphasize the harmony and like family, education, and instances of cooperation and stability
interdependence of social government work together to meet within society. Both perspectives offer
institutions, while Marxists the functional prerequisites valuable insights into different
focus on power struggles and necessary for societal stability aspects of social organization but
inequalities driven by (Parsons, 1959a). Marxists, inspired may present partial views of complex
capitalism. by Marx's analysis of class conflict, social phenomena.
argue that capitalism creates social
divisions and exploitation, leading to
tensions and struggles for control
(Marx, 1867). Conflict theorists
Theories about Details and Description Relevant Sociological Counter-evidences/Evaluation
Social Order Materials/Evidences Points
critique functionalism for
overlooking power dynamics and
inequalities inherent in social
structures (e.g., Bowles & Gintis,
1976).
Social Structure Social structure shapes Socialization processes, such as Interactionists argue that individuals
and Socialization individuals' behavior and those outlined by Parsons, ensure actively interpret and negotiate social
thought processes through individuals conform to societal meanings, challenging the
socialization processes and norms and values, contributing to deterministic view of socialization
institutional arrangements. social order (Parsons, 1959a). presented by structuralist theories.
Institutions like family, education, While social structures undoubtedly
and media play crucial roles in influence individual behavior, the
socializing individuals and extent of their influence and the
transmitting cultural norms and agency of individuals in shaping social
beliefs (Durkheim, 1893). life may vary depending on
Structuralist perspectives suggest contextual factors and individual
that social structures exert a experiences.
powerful influence on individual
behavior, leading to conformity and
stability within society (Marx, 1867;
Durkheim, 1893).
Consensus Functionalism represents a Functionalists, like Parsons, argue Critics of functionalism argue that it
Structuralism consensus structuralist that social institutions fulfill specific overlooks social conflicts and
approach, viewing society as functions that contribute to societal inequalities, focusing too much on
a system of interrelated stability and well-being (Parsons, consensus and stability within
parts working together 1937). Institutions such as family, society. Additionally, functionalism's
harmoniously to maintain education, work, and government emphasis on equilibrium may neglect
social order. work in harmony, with each social change and fail to account for
performing distinct but tensions and contradictions inherent
complementary roles (Parsons, in social structures.
1959a). The concept of functional
prerequisites highlights the
essential functions that must be
fulfilled for society to operate
smoothly (Parsons, 1959a).
Theories about Details and Description Relevant Sociological Counter-evidences/Evaluation
Social Order Materials/Evidences Points
Conflict Conflict structuralism, as Marxist theory emphasizes the role Critics of conflict theory argue that it
Structuralism exemplified by Marxism, of class struggle and economic oversimplifies social phenomena by
highlights social divisions inequalities in shaping social reducing them to economic conflicts,
and power struggles as key structures and maintaining power neglecting other forms of inequality
factors in shaping society. dynamics (Marx, 1867). Capitalism, such as those based on race, gender,
according to Marxists, creates and ethnicity. Additionally, conflict
divisions between the bourgeoisie theory may overlook instances of
and the proletariat, leading to cooperation and consensus within
exploitation and conflict (Marx, society, focusing too narrowly on
1867). Conflict theorists critique power struggles and class conflicts.
capitalist societies for perpetuating While conflict theory provides
inequalities and oppression, arguing valuable insights into social
for systemic change to address inequalities, its deterministic view of
social injustices (Marx, 1867; Bowles society may underestimate the
& Gintis, 1976). complexity of social dynamics and the
role of agency in social change.
Feminist Theory Feminist theory critiques Feminist perspectives argue that Critics of feminist theory may argue
traditional views of society, contemporary societies are that it overlooks other forms of
highlighting the patriarchal patriarchal, with men holding power oppression and inequality, focusing
nature of social structures and dominating social institutions primarily on gender dynamics.
and the oppression (hooks, 1984). Different strands of Additionally, some critics may
experienced by women. feminism, such as liberal feminism question the extent to which society
and Marxist feminism, emphasize is inherently patriarchal, suggesting
various forms of gender oppression that gender relations are more
and discrimination within society complex and multifaceted. However,
(hooks, 1984; Hartmann, 1979). feminist theory has been instrumental
Feminist theorists critique societal in raising awareness about gender
norms and institutions for inequalities and advocating for
perpetuating gender inequalities gender equity in various spheres of
and call for gender equity and social society.
justice (hooks, 1984; Hartmann,
1979).
Interactionism Interactionism, or the social Interactionists argue that social Critics of interactionism may argue
action approach, emphasizes order emerges from the bottom up that it overlooks the influence of
the role of individual agency through everyday interactions and social structures and systemic
Theories about Details and Description Relevant Sociological Counter-evidences/Evaluation
Social Order Materials/Evidences Points
and social interaction in shared meanings (Garfinkel, 1967). inequalities in shaping individual
shaping society. Social life involves a series of behavior. Additionally, some critics
encounters where individuals may question the extent to which
negotiate meanings and construct shared meanings and interactions can
social reality (Schutz, 1962). explain complex social phenomena,
Labelling theory highlights how suggesting that structural factors play
social identities and behaviors are a significant role in shaping societal
influenced by societal labels and dynamics. However, interactionism
interpretations (Becker, 1963). offers valuable insights into the
micro-level processes of social
interaction and the construction of
social reality through everyday
practices.
Structuration Structuration theory, Structuration theory posits that Critics of structuration theory may
proposed by Giddens, social structures are created and argue that it presents a somewhat
integrates the concepts of reproduced through individual deterministic view of social
structure and action, actions and interactions (Giddens, phenomena, emphasizing the
emphasizing the mutual 1984). Individuals both reproduce influence of structures on individual
constitution of society and and transform social structures behavior while downplaying the role
individuals. through their practices and routines of agency and creativity. Additionally,
(Giddens, 1984). Social resources some critics may question the extent
and power relationships shape the to which individuals can actively
negotiation and acceptance of rules shape social structures, suggesting
within society (Giddens, 1984). that structural constraints may limit
individual agency. However,
structuration theory offers a
comprehensive framework for
understanding the dynamic
relationship between structure and
agency in shaping social life.

Factors explaining conformity

 Factors Details and Description
Explaining Relevant Sociological Counter-evidences/Evaluation
Conformity Materials/Evidences Points
Social sanctions, both positive
and negative, play a significant
role in influencing individuals Research has shown that individuals
to conform to social tend to conform to social norms to
expectations. Positive avoid negative sanctions and gain
sanctions include rewards such positive rewards (Becker, 1963;
as praise, encouragement, and Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004). Social
gifts, while negative sanctions psychology experiments, such as While social sanctions can influence
involve punishments such as those conducted by Asch (1951), conformity, individuals may also
disapproval, fines, demonstrate the power of social resist or challenge social norms for
imprisonment, and even death. pressure in shaping individual various reasons, such as personal
These sanctions are behavior through conformity to beliefs, values, or group affiliations.
mechanisms used by society to group norms. Sociological studies on Additionally, the effectiveness of
reinforce behavioral norms and deviance and social control highlight sanctions in promoting conformity
ensure social order. Individuals the role of both formal and informal may vary depending on cultural,
conform to avoid negative sanctions in maintaining social order social, and situational factors,
consequences and to gain and regulating behavior within suggesting that conformity is not
Social social approval and society (Hirschi, 1969; Chambliss, solely determined by external
Sanctions acceptance. 1973). rewards or punishments.
Formal vs. Social control mechanisms can Sociological research demonstrates Critics of formal social controls argue
Informal Social be categorized into formal and how formal and informal social that they may be coercive and
Controls informal controls. Formal controls influence individual restrictive, limiting individual freedom
controls involve written rules, behavior and adherence to social and autonomy. Informal social
laws, and organizational norms (Durkheim, 1893; Parsons, controls, while effective in
regulations enforced by 1959a; Becker, 1963). Studies on maintaining social order, may also
institutions such as the police deviance and conformity highlight perpetuate social inequalities and
and legal system. Informal the role of both formal and informal exclusionary practices within certain
controls operate through sanctions in maintaining social order groups or communities. Additionally,
informal enforcement and regulating behavior within the effectiveness of formal and
mechanisms within everyday society (Hirschi, 1969; Chambliss, informal controls may vary depending
settings, such as families, peer 1973). Observations of informal on factors such as cultural norms,
groups, and communities. social controls in everyday social cohesion, and institutional
These controls rely on social interactions reveal how social norms legitimacy.
norms, expectations, and and expectations guide individual
 Factors Details and Description
Explaining Relevant Sociological Counter-evidences/Evaluation
Conformity Materials/Evidences Points
social pressure to regulate
behavior. Formal controls
provide clear guidelines for
acceptable behavior and are
enforced by designated
authorities, while informal
controls operate through social behavior and promote conformity
interactions and peer pressure. (Goffman, 1959; Garfinkel, 1967).
Belonging to a social group Psychological and sociological
and the desire for acceptance studies on conformity and group
from others exert significant behavior highlight the influence of
social pressure on individuals social pressure and the need for
to conform to group norms and belonging on individual conformity
expectations. Ostracism, or (Asch, 1951; Milgram, 1963; Sherif,
exclusion from a group, serves 1935). Research on social identity While social pressure and the desire
as a powerful negative theory suggests that individuals for belonging can promote
sanction, motivating derive their self-concept and conformity, individuals may also
individuals to adhere to group identity from group memberships, resist or challenge group norms if
standards to avoid rejection or leading to conformity to group they conflict with personal beliefs or
social isolation. The need for norms and values (Tajfel & Turner, values. Additionally, the extent of
social acceptance and 1979). Studies on peer pressure and conformity may vary depending on
approval drives individuals to social influence demonstrate how factors such as group cohesion, social
conform to group norms, as group dynamics shape individual identity, and individual autonomy,
Social deviation may result in social behavior and decision-making suggesting that conformity is not
Pressure and alienation and loss of processes (Cialdini & Goldstein, solely determined by social pressure
Belonging belonging. 2004; Festinger, 1954). or the need for acceptance.
Self-Interest Self-interest and the principles Sociological research on social Critics may argue that self-interest
and Social of social exchange play a exchange theory demonstrates how alone does not fully explain
Exchange significant role in motivating individuals weigh the costs and conformity, as individuals may
individuals to conform to social benefits of conforming to social conform to social norms for altruistic
expectations. Individuals norms based on self-interest or moral reasons, rather than purely
conform to social norms and (Homans, 1958; Blau, 1964). Studies for personal gain. Additionally, social
values because they recognize on altruism and cooperation suggest exchange theory may overlook the
that cooperation and that individuals conform to social role of socialization and
 Factors Details and Description
Explaining Relevant Sociological Counter-evidences/Evaluation
Conformity Materials/Evidences Points
adherence to societal rules are
in their own self-interests.
Social exchange theory posits
that individuals engage in
reciprocal relationships based expectations to maintain social
on mutual benefits, where relationships and receive social
adherence to social norms rewards (Axelrod & Hamilton, 1981;
fosters positive relationships Nowak & Sigmund, 2005). Economic
and social support. Individuals and game theory models illustrate
conform to maintain social how rational decision-making
relationships and receive social processes influence individual internalization of norms in shaping
rewards, as reciprocal conformity to social norms and individual behavior, suggesting that
interactions create obligations cooperative behaviors (Fehr & conformity is not solely driven by
and mutual benefits. Gächter, 2002; Ostrom et al., 1992). rational calculations of self-interest.
Theories of Relevant Sociological
Deviance Details and Description Materials/Evidences Counter-evidences/Evaluation Points
Subcultures refer to groups within
society that hold distinct values, Cohen's (1955) concept of "status
norms, and behaviors that may frustration" suggests that working- Critics argue that subcultures are not
deviate from the dominant class youth form subcultures as a always inherently deviant and may
culture. Working-class response to their inability to achieve serve as adaptive responses to social
subcultures, as described by Miller mainstream status and success. conditions and structural inequalities.
(1962), often exhibit traits such as Studies on subcultural theories, such Additionally, subcultural behaviors
toughness, trouble, and as those by Cohen, Cloward, and may vary across different contexts and
autonomy, which reflect their Ohlin (1960), examine how historical periods, challenging the
resistance to authority and subcultures emerge as a means of notion of a universal working-class
adherence to their own value coping with societal marginalization subculture. Moreover, studies on
systems. While these subcultures and structural constraints. resistance and youth culture show
may lead to behaviors perceived Interactionist perspectives, including that not all subcultural behaviors are
as deviant by mainstream society, labeling theory (Becker, 1963), driven by opposition to authority or
they are seen as normal within the highlight how deviant labels mainstream values, suggesting that
context of the subculture itself, contribute to the formation and subcultures can have diverse
representing a form of non- reinforcement of subcultural motivations and meanings beyond
conformity that challenges identities, perpetuating deviant mere deviance (Hebdige, 1979; Hall &
Subcultures dominant norms. behavior. Jefferson, 1976).
Under-socialisation Under-socialisation refers to a lack Studies on socialization processes Critics argue that under-socialisation is
of successful socialization, and family dynamics, such as those not solely determined by familial
wherein individuals fail to by Parsons (1955) and Lareau (2011), factors and may also result from
internalize societal norms and explore how familial socialization broader societal influences, such as
values adequately. This may result influences individual behavior and peer pressure, media exposure, and
from inadequate familial societal integration. Interactionist cultural norms. Additionally, the
socialization, where families either perspectives on socialization, such as concept of "appropriate" behavior is
tolerate deviant behavior or fail to symbolic interactionism (Blumer, subjective and may vary across
instill moral values in children. As 1969), emphasize the role of social different cultural and social contexts,
Theories of Relevant Sociological
Deviance Details and Description Materials/Evidences Counter-evidences/Evaluation Points
challenging the notion of universal
a consequence, individuals may interactions and symbolic meanings norms. Moreover, studies on
lack the ability to distinguish in shaping individual identity and socialization and deviance show that
between right and wrong or to behavior. Research on socialization individuals may actively resist or
judge appropriate behavior in and deviance, including Moffitt's reinterpret societal norms, suggesting
different contexts. Under- (1993) theory of adolescence-limited that deviance is not always a result of
socialisation can lead to behaviors and life-course-persistent offenders, socialization failures but may also
perceived as deviant by society highlights the link between stem from conscious choices and
due to the absence of internalized socialization failures and deviant social dynamics (Matza, 1964; Sykes &
norms. behavior across the lifespan. Matza, 1957).
Marginalisation Marginalization refers to the social Marxist perspectives on Critics argue that marginalization is
and economic exclusion of marginalization, such as those by not solely determined by economic
individuals or groups from Marx (1867) and Engels (1845), factors and may also result from
mainstream society, often emphasize the role of economic intersecting forms of oppression,
resulting in limited access to structures and class relations in including race, gender, sexuality, and
resources, opportunities, and perpetuating social inequalities and disability. Additionally, marginalized
political representation. In marginalizing certain groups. Studies individuals and communities may
marginalized communities, such as on urban poverty and social exhibit diverse responses to social
inner-city areas with high rates of exclusion, including research by exclusion, ranging from resistance to
poverty and unemployment, Wilson (1987) and Wacquant (1996), resignation, challenging simplistic
individuals may feel disconnected highlight the intersection of race, portrayals of marginalized groups as
from societal norms and class, and place in shaping inherently deviant or resistant.
institutions, leading to feelings of experiences of marginalization. Moreover, studies on urban poverty
alienation and disengagement. Feminist analyses of marginalization and social policy show that structural
Marginalized groups may develop examine how gendered power interventions and community
subcultures or engage in deviant dynamics intersect with other forms empowerment initiatives can mitigate
behavior as a form of resistance or of oppression to marginalize women the effects of marginalization and
coping mechanism against social and LGBTQ+ individuals (Collins, promote social inclusion, suggesting
exclusion and structural 2000; hooks, 1984). Research on that marginalization is not an
Theories of Relevant Sociological
Deviance Details and Description Materials/Evidences Counter-evidences/Evaluation Points
social movements and collective
action reveals how marginalized
groups mobilize to challenge systems immutable condition but a product of
of oppression and demand social broader social processes and policies
change (Tarrow, 1998; McCarthy & (Piven & Cloward, 1971; DeFilippis &
inequalities. Zald, 1977). Saegert, 2009).
Studies on cultural capital and Critics argue that cultural deprivation
educational attainment, such as theory may overlook structural factors
Cultural deprivation theory posits those by Bourdieu (1977) and Lareau that contribute to educational
that individuals or groups lack the (2003), explore how cultural inequalities, such as funding
cultural resources and values resources and socialization practices disparities, teacher quality, and
necessary for success in shape academic success and social institutional discrimination.
mainstream society, leading to mobility. Research on educational Additionally, the concept of "cultural
educational underachievement inequalities and social stratification deficit" implies a deficit model of
and limited social mobility. reveals how cultural deprivation education that blames individuals and
Working-class children, for contributes to disparities in families for their own academic
example, may be socialized into educational outcomes and life shortcomings, overlooking systemic
immediate gratification and lack chances (Coleman, 1966; Jencks et barriers to educational achievement.
the values of deferred gratification al., 1972). Sociological analyses of Moreover, studies on cultural capital
and educational attainment poverty and social policy examine and social reproduction show that
valued by the dominant culture. how structural factors perpetuate cultural resources are unequally
This cultural mismatch can result cultural deprivation and hinder distributed across social classes,
in academic underachievement efforts to address educational reflecting broader patterns of social
and perpetuate social inequalities inequalities (Duncan & Brooks-Gunn, stratification and inequality (DiMaggio,
Cultural Deprivation across generations. 1997; Brady et al., 2015). 1982; Lamont & Lareau, 1988).
Social Resistance Social resistance refers to Neo-Marxist analyses of social Critics argue that social resistance may
collective or individual actions that resistance, such as those by Gramsci not always lead to meaningful social
challenge existing power (1971) and Hall (1980), emphasize change and may even reinforce
structures, norms, and inequalities the role of culture and ideology in existing power structures by providing
Theories of Relevant Sociological
Deviance Details and Description Materials/Evidences Counter-evidences/Evaluation Points
outlets for dissent that do not
within society. Neo-Marxist shaping resistance movements and fundamentally challenge the status
perspectives suggest that subcultural identities. Research on quo. Additionally, the effectiveness of
marginalized or oppressed groups social movements and protest resistance strategies may vary
may engage in deviant behavior or dynamics examines how depending on the level of
form subcultures as a form of marginalized groups mobilize to organization, resources, and solidarity
resistance against dominant challenge power structures and among marginalized groups.
ideologies and social control demand social change (Tilly, 2004; Moreover, studies on social
mechanisms. For example, youth Jasper, 1997). Studies on youth movements and political activism
subcultures may adopt deviant culture and subcultural resistance show that resistance efforts are often
styles and behaviors to express explore how deviant behaviors and met with repression and co-optation
their anger and discontent with cultural practices serve as forms of by dominant elites, highlighting the
societal inequalities, providing a symbolic resistance and identity complex dynamics of power and
means of resistance within a formation (Hebdige, 1979; Brake, resistance in society (McAdam, 1982;
system that marginalizes them. 1980). della Porta & Diani, 2006).