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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Mashal for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

The program or set of programs is developed based on

1. Algorithm Design & the design.
Each module of the program is written using a suitable
Problem-Solving programming language.
Testing is conducted to ensure that each module
functions correctly.
1.1. Program Development Life Cycle Iterative testing is performed, which involves conducting
(PDLC) modular tests, making code amendments if necessary,
and repeating tests until the module meets the required
Analysis functionality.
Design
Coding Testing
Testing
Maintenance The completed program or set of programs is executed
multiple times using various test data sets.
Analysis This testing process ensures that all the tasks within the
program work together as specified in the program
Before solving a problem, it is essential to define and design.
document the problem clearly, known as the Running the program with different test data can identify
"requirements specification" for the program. and address potential issues and errors.
The analysis stage involves using tools like abstraction The testing phase aims to verify the overall functionality
and decomposition to identify the specific requirements and performance of the program by evaluating its
for the program. behaviour with various inputs.
Abstraction focuses on the essential elements needed
for the solution while eliminating unnecessary details 1.2. Structure Diagrams
and information.
Decomposition involves breaking down complex Every computer system is made up of sub-systems,
problems into smaller, more manageable parts that can which are in turn made up of further sub-systems.
be solved individually. Structure Diagrams – The breaking down of a computer
Daily tasks can be decomposed into constituent parts for system into sub-systems, then breaking each sub-system
easier understanding and solving. into smaller sub-systems until each one only performs a
single action. A structure diagram diagrammatically
Design represents a top-down design. Example below.
The program specification derived from the analysis
stage is used as a guide for program development.
During the design stage, the programmer should clearly
understand the tasks to be completed, the methods for
performing each task, and how the tasks will work
together.
Documentation methods such as structure charts,
flowcharts, and pseudocode can be used to document
the program's design formally. 1.3. Pseudocode & Flowcharts
Coding and iterative testing

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Pseudocode - Verbal representation of an algorithm (a Declaration & Usage of Variables & Constants
process or set of steps) and flowcharts are a Variable – Store of data which changes during
diagrammatic representation. execution of the program (due to user input)
Flowcharts: A flowchart shows diagrammatically the Constant – Store of data that remains the same
steps required to complete a task and the order that during the execution of the program
they are to be performed Basic Data Types
Algorithm: These steps, together with the order, are Integer – Whole Number e.g. 2; 8; 100
called an algorithm Real – Decimal Number e.g. 7.00; 5.64
Char – Single Character e.g. ‘a’; ‘Y’
String – Multiple Characters (Text) e.g. “ZNotes”;
“COOL”
Boolean – Only 2 Values e.g. True/False; Yes/No; 0/1
Input & Output (READ & PRINT) – Used to receive and
display data to the user respectively. (It is recommended
to use input and output commands)
INPUT Name
OUTPUT "Hello Mr." , Name

// Alternatively //

READ Name
An example of a flowchart is given below from a past paper
PRINT "Hello Mr," , Name
question in which all of the functions of a flowchart are
shown: Declaration of variable - A variable/constant can be
declared by the following manner

DECLARE [Variable Name] : [DATATYPE OF VARIABLE

Array: Array is similar to variable but it can store

multiple values of same datatype under single name

DECLARE [ARRAYNAME] : ARRAY [Lower Limit : Uppe

Assignment - Each variable is assigned using a left

arrow.

[VARIABLE NAME] <---- [Value to be assigned]

ArrayName [IndexValue] <---- [Value to be assig
This flowchart’s task is to check if a rider’s height is more the Conditional Statements:
requirement (1.2) in this case. It then counts until the IF…THEN…ELSE…ENDIF
accepted riders are 8. After they are 8, it outputs the
number of rejected riders and tells the rest that they are
ready to go!

2. Pseudocode

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Loop Structures:
FOR…TO…NEXT : Will run for a determined/kn

REPEAT… UNTIL – Will run at least once till condition is

satisfied; Verification is done after running code

CASE…OF…OTHERWISE…ENDCASE – Multiple conditions and

corresponding consequences \n

WHILE…DO…ENDWHILE – May not ever run; Verification

is done before running code

Note: When using conditions in these loop structures

and conditional statement, it has to be kept in mind that
it can be done in two ways.
1. use of a Boolean variable that can have the value
TRUE or FALSE
2. comparisons made by using coparison operators,
where comparisons are made from left to right

IF [BOOLEAN VARIABLE]
THEN
OUTCOME
ELSE
OUTCOME
ENDIF

IF ((CONDITION 1) OR ( CONDITION 2)) AND (CONDIT

THEN
OUTCOME
ELSE
OUTCOME
ENDIF

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MaxiumumValue <--- Array[1] MinimumValue <--- A

2.1. FOR Counter ← 2 TO LoopLimit
IF Array[Counter] > MaximumValue
THEN
MaximumValue ← Array[Counter]
ENDIF

IF Array[Counter] < MinimumValue

THEN
MinimumValue ← Array[Counter]
ENDIF
NEXT Counter

// Average//

2.2. Standard methods used in Total ← 0

FOR Counter ← 1 TO NumberOfValues
algorithm: Total ← Total + StudentMark[Counter]
NEXT Counter
Totalling :Totalling means keeping a total that values are Average ← Total / NumberOfValues
added to
Linear Search: In a linear search, each item in the list is
Total ← 0 inspected sequentially until a match is found or the
FOR Counter ← 1 TO LoopLimit entire list is traversed.
Total ← Total + ValueToBeTotalled
NEXT Counter
INPUT Value
Counting: Keeping a count of the number of times an Found ← FALSE
action is performed is another standard method. Counter ← 0
REPEAT
PassCount ← 0
IF Value = Array[Counter]
FOR Counter ← 1 TO LoopLimit
THEN
INPUT Value
Found ← TRUE
IF Value > Range ELSE
THEN Counter ← Counter + 1
PassCount ← PassCount + 1
ENDIF
ENDIF
UNTIL Found OR Counter > NumberOfValues
NEXT Counter IF Found
THEN
Maximum, minimum and average : Finding the largest
OUTPUT Value , " found at position " , Counte
and smallest values in a list are two standard methods
ELSE
that are frequently found in algorithms
OUTPUT Value , " not found."
ENDIF

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Bubble Sort: Iteratively compare and swap adjacent Test data that would be rejected by the solution as not
elements in a list to sort them. Start from the first suitable, if the solution is working properly is called
element and continue until the second-to-last element. abnormal test data / erroneous test data.
After each pass, the last element is in its correct place. e.g. in a program where only whole number values
However, other elements may still be unsorted. Repeat ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, abnormal
the process, excluding the last element, until only one data will be: -1, 151, 200, 67.2, “Sixty-Two” and -520
element remains or no swaps are needed.

First ← 1
3.3. Extreme Data
Last ← 10
Extreme data are the largest and smallest values that
REPEAT
normal data can take
Swap ← FALSE
FOR Index ← First TO Last - 1
e.g. in a program where only whole number values
IF Array[Index] > Array[Index + 1]
ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, extreme
THEN
data will be: 0 and 100
Temp ← Array[Index]
Array[Index] ← Array[Index + 1] 3.4. Boundary Data
Array[Index + 1] ← Temp
Swap ← TRUE This is used to establish where the largest and smallest
ENDIF values occur
NEXT Index At each boundary two values are required: one value is
Last ← Last - 1 accepted and the other value is rejected.
UNTIL (NOT Swap) OR Last = 1 e.g. in a program where only whole number values
ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, one
example of boundary data will be: 100 and 101. 100 will
3. Test Data be accepted and 101 will not be accepted

Test data refers to input values used to evaluate and

assess the functionality and performance of a computer 4. Trace Table
program or system.
It helps identify errors and assess how the program A trace table is utilized to document the outcomes of
handles different scenarios every step in an algorithm. It is employed to record the
variable's value each time it undergoes a change.
A dry run refers to the manual process of systematically
3.1. Normal Data executing an algorithm by following each step in
Normal data is the test data which accepts values in sequence.
A trace table is set up with a column for each variable
acceptible range of values of the program
and a column for any output e.g.
Normal data should be used to work through the
solution to find the actual result(s) and see if they are the
same as the expected result(s)
e.g. in a program where only whole number values
ranging from 0 to 100 (inclusive) are accepted, normal
test data will be : 23, 54, 64 , 2 and 100

3.2. Abnormal Data

Test data is employed to execute a dry run of the flowchart
and document the outcomes in a trace table. During the dry
run:

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The ability to write an algorithm is very important for
Whenever a variable's value changes, the new value is this syllabus and paper. Some key steps/points to be
recorded in the respective column of the trace table. known in-order to write the perfect algorithm are as
Each time a value is outputted, it is displayed in the follows:
output column.
1. Make sure that the problem is clearly understood
An example of trace table is given below using a past paper which includes knowing the purpose of the algorithm
question: and the tasks to be completed by the algorithm.
Q: The flowchart below inputs the height of children who 2. Break the problem into smaller problems (e.g. in a
want to ride on a rollercoaster. Children under 1.2 metres program which outputs average values, divide the
are rejected. The ride starts when eight children have been problem into multiple ones i.e. how to count the
accepted. number of iterations and how to count the total of all
values)
3. Identify the data that is needed to be saved into
variables/constants/arrays and what datatype it is,
and declare all the variables/constants/arrays
accordingly, with meaningfull names
4. Decide on how you are going to construct your
algorithm, either using a flowchart or pseudocode. If
you are told how to construct your algorithm, then
follow the guidance.
5. Construct your algorithm, making sure that it can be
easily read and understood by someone else. Take
particular care with syntax e.g. when conditions are
used for loops and selection.
Complete the trace table for the input data: 1.4, 1.3, 1.1, 1.3, 6. Use several sets of test data (Normal, Abnormal and
1.0, 1.5, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.3, 0.9, 1.5, 1.6, 1.0 Boundary) to dry run your algorithm and check if the
Riders Reject Height OUTPUT
0 0
expected results are achieved (a trace table can be
1 1.4 used for this purpose) . If error is found, find the
2 1.3
1 1.1
point of error in the trace table and fix it in the code.
3 1.3
2 1.0 Note: The algorithms that you have looked at so far in these
4 1.5
3 1.2
notes were not designed with readability in mind because
5 1.3 you needed to work out what the problem being solved was.
6 1.4
7 1.3

8
4 0.9
1.5 Ready to go 4
5.1. Validation and Verification
To ensure the acceptance of reasonable and accurate data
4.1. Identifying errors: inputs, computer systems must thoroughly examine each
data item before accepting it, and this is where Validation
Trace tables can be used to trace errors in a program. and Verification come into play!
For example, if the requirement for the previous
question would be to accept riders that are of height 1.2 Validation
too, rather than rejecting them, then the error would
have been caught in the trace table as when 1.2 is Validation in computer systems involves automated checks
entered, it would increment rejected which it shouldn’t in to ensure the reasonableness of data before accepting it. If
our example the data is invalid, the system should provide an explanatory
message for rejection and allow another chance to enter the
5. How to write an algorithm? data.
There are multiple types of validation. These include:

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Range check
A range check verifies that a numerical value falls within Presence check
specified upper and lower limits.
A presence check checks to ensure that some data has been
REPEAT entered and the value has not been left blank
INPUT Value
IF Value < MinimumValue OR Value > MaximumValu OUTPUT "Please enter the value "
THEN REPEAT
OUTPUT "The student's mark should be in the r INPUT Value
ENDIF IF Value = ""
UNTIL Value >= MinimumValue AND Value <= Maximu THEN
OUTPUT "*=Required "
Length check ENDIF
UNTIL Value <> ""
This can either ensure that data consists of a precise
number of characters. Format Check
OUTPUT "Please enter your value of ", Limit , " A format check checks that the characters entered conform
REPEAT to a pre-defined pattern.
INPUT Value
IF LENGTH(Value) <> Limit Check Digit
THEN
OUTPUT "Your value must be exactly" , Limit , A check digit is the final digit included in a code; it is
ENDIF calculated from all the other digits.
UNTIL LENGTH(Value) = Limit Check digits are used for barcodes, product codes,
International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN), and
It can also check if the data entered is a reasonable number Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN).
of characters or not
Verification
OUTPUT "Please enter your value "
REPEAT
Verification is checking that data has been accurately copied
INPUT Value
from one source to another
IF LENGTH(Value) > UpperLimit OR LENGTH(Value)
There are 2 methods to verify data during entry ( there
THEN are other methods during data transfer, but they are in
OUTPUT "Too short or too long, please re-ent
paper 1)
ENDIF
UNTIL LENGTH(Value) <= UpperLimit AND LENGTH(Va
1. Double Entry
Type check Data is inputted twice, potentially by different operators.
The computer system compares both entries and if they
A type check verifies that the entered data corresponds to a differ, an error message is displayed, prompting the data
specific data type. to be reentered.
OUTPUT "Enter the value "
REPEAT 2. Screen/Visual check
INPUT Value
A screen/visual check involves the user manually
IF Value <> DIV(Value, 1)
reviewing the entered data.
THEN
After data entry, the system displays the data on the
OUTPUT "This must be a whole number, please
screen and prompts the user to confirm its accuracy
ENDIF
before proceeding.
UNTIL Value = DIV(Value, 1)
The user can compare the displayed data against a paper
document used as an input form or rely on their own
knowledge to verify correctness.

6. Boolean Logic

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6.1. Logic Gates and their functions

Six types of logic gates
XOR gate: A ⨁ B​
NOT Gate
AND Gate A B Output
0 0 0
OR Gate 0 1 1
NAND Gate 1 0 1
1 1 0
NOR Gate
XOR Gate

NOT gate: an inverter, A

A Output
0
1
1
0 7. Writing Logic Statements
Logic Statements is a way of showing all the logics that are in
place for a logic circuit.

AND gate: A.B 7.1. Writing from a logic circuit

A B Output 1. Look at the ciruit and go around the logic gates used
0 0 0
0 1 0
in the circuit
1 0 0 2. Go from the one output that is being given towards
1 1 1
the input
3. Write the last gate ( the first gate you walk through )
in the middle and then, for each of the value coming
into the gate, leave space at the side
4. If the value coming into the gate is coming from
OR gate: A + B another gate, use a bracket for the gate’s logic
5. Repeat process 3-4 till you are able to reach the input
A B Output values fully
0 0 0
0 1 1
1
1
0
1
1
1
7.2. Writing from a truth table
1. Create logic circuit fom the truth table (shown later)
2. Write the logic statement using the ciruit

7.3. Writing from a Problem statement

NAND gate: A.B
A B Output
0 0 1
1. See what logics go in place in the statement to take
0 1 1 place
1 0 1
1 1 0
2. Go from the logic of any 2 inputs at the start, and
then keep on going until you are able to reach the
final gate which gives the output
3. When writing the statement, make sure you show the
logic statement where the output is 1

NOR gate: A + B ​

7.4. Example of a LOGIC STATEMENT

A B Output
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

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(B AND C) OR (A NOR (A NAND C)) is the logic statement for
the following Logic Circuit

9. Logic Statements from

Truth Tables
8. Creating Truth Tables
8.1. From Logic Circuits
1. Create a truth table with each input possible, creating
every possible combination of inputs . Tip: For the
first input, write it in the combination of 1,0,1,0
and so on. For the second, go 1,1,0,0 and so on,
and for the third one, go 1,1,1,1,0,0,0,0 going by
the powers of 2 for each input. This would
guarantee each possible combination
2. Run through the circuit with the inputs and get the
output that will be reached and write it accordingly 1. Given the truth table above, take the rows where the
output (x) is 1 (Rows 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7)
For logic statements, and problem statements, 2. Create a logic expression from these rows (example,
row 1 will be (NOT A AND NOT B AND NOT C) = X
convert them to logic circuits first and then do the
3. Create logic expressions for all the rows with output
rest 1 and connect them with OR gate

8.2. Example
10. Exam-Style Question
This is the example of a truth table of a logic circuit

The circuit:

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Data is stored in tables in databases. Each table consists

of a specific type of data e.g. cars. These tables HAVE to
be named according to what they contain e.g. a table
containing patient information will be PATIENT
These tables consist of records (rows). Each record
consists of data about a single entity (a single item,
person or event ) e.g. a single car
These tables also have columns that are knows an fields.
These consist of specific information regarding the
entities that are written later in records e.g. car name,
car manufacturer etc.
Note: In this chapter, skills of dealing with a database
1. The Conditions are given so make logic statements are also required so working with Microsoft Access is
using the conditions and the table. (NOT S AND T) OR needed to understand this chapter better. You have to be
(S AND W) OR (NOT T AND W) able to define a single-table database from given data
2. Make the logic circuit from the given equation storage requirements, choose a suitable primary key for a
3. Make the truth table database table and also be able to read, complete and
understand SQL scripts.
11. Databases
A database is a well-organized compilation of data that
enables individuals to retrieve information according to their
specific requirements. The data contained within a database
can encompass various forms such as text, numerical
values, images, or any other type of digital content that can
be stored on a computer system.
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science by
11.1. Why do we need a database? Hodder Education

To store data about people, things, and events. 11.3. Validation in databases
Any modifications or additions need to be made only
once, ensuring data consistency. Database management software automatically provides
All users access and utilize the same set of data, some validation checks, while others need to be set up
promoting uniformity. by the developer during construction.
Relational databases store data in a non-repetitive For example; The software automatically validates fields
manner, eliminating duplication. like "DateOfAdmission" in the PATIENT table to ensure
data input is a valid date. \n
11.2. What makes a database?
11.4. Basic Data Types
Each field will require a data type to be selected. A data type
classifies how the data is stored, displayed and the
operations that can be performed on the stored value.
The datatypes for database are quite similar to original
datatypes, however, there are a few differences.

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An SQL script is a collection of SQL commands that are

used to perform a specific task, often stored in a file for
reusability.
To comprehend SQL and interpret the output of an SQL
script, practical experience in writing SQL scripts is
necessary.

Note: Access datatype refers to the software Microsoft Select Statements:

Access which is a DBMS (DataBase Management SELECT (fieldsname)
System). Here, databases could be worked upon in FROM (tablesname)
practical form WHERE (condition)
ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;
11.5. Primary Key
Selecting Sum of values in a table:
Each record in a table represents a unique item, person,
SELECT SUM ( fieldsname )
or event.
FROM (tablesname)
To ensure reliable identification of these items, a field
WHERE (condition)
called the primary key is necessary.
ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;
The primary key is a unique field that distinguishes each
item within the data. Counting the number of records where the field
In order to serve as a primary key, a field must have matches a specified condition
values that are never repeated within the table.
An existing field can serve as a primary key if it is unique, SELECT COUNT ( fieldsname )
such as the ISBN in the book table. FROM (tablesname)
In cases where all existing fields may contain repeated WHERE (condition)
data, an additional field, such as "HospitalNumber," can ORDER BY (sortingcondition) ;
be added to each record to serve as the primary key.
==ORDER BY ASCENDING - sorts in ascending order.==
==ORDER BY DESENDING - sorts in descending order.==
11.6. Structured Query Language - SQL Note: ORDER BY…is not necessary to add. It has to be only
added if required!
Structured Query Language (SQL) is the standard
language for writing scripts to retrieve valuable
information from databases.
By using SQL, we can learn how to retrieve and display
specific information needed from a database.
For instance, someone visiting a patient may only require
the ward number and bed number to locate them in the
hospital, while a consultant may need a list of the names
of all the patients under their care. This can be done
using SQL

SQL Scripts

11.7. Operators
Just like pseudocode, the operators used there can also be
used here for conditions, however, a few more are also used
in databases

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Computer Science

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