Summer Industry Internship

Bachelor of Technology
Electrical Engineering

Submitted By
Dev Kumar
2218741

Submitted To
Mr. Harjit Singh
HOD Electrical Engineering
Department

1
 DECLARATION
We, hereby, declare that the entire project work, presented in this
report is the outcome of investigation, study and presentation
performance performed by us under the supervision of Mr. Harjit
Singh, Head of Department, Department of Electrical Engineering,St.
Soldier Institute of Engineering & Technolgy. We also announce that no
part of this report has been or is submitted elsewhere for the award of
any degree or diploma.

Dev Kumar

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First start with great thank to almighty, we take this opportunity to
express our profound gratitude and deep regards to our guide Mr.
Harjit Singh for his exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant
encouragement throughout the course of this project. I can’t say thank
you enough for his tremendous support and help. I feel motivated and
encouraged every time we attend his meeting. Without his
encouragement and guidance this project would not have materialized.
We sincerely thank the respected teachers and faculty members of
Northern University Bangladesh as they have tremendous contribution
behind our progress. Last but not least we wish to avail ourselves of
this opportunity, express a sense of gratitude and love to our friends
and our beloved parents for their manual support, strength and help
and for everything.

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 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this summer industry internship project is to gain practical

experience and knowledge in the field of electrical engineering by working on a
project related to voltage stabilizers, inverters, and house wiring. The project
aims to explore various aspects of these electrical systems and their applications
in real-world scenarios.
During the internship, I will be involved in designing, analyzing, and
implementing voltage stabilizers, inverters, and house wiring systems. The
project will focus on understanding the principles behind voltage stabilization,
power conversion, and safe electrical installations.
The first phase of the project will involve conducting a comprehensive literature
review to understand the existing technologies and best practices in voltage
stabilization, power conversion, and house wiring. This will provide a solid
foundation for the subsequent phases of the project.
In the second phase, I will design and simulate voltage stabilizers and inverters
using specialized software tools. This will include selecting appropriate
components, designing control circuits, and optimizing the performance of these
systems.
The third phase will involve hands-on implementation of the designed systems.
This will include assembling the required components, testing the systems under
different operating conditions, and troubleshooting any issues that may arise.
Finally, I will analyze the performance of the implemented systems and evaluate
their efficiency, reliability, and safety. This analysis will help identify areas for
improvement and provide recommendations for future enhancements.

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TABEL OF CONTENTS Page No.

VOLTAGE STABLISER
Chapter 1 Introduction and Overview……………………………….…... 6

Chapter 2 Description of Equipment…….………………….……………. 8

Chapter 3 Circuit and Operation..……………………………………….. 31

Transformer
Chapter 1 Introduction and Overview…………………………………... 34

Chapter 2 Theory………………………….………………………..……. 37

Chapter 3 Circuit and Operation..……………………………………….. 42

Wiring System
Chapter 1 Overview and Components…………………………………... 48

Chapter 2 Wiring System…….……………………………….…………. 52

Chapter 3 Workplace Health and Safety Measures…..………………….. 54

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 VOLTAGE STABILIZER
Chapter 1 Introduction
& Overview
1.1 Introduction
A voltage stabilizer is a device which is used to sense inappropriate voltage levels and correct them
to produce a reasonably stable output at the output where the load is connected. Which is
fabricated using transistor and other discrete components. It can be used to protect loads such as
TV, Refrigerator and VCR from undesirable over and under line voltages, as well as surges caused
due to sudden failure/resumption of mains power supply. This circuit can be directly as standalone
circuit between the main supply and the load, or it may be inserted between an existing
automatic/manual stabilizer and the load. In case the mains voltage crosses a predetermined
threshold, the ICs non inverting detects it and its output immediately goes high, switching ON the
transistor and the relay for the desired actions.

The relay, which is a DPDT type of relay, has its contacts wired up to a transformer, which is an
ordinary transformer modified to perform the function of a stabilizer transformer.

So if the input AC voltage tends to increase a set threshold value, the transformer deducts some
voltage and tries to stop the voltage from reaching dangerous levels and vice versa during low
voltage situations.

1.2Block Diagram :

AC Input Rectifier
Power Amplifier Relay Output
& Filter
Supply

Fig: Block diagram of Voltage Stabilizer

Operation:

220V ac input supply from supply line and flow the ac voltage of rectifier. Rectifier chance the
voltage ac to dc and capacitor chance the filtering dc. Operational amplifier or comparator
compare the ac supply voltage. Relay is an Electrical switching device. Its Normally-open (NO)
contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated the circuit is disconnected when the relay
is inactive. Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the
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circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts
control two circuits: one normally-open contact and one normally-closed contact with a common
terminal. Output voltmeter show the stable voltage.

1.3 Overview

A voltage stabilizer is a device which is used to sense inappropriate voltage levels and correct them
to produce a reasonably stable output at the output where the load is connected. The power line
fluctuations and cut-offs cause damages to electrical appliances connected to the line. It is more
serious in the case of domestic appliances like Fridge and Television. If a fridge is operated on low
voltage, excessive current flows through the motor, which heats up, and get damaged.
The high/low voltage protection circuit with time delay presented here is a low cost and reliable
circuit for protecting such equipments from damages. Whenever the power line is switched on it
gets connected to the appliance only after a delay of a fixed time. If the power down time (time for
which the voltage is beyond limits) is less than the delay time, the power resumes after the delay:
If it is equal or more, then the power resumes directly.

This circuit has been designed, built and evaluated by me to use as a protector for my home
refrigerator. This is designed around readily available semi-conductor devices such as standard
bipolar medium power NPN transistor (BC547), an 8-pin type 741 op-amp IC and DPDT relay. Its
salient feature is that no relay hunting is employed. This draw back is commonly found in the
proctors available in the market.

The complete circuit is consisting of various stages. They are: - Dual rail power supply, Reference
voltage source, Voltage comparators for hi/low, Time delay stage and Relay driver stage. Lets now
look at the step-by-step design details

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 Chapter 2 Description
of Equipments
2.1 Required Component:

Resistor R1 & R2 = 10KΩ

Resistor R3 = 470KΩ

Variable Resistor = 10KΩ

Capacitor C1 = 1000 µF/25 V

Diode D1 & D2 = 1N 4007

Zener Diode Z1 & Z2 = 4.7 V/ 400mW

Transformer TR1 = 0V - 12 V , 500mA

Transformer TR2 = 9V-0V-9V, 5A.

Op-Amp = LM 741

Transistor = BC 547

Relay = DPDT, 12V, 200Ω.

LED = Red (1)

Voltmeter = 1 Pcs.

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2.2 Transformer:
Basic principles a transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic induction.

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the core
and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at
the secondary induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the secondary winding.
Making use of Faraday's Law in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core properties,
transformers can thus be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to
another within power networks. Transformers have become essential for the AC transmission,
distribution, and utilization of electrical energy.

It is very common, for simplification or approximation purposes, to analyze the transformer as an

ideal transformer model as represented in the two images. An ideal transformer is a theoretical,
linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled; that is, there are no energy losses and flux
is completely confined within the magnetic core. Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core
magnetic permeability and winding inductances and zero net magnetomotive force.

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the core
and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at
the secondary induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding.
The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a core of infinitely high magnetic
permeability[e] so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary
windings. With voltage source connected to the primary winding and load impedance connected
to the secondary winding, the transformer currents flow in the indicated directions.

Center Taps Transformer:

In electronics, a center tap is connection made to a point halfway along a winding of a Transformer
or inducer, or along the element of a resistor or a potentiometer. Taps are Sometimes used on
inductors for the coupling of signals, and may not necessarily be at the halfway point , but rather,
closer to one end. A common application of this is in the Hartley oscillator. Inductors with taps also
permit the transformation of the amplitude of alternating current (AC) voltages for the purpose of
power conversion, in which case, they are referred to as autotransformers, since there is only one
winding. An example of an autotransformers is an automobile ignition coil. Potentiometer tapping
provides one or more connections along the device’s element, along with the usual connections at
each of the two ends of the element, and the slider connection. Potentiometer taps allow for
circuit functions that would otherwise not be available with the usual construction of just the two
end connections and one slider connection.

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 Fig: 12V ac. 500mA Center- tap Transformer

Step-Up Transformer:

Fig: Step-up Transformer

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2.3 Capacitor:
Electronic symbol

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used

to store energy electro statically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely,
but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. insulator).
The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc.
The "non-conducting" dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be
glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, oxide layer etc. Capacitors are widely used as
parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor
does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field
between its plates.

Theory of operation:

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric (orange)
reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

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 A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The nonconductive

region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator.
Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion
region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be selfcontained and
isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The
conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric
develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge
on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors
attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for a
given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large capacitance.
Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary.
In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Structure:

Capacitor packages: SMD ceramic at top left; SMD tantalum at bottom left; through-hole tantalum
at top right; through-hole electrolytic at bottom right. Major scale divisions are cm.

The arrangement of plates and dielectric has many variations depending on the desired ratings of
the capacitor. For small values of capacitance (microfarads and less), ceramic disks use metallic
coatings, with wire leads bonded to the coating. Larger values can be made by multiple stacks of
plates and disks. Larger value capacitors usually use a metal foil or metal film layer deposited on
the surface of a dielectric film to make the plates, and a dielectric film of impregnated paper or
plastic – these are rolled up to save space. To reduce the series resistance and inductance for long

12
plates, the plates and dielectric are staggered so that connection is made at the common edge of
the rolled-up plates, not at the ends of the foil or metalized film strips that comprise the plates.

The assembly is encased to prevent moisture entering the dielectric – early radio equipment used
a cardboard tube sealed with wax. Modern paper or film dielectric capacitors are dipped in a hard
thermoplastic. Large capacitors for high-voltage use may have the roll form compressed to fit into
a rectangular metal case, with bolted terminals and bushings for connections. The dielectric in
larger capacitors is often impregnated with a liquid to improve its properties.

Several axial-lead electrolytic capacitors

Capacitors may have their connecting leads arranged in many configurations, for example axially or
radially. "Axial" means that the leads are on a common axis, typically the axis of the capacitor's
cylindrical body – the leads extend from opposite ends. Radial leads might more accurately be
referred to as tandem; they are rarely actually aligned along radii of the body's circle, so the term
is inexact, although universal. The leads (until bent) are usually in planes parallel to that of the flat
body of the capacitor, and extend in the same direction; they are often parallel as manufactured.

Small, cheap discoidal ceramic capacitors have existed since the 1930s, and remain in widespread
use. Since the 1980s, surface mount packages for capacitors have been widely used. These
packages are extremely small and lack connecting leads, allowing them to be soldered directly
onto the surface of printed circuit boards. Surface mount components avoid undesirable high-
frequency effects due to the leads and simplify automated assembly, although manual handling is
made difficult due to their small size.

Mechanically controlled variable capacitors allow the plate spacing to be adjusted, for example by
rotating or sliding a set of movable plates into alignment with a set of stationary plates. Low cost
variable capacitors squeeze together alternating layers of aluminum and plastic with a screw.
Electrical control of capacitance is achievable with varactors (or varicaps), which are reverse-biased
semiconductor diodes whose depletion region width varies with applied voltage.
They are used in phase-locked loops, amongst other applications.

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Applications:

1. Energy storage
2. Power factor correction
3. Suppression and coupling
4. High-pass and low-pass filters
5. Motor starters
6. Hazards and safety

2.4 Resistor:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage
levels within circuits. In electronic circuits resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal
levels, bias active elements, terminate transmission lines among other uses. Highpower resistors
that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in
power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Resistors may have fixed resistances
that only change a little with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be
used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices
for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity. Resistors are common elements of electrical
networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as
discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also
implemented within integrated circuits. The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its
resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders
of magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance will fall within a manufacturing tolerance.

A typical axial-lead resistor

Electronic symbol

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Electronic symbols and notation:

(a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and (c) potentiometer

Theory of operation:

The hydraulic analogy compares electric current flowing through circuits to water flowing through
pipes. When a pipe (left) is filled with hair (right), it takes a larger pressure to achieve the same
flow of water. Pushing electric current through a large resistance is like pushing water through a
pipe clogged with hair: It requires a larger push (voltage drop) to drive the same flow (electric
current).

Ohm's law:
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where the
constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached
across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes flows through
that resistor.

Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which will also affect the relation
between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.

The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm
is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large

15
range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilo ohm (1 kΩ = 103 Ω), and mega
ohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.

Series and parallel resistors:

The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of their individual resistance values.

The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals
of the individual resistors.

So, for example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with a 5 ohm resistor and a 15 ohm
resistor will produce the inverse of 1/10+1/5+1/15 ohms of resistance, or 1/(.1+.2+.067)=2.725
ohms. A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up
into smaller parts that are either one or the other. Some complex networks of resistors cannot be
resolved in this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. Generally, the Y-Δ transform,
or matrix methods can be used to solve such problems.

Power dissipation:

At any instant of time, the power P consumed by a resistor of resistance R (ohms) is calculated as:

16
where V (volts) is the voltage across the resistor and I (amps) is the current flowing through it.
Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. This power is converted into heat which
must be dissipated by the resistor's package before its temperature rises excessively.

Lead arrangements:

2.5 Potentiometer:

A potentiometer informally a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact

that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it
acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. A potentiometer measuring instrument is essentially a
voltage divider used for measuring electric potential (voltage); the component is an
implementation of the same principle, hence its name. Potentiometers are commonly used to
control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated
by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick. Potentiometers are
rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt), since the power dissipated in
the potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the controlled load.

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 Fig: A typical single-turn potentiometer

Electronic symbol:

(International)

(US)

Potentiometer construction:
Potentiometers comprise a resistive element, a sliding contact (wiper) that moves along the
element, making good electrical contact with one part of it, electrical terminals at each end of the
element, a mechanism that moves the wiper from one end to the other, and a housing containing
the element and wiper.

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Many inexpensive potentiometers are constructed with a resistive element formed into an arc of a
circle usually a little less than a full turn and a wiper sliding on this element when rotated, making
electrical contact. The resistive element, with a terminal at each end, is flat or angled. The wiper is
connected to a third terminal, usually between the other two. On panel potentiometers, the wiper
is usually the center terminal of three. For single-turn potentiometers, this wiper typically travels
just under one revolution around the contact. The only point of ingress for contamination is the
narrow space between the shaft and the housing it rotates in.

Another type is the linear slider potentiometer, which has a wiper which slides along a linear
element instead of rotating. Contamination can potentially enter anywhere along the slot the
slider moves in, making effective sealing more difficult and compromising long-term reliability. An
advantage of the slider potentiometer is that the slider position gives a visual indication of its
setting. While the setting of a rotary potentiometer can be seen by the position of a marking on
the knob, an array of sliders can give a visual impression of, for example, the effect of a multiband
equalizer.

Theory of operation:

A potentiometer with a resistive load, showing equivalent fixed resistors for clarity.
The potentiometer can be used as a voltage divider to obtain a manually adjustable output voltage
at the slider (wiper) from a fixed input voltage applied across the two ends of the potentiometer.
This is their most common use.

The voltage across RL can be calculated by:

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If RL is large compared to the other resistances (like the input to an operational amplifier), the
output voltage can be approximated by the simpler equation:

(dividing throughout by RL and cancelling terms with RL as denominator) As

an example, assume

, , , and

Since the load resistance is large compared to the other resistances, the output voltage VL will be
approximately:

Due to the load resistance, however, it will actually be slightly lower: ≈ 6.623 V.

One of the advantages of the potential divider compared to a variable resistor in series with the
source is that, while variable resistors have a maximum resistance where some current will always
flow, dividers are able to vary the output voltage from maximum (VS) to ground (zero volts) as the
wiper moves from one end of the potentiometer to the other. There is, however, always a small
amount of contact resistance.

In addition, the load resistance is often not known and therefore simply placing a variable resistor
in series with the load could have a negligible effect or an excessive effect, depending on the load.

Potentiometer applications:
Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant amounts of power (more than a watt
or so). Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (for example volume controls on
audio equipment), and as control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light dimmer uses a
potentiometer to control the switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly to control the brightness of
lamps. Preset potentiometers are widely used throughout electronics wherever adjustments must
be made during manufacturing or servicing.

User-actuated potentiometers are widely used as user controls, and may control a very wide
variety of equipment functions. The widespread use of potentiometers in consumer electronics
declined in the 1990s, with rotary encoders, up/down push-buttons, and other digital controls now
more common. However they remain in many applications, such as volume controls and as
position sensors. Low-power potentiometers, both linear and rotary, are used to control audio
equipment, changing loudness, frequency attenuation and other characteristics of audio signals.

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The 'log pot' is used as the volume control in audio power amplifiers, where it is also called an
"audio taper pot", because the amplitude response of the human ear is approximately logarithmic.
It ensures that on a volume control marked 0 to 10, for example, a setting of 5 sounds subjectively
half as loud as a setting of 10. There is also an anti-log pot or reverse audio taper which is simply
the reverse of a logarithmic potentiometer. It is almost always used in a ganged configuration with
a logarithmic potentiometer, for instance, in an audio balance control. Television:
Potentiometers were formerly used to control picture brightness, contrast, and color response. A
potentiometer was often used to adjust "vertical hold", which affected the synchronization
between the receiver's internal sweep circuit (sometimes a multivibrator) and the received picture
signal, along with other things such as audio-video carrier offset, tuning frequency (for push-
button sets) and so on.

Motion control:
Potentiometers can be used as position feedback devices in order to create "closed loop" control,
such as in a servomechanism. This method of motion control used in the DC Motor is the simplest
method of measuring the angle or speed.

Transducers:
Potentiometers are also very widely used as a part of displacement transducers because of the
simplicity of construction and because they can give a large output signal.

Computation:
In analog computers, high precision potentiometers are used to scale intermediate results by
desired constant factors, or to set initial conditions for a calculation. A motor-driven potentiometer
may be used as a function generator, using a non-linear resistance card to supply approximations
to trigonometric functions. For example, the shaft rotation might represent an angle, and the
voltage division ratio can be made proportional to the cosine of the angle.

2.6 Diode:

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called
the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse
direction).

Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional
behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current,
including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receivers—these diodes are forms of
rectifiers.

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 Anode Cathode

P-N Junction Diodes:

A diode is an electronics component made from a combination of a P-type and N-type
semiconductor material, known as a p-n junction, with leads attached to the two ends. The most
The lead attached to the n-type semiconductor is called the cathode. Thus, the cathode is the
negative side of the diode. The positive side of the diode — that is, the lead attached to the ptype
semiconductor — is called the anode.

When a voltage source is connected to a diode such that the positive side of the voltage source is
on the anode and the negative side is on the cathode, the diode becomes a conductor and allows
current to flow. Voltage connected to the diode in this direction is called forward bias.

But if you reverse the voltage direction, applying the positive side to the cathode and the negative
side to the anode, current doesn't flow. In effect, the diode becomes an insulator. Voltage
connected to the diode in this direction is called reverse bias.

Forward bias allows current to flow through the diode. Reverse bias doesn't allow current to flow.
(Up to a point, anyway. As you'll discover in just a few moments, there are limits to how much
reverse bias voltage a diode can hold at bay.)

The anode is on the left, and the cathode is on the right. Here are two useful tricks for
remembering which side of the symbol is the anode and which is the cathode.

Rectifier diodes:

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 Fig: Diode schematic symbol

A rectifier diode is designed specifically for circuits that need to convert alternating current to
direct current. The most common rectifier diodes are identified by the model numbers 1N4001
through 1N4007. These diodes can pass currents of up to 1 A, and they have peak inverse voltage
(PIV) ratings that range from 50 to 1,000 V.

Most rectifier diodes have a forward voltage drop of about 0.7 V. Thus, a minimum of 0.7 V is
required for current to flow through the diode.

Current–voltage characteristic:

Operation:
In a normal diode, the peak inverse voltage is usually pretty high — 50, 100, even 1,000 V. If the
reverse voltage across the diode exceeds this number, current floods across the diode in the
reverse direction in an avalanche, which usually results in the diode's demise. Normal diodes
aren't designed to withstand a reverse avalanche of current. Zener diodes are. They're specially
designed to withstand current that flows when the peak inverse voltage is reached or exceeded.
And more than that, Zener diodes are designed so that as the reverse voltage applied to them
exceeds the threshold voltage, current flows more and more in a way that holds the voltage drop
across the diode at a fixed level. In other words, Zener diodes can be used to regulate the voltage
across a circuit. In a Zener diode, the peak inverse voltage is called the Zener voltage. This voltage
can be quite low — in the range of a few volts — or it can be hundreds of volts.

23
Zener diodes are often used in circuits where a predictable voltage is required. For example,
suppose you have a circuit that will be damaged if you feed it with more than 5 V. In that case, you
could place a 5 V Zener diode across the circuit, effectively limiting the circuit to 5 V. If more than 5
V is applied to the circuit, the Zener diode conducts the excess voltage away from the sensitive
circuit

2.8 An operational amplifier:

(op-amp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and,
usually, a single-ended output. In this configuration, an op-amp produces an output potential
(relative to circuit ground) that is typically hundreds of thousands of times larger than the
potential difference between its input terminals. Operational amplifiers had their origins in analog
computers, where they were used to do mathematical operations in many linear, nonlinear and
frequency-dependent circuits. Characteristics of a circuit using an op-amp are set by external
components with little dependence on temperature changes or manufacturing variations in the
op-amp itself, which makes op-amps popular building blocks for circuit design.

A voltage comparator is an electronic circuit that compares two input voltages and lets you know
which of the two is greater. It’s easy to create a voltage comparator from an op amp, because the
polarity of the op-amp’s output circuit depends on the polarity of the difference between the two
input voltages. Suppose that you have a photocell that generates 0.5 V when it’s exposed to full
sunlight, and you want to use this photocell as a sensor to determine when it’s daylight. You can
use a voltage comparator to compare the voltage from the photocell with a 0.5 V reference voltage
to determine whether or not the sun is shining. In the voltagecomparator circuit, first a reference
voltage is applied to the inverting input (V–); then the voltage to be compared with the reference
voltage is applied to the no inverting input. The output voltage depends on the value of the input
voltage relative to the reference voltage, as follows:

Equivalent Circuit for Ideal Operational Amplifiers:

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2.9 Transistor:
BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer of resistance, is
commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its base controls a larger current at collector
& emitter terminals. BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. It has a
maximum current gain of 800. Its equivalent transistors are BC548 and BC549.

The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of its
characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification applications, the transistor is
biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is amplified and
taken at the emitter. BC547 is used in common emitter configuration for amplifiers. The voltage
divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching applications, transistor is biased so that
it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets completely
off.

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT or bipolar transistor) is a type of transistor that relies on the
contact of two types of semiconductor for its operation. BJTs can be used as amplifiers, switches,
or in oscillators. BJTs can be found either as individual discrete components, or in large numbers as
parts of integrated circuits. Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both
electrons and holes. These two kinds of charge carriers are characteristic of the two kinds of doped
semiconductor material; electrons are majority charge carriers in ntype semiconductors, whereas

25
holes are majority charge carriers in p-type semiconductors. In contrast, unipolar transistors such
as the field-effect transistors have only one kind of charge carrier.

Charge flow in a BJT is due to diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of
different charge concentrations. The regions of a BJT are called emitter, collector, and base. A
discrete transistor has three leads for connection to these regions. Typically, the emitter region is
heavily doped compared to the other two layers, whereas the majority charge carrier
concentrations in base and collector layers are about the same. By design, most of the BJT
collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a high-concentration emitter into the
base where there are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified
as minority-carrier devices.

Regions of operation:

Fig: The relationship between , and .

Forward-active (or simply, active): The base–emitter junction is forward biased and the
base–collector junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are designed to afford
the greatest common-emitter current gain, βF, in forward-active mode. If this is the case,
the collector–emitter current is approximately proportional to the base current, but many
times larger, for small base current variations.

Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted): By reversing the biasing conditions of the

forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-active mode. In this mode, the
emitter and collector regions switch roles. Because most BJTs are designed to maximize
current gain in forward-active mode, the βF in inverted mode is several times smaller (2–3
times for the ordinary germanium transistor). This transistor mode is seldom used, usually
being considered only for failsafe conditions and some types of bipolar logic. The reverse
bias breakdown voltage to the base may be an order of magnitude lower in this region.

26
 Saturation: With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and
facilitates high current conduction from the emitter to the collector (or the other direction
in the case of NPN, with negatively charged carriers flowing from emitter to collector).
This mode corresponds to a logical "on", or a closed switch.

Cutoff: In cutoff, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions reverse

biased) are present. There is very little current, which corresponds to a logical "off", or an
open switch.

2.10 Relay:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically
operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are
used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by
one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they
repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were
used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or
other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts,
instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from
overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital
instruments still called "protective relays".

Relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of automation in such
industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced the
machine tool relay from sequential control applications. A relay allows circuits to be switched by
electrical equipment: for example, a timer circuit with a relay could switch power at a preset time.

27
For many years relays were the standard method of controlling industrial electronic systems. A
number of relays could be used together to carry out complex functions (relay logic). The principle
of relay logic is based on relays which energize and de-energize associated contacts. Relay logic is
the predecessor of ladder logic, which is commonly used in programmable logic controllers.

Pole and Throw:

Circuit symbols of relays. (C denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.) Since relays
are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays; a relay switches one or
more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in one of three ways:

• Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make" contact.
NO contacts may also be distinguished as "early-make" or NOEM, which means that the
contacts close before the button or switch is fully engaged.
28
 • Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit
is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or "break" contact.
NC contacts may also be distinguished as "late-break" or NCLB, which means that the
contacts stay closed until the button or switch is fully disengaged.
• Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one normally-open
contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called a Form
C contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of contact utilizes a "make
before break" functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.

The following designations are commonly encountered:

• SPST – Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or
disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is
ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology "SPNO"
and "SPNC" is sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.
• SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total.
• DPST – Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two
SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has
six terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).
• DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over
terminals. Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single
coil. Such a relay has eight terminals, including the coil.

Applications:
• Amplifying a digital signal, switching a large amount of power with a small operating power.
Some special cases are:

29
 o A telegraph relay, repeating a weak signal received at the end of a long wire o
Controlling a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of
modems or audio amplifiers,
o Controlling a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid
of an automobile,
• Detecting and isolating faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing
circuit breakers (protection relays),

• Isolating the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch.
The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily
installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be
controlled by room occupancy detectors to conserve energy, Logic functions. For example,
the Boolean AND function is realized by connecting normally open relay contacts in series,
the OR function by connecting normally open contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form
C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions for NAND and NOR are
accomplished using normally closed contacts. The Ladder programming language is often
used for designing relay logic networks.

30
 Chapter 3 Circuit and Operation
3.1 How the Circuit Functions:
A voltage stabilizer is a device which is used to sense inappropriate voltage levels and correct them
to produce a reasonably stable output at the output where the load is connected. Here we will
study the design of a simple automatic mains AC voltage stabilizer which can be applied for the
above purpose. Referring to the figure we find that the whole circuit is configured with the single
op amp IC 741. It becomes the control section of the whole design.

The IC is wired as a comparator, we all know how well this mode suits the IC 741 and other op
amps. It's two inputs are suitable rigged for the said operations.

Pin #2 of the IC is clamped to a reference level, created by the resistor R1 and the zener diode,
while pin #3 is applied with the sample voltage from the transformer or the supply source. This
voltage becomes the sensing voltage for the IC and is directly proportional to the varying AC input
of our mains supply.

The preset is used to set the triggering point or the threshold point at which the voltage may be
assumed to be dangerous or inappropriate. We will discuss this in the setting up procedure
section.

The pin #6 which is the output of the IC, goes high as soon as pin #3 reaches the set point and
activates the transistor/relay stage.

In case the mains voltage crosses a predetermined threshold, the ICs non inverting detects it and
its output immediately goes high, switching ON the transistor and the relay for the desired actions.

The relay, which is a DPDT type of relay, has its contacts wired up to a transformer, which is an
ordinary transformer modified to perform the function of a stabilizer transformer.

It’s primary and secondary windings are interconnected in such a manner that through appropriate
switching of its taps, the transformer is able to add or deduct a certain magnitude of AC mains
voltage and produce the resultant to the output connected load.

31
The relay contacts are appropriately integrated to the transformer taps for executing the above
actions as per the commands given by the op amp output.

So if the input AC voltage tends to increase a set threshold value, the transformer deducts some
voltage and tries to stop the voltage from reaching dangerous levels and vice versa during low
voltage situations.

3.2 Circuit Diagram:

Fig: Circuit diagram of voltage stabilizer.

Approximate Voltage Outputs for the Given Inputs:

INPUT------OUTPUT
200V -------- 212V
210V -------- 222V
220V -------- 232V
225V -------- 237V
230V -------- 218V
240V -------- 228V
250V -------- 238V

Operation:
The proposed simple automatic voltage stabilizer circuit may be set up with the following steps:
Initially do not connect the transformers to the circuit. Using a variable power supply, power the
32
circuit across C1, the positive goes to the terminal of R1 while the negative goes to the line of D2’s
cathode. Set the voltage to about 12.5 voltage and adjust the preset so that the output of the IC
just becomes high and triggers the relay. Now lowering the voltage to about 12 volts should make
the op amp trip the relay to its original state or make it de-energized. Repeat and check the relay
action by altering the voltage from 12 to 13 volts, which should make the relay flip flop
correspondingly. Your setting up procedure is over. Now you may connect both the transformer to
its appropriate positions with the circuit. Our simple home made mains voltage stabilizer circuit is
ready. When installed, the relay trips whenever the input voltage crosses 230 volts, bringing the
output to 218 volts and keeps this distance continuously as the voltage reaches higher levels.
When the voltage drops back to 225, the relay gets de-energized pulling the voltage to 238 volts
and maintains the difference as the voltage further goes down. The above action keeps the output
to the appliance well between 200 to 250 volts with fluctuations ranging from 180 to 265 volts.

3.3 Circuit Design & Implementation:

33
 TRANSFORMER

INTRODUCTION
TRANSFORMER
The transformer is a device used for converting a low alternating
voltage to a high alternating voltage or a high alternating voltage into
a low alternating voltage.

A transformer which increases the A.C. voltage is called a “Step up

transformer.’

A transformer which decreases the A.C. voltage is called a “Step

down transformer”

34
A STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

A step-down transformer is one whose secondary voltage is less than

its primary voltage. It is designed to reduce the voltage from the
primary winding to the secondary winding. This kind of transformer
“step down” the voltage applied to it

As a step-down unit, the transformer convert high-voltage, low-

current power into low-voltage, high-current power.

35
 PRINCIPLE

A Transformer is based on the principle of mutual induction.

According to this principle, ‘When the amount of magnetic flux linked
with a coil changing, an e.m.f. is induced in the neighboring coil.’

CONSTRUCTION

A transformer consists of a rectangular shaft iron core made of

laminated sheets, well insulated from one another. Two coils P 1 & P2

and S1 & S2 are wound on the same core, but are well insulated with

each other. Note that the both the coils are insulated from the core.

The source of alternating e.m.f. is connected to P1P2, the primary coil

and a load resistance R is connected to S1S2, the secondary coil through

an open switch S. Thus there can be no current through the secondary

coil as long as the switch is open.

For an ideal transformer, we assume that the resistance of the

primary & secondary winding is negligible. Further, the energy loses
due to the magnetic iron core is also negligible.
36
 THEORY

When an alternating e.m.f. is supplied to the primary coil P 1P2, an

alternating current starts flowing in it. The alternating current in the
primary coil produces a changing magnetic flux, which induces
alternating voltage in the primary as well as in the secondary coil. In a
good transformer, whole of the magnetic flux linked with primary coil
is also linked with the secondary coil, then the induced e.m.f. induced
in each turn of the secondary coil is equal to that induced in each turn
of the primary coil. Thus if Ep and Es be the instantaneous values of the
e.m.f.’s induced in the primary coil and the secondary coil and Np and
Ns are the number of turns of the primary and secondary coils of the
transformer and

dфь / dt = rate of change of flux in each turn of the coil

At this instant, we have

Ep = -Np dфь/dt--------------------------------------------------------------------- (i)

Es = -Ns dфь/dt---------------------------------------------------------------------- (ii)

Since the above relations are true at every instant, so by dividing (ii)

by (i), we get

Es / Ep = - Ns / Np ------------------------------------------------------------ (iii)
37
As Ep is the instantaneous value of back e.m.f. induced in the primary

coil P1, so the instantaneous current in primary coil is due to the

difference (E – Ep ) in the instantaneous values of the applied and back

e.m.f. Further if Rp is the resistance of P1P2 coil, then the instantaneous

current Ip in the primary coil is given by

Ip = (E – Ep) / Rp

(E – Ep) = Ip Rp

When the resistance of the primary is small, Rp Ip can be neglected so

therefore

E – Ep = 0 or Ep = E

Thus back e.m.f. = input e.m.f.

Hence equation (iii) can be written as

Es / Ep = Es / E = output e.m.f / input e.m.f = Ns / Np = K

Where K is constant, called turn or transformation ratio.

38
In a step down transformer:-

Es < E so K < 1, hence Ns < Np

If Ip = value of primary current at the same instant t

And Is = value of sec. current at this instant, then
Input power at the instant t = Ep Ip
And Output power at the same instant = Es Is
If there are no losses of power in the transformer, then

Input power = Output power

Ep Ip = Es Is
Es / Ep = Ip / Is = K

39
40
 EFFICIENCY

Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to

the input power. i.e.

η = output power / input power = Es Is / Ep Ip

Thus in an ideal transformer, where there is no power losses, η = 1.

But in actual practice, there are many power losses, therefore the
efficiency of transformer is less than one.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

42
 ENERGY LOSSES
Following are the major sources of energy loss in a transformer:

1. Copper loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the copper
coils of a transformer. This is due to joule heating of conducting
wires.

2. Iron loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the iron core of
the transformer. This is due to formation of eddy currents in iron
core. It is minimized by taking laminated cores.

3. Leakage of magnetic flux occurs in spite of best insulations.

Therefore, rate of change of magnetic flux linked with each turn of
S1S2 is less than the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with
each turn of P1P2.

4. Hysteretic loss is the loss of energy due to repeated

magnetization and demagnetization of the iron core when A.C. is
fed to it.

5. Magneto striation i.e. humming noise of a transformer.

43
 USES OF TRANSFORMER

A transformer is used in almost all A.C. operations:-

1· In voltage regulator for T.V., refrigerator, computer, air

conditioner etc.

2. In the induction furnaces.

3. A step down transformer is used for welding purposes.

4. A step down transformer is used for obtaining large current.

5. In transmission of A.C. over long distance.

44
 APPLICATIONS

A major application of transformer is to increases voltage before

transmitting electrical energy over long distance through wires. Wires
have resistance and so dissipate electrical energy at a rate
proportional to the square of the current through the wire. By
transforming electrical power to a high-voltage (and there for low-
current) form for transmission and back again afterward, transformers
enable economical transmission of power over long distance.
Consequently, transformers have shaped the electrical supply
industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of
demand. All but a tiny fraction of the world’s electrical power has
passed through a series of transforms by the time it reaches the
consumer.

Transformer are also used extensively in electronic products to step

down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits
they contain.The transformer also used electrically isolates the end
user from contact with the supply voltage.Transformer range in size
from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage
microphone to huge unit weighing hundreds of tons used in power
stations, or to interconnect portions of power grids. All operate on the

45
same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide. While
new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some
electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic
devices designed for household (“mains”) voltage. Transformer are
essential for high-voltage electrical power transmission, which makes
long-distance transmission economically practical. Single and audio
transformer are used to couple stages of amplifier and to match
devices such as microphones and record players to the input of the
amplifiers. Audio transformer allowed telephone circuit to carry on a
two-way conservation over a single pair of wires. A balun transformer
converts a single that is referenced to ground to a signal that has
balanced voltage to ground, such as between external cables and
internal circuits.

46
 PRECAUTIONS

1. The loss of power in the transmission lines is I2 R, where I is

strength of current and R is the resistance of wires. To reduce the
power loss, a.c. is transmitted over long distance at extremely high
voltages. This reduces I in the same ratio. Therefore, I2R becomes
negligibly low.
2. Permeability of magnetic material of transformer core must be
high.

3. Oiling in transformer provides insulation as well as cooling.

4. The transformer core must be laminated to minimize loss of

energy due to eddy currents.

5. Safety from high voltage is maintained.

47
 WIRING SYSTEM

3.1 IdentIfyIng and SelectIng the WIrIng MaterIalS and coMponentS

Wiring materials
Electrical wire is made of materials like copper, aluminium and silver. As silver is expensive, mostly
copper and aluminium are used in wiring.
Materials are classified into three types according to their properties:
1. Conducting materials
2. Insulating materials
Fig. 3.1 Wiring components 3. Semiconductor materials
Conducting Material  surface switch
 flush switch 
(a) Copper ceiling switch 
• It is a good conductor of electricity. It is used in wiring materials in pull switch  push
cables. button switch 
• Its has low resistance and is used for conduction of electricity at bed switch
high, medium and low voltage .
• It is used in wiring and cable making.

(b) Aluminium
It is light weight and cheaper in comparison to copper. Therefore, this type
of conducting material is mostly used in electrical wiring. It is silvery–white
in colour and it has a soft texture. It is often used in wiring and making
cable .
Copper wire
Insulating Materials
Insulating materials are used for insulating purpose. These types of
materials are bad conductors of current. For example rubber, paper, mica,
wood, glass and cotton.

Wiring Accessories
Wiring accessories are used for connecting appliances .

(a) Switch
A switch is used to make or break an electrical circuit. It is used to
switch ‘on’ or ‘off ’ the supply of electricity to an appliance.

There are various switches such as

48
 Flush Switch

Fig. 3.3 Aluminium wire

 One-way switch: It
is used to control
single circuits and
lamp .
 Two-way switch: It
is used to divert the
flow of current to
either of two
directions. The two-
way switch can also
be used to control
one lamp from two
different places as
in the case of
staircase wiring .
One-way switch  Intermediate
switch: It is used to
control a lamp from
more than two
locations (Fig. 3.7).

(i) Flush switch: It used

for decorative
purpose.
(ii) Bed switch: As the
Two-way switch name indicates, it is
used to switch ‘on’
the light from any
place, other than
switch board or
from near the bed.
This switch is
connected through
Intermediate switch a flexible wire .

49
(b) Holders  Safe from
(c) Ceiling rose smoke,
It is used to provide a tapping to the pendant lamp– holder dust, rain
through the flexible wire or a connection to a and steam,
fluorescent tube . etc.
 No risk of shock
(d) Socket outlet/plug due to casing and
The socket outlet has an insulated base with the moulded or capping,
socket base having three terminal sleeves .

(e) Main switch

Disadvantag
To control the electrical circuit a main switch is used. Through the main es of PVC
switch, the power in a building is controlled completely . casing-
capping
(f) PVC casing-capping wiring
wiring
PVC capping is done in order to cover the wires. It includes casing also. This
casing-capping wiring is also known as open wiring, as it is done outside the  Costly
wall.
 Not
Materials required for PVC casing-capping wiring include suitable
1. wire

Main switch/ Bed switch Batten holder Ceiling rose Main MCB

2. casing enclosures made up of plastic for

3. capping made up of plastic humid
weather
4. T. Joints VIR (Vulcanised Indian Rubber) or PVC (Polyvinyl chloride)
insulated wire  High risk
5. junction box of fire
6. elbow
7. casing and capping joints
Wooden casing-capping wiring is old fashioned. Now
PVC or VIR insulated wires are enclosed within the PVC casing enclosure
and PVC capping is used to cover the casing.
Miniature Circuit
Advantages of casing-capping wiring Breaker (MCB)
 Easy to install A MCB is used in new
 Strong and durable wiring constructions instead
 Customization can be done easily

50
of the older types of fuses. Circuit breakers are small devices used to
control and protect the electrical panel and the other devices from
overflowing of electrical power.

Uses of MCB
Home electrical panels
As with all breakers, the MCB is designed to protect the house from circuit
overload. An MCB is much safer

MCB Distribution Box

PVC casing-capping accessories

PVC casing-capping bend

than the typical fuse, because it can be reset manually and can handle larger amounts of power. The
breaker can manage the flow of energy, distributing the voltage even when many devices run off the same
power circuit.

Lights
MCBs are used in the lighting system of the house, because they can
deal with the amount of power needed to lightening a house, especially
if specific types of lamps, such as fluorescent lights are used. MCBs

51
 overcome the need of additional power required when switching on the
lights, especially when lights are used extensively in the entire house.

Industrial applications
There are many small scale industrial buildings where MCBs are used
instead of the old fuses. Miniature circuit breakers are largely used in
restaurants, bakeries and commercial food stores.

Heaters
When heaters are used at home or in the office, the MCB can be
beneficial. It is known in general that heaters can be problematic
sometimes, especially with distribution of electrical power. The MCB
prevents possible problems, cutting off electricity in the case of overload
or fault. In this case, though, you need to choose a miniature circuit
breaker of the proper capacity, enabling it to handle the load of power
when needed.

Conduit Wiring
Electrical conduits are used to protect and provide the route of electrical
wiring in an electrical system. Electrical conduits are made of metal,
plastic, or fibre and can be rigid or flexible. Conduits must be installed
by electricians as per standard regulations.

For workshops and public buildings, conduit wiring is

Conduit wiring
the best and most desirable system of wiring. It provides protection and safety against

fire.

Types of Conduits

1. Class A conduit: Thin layered steel sheet of low gauge

2. Class B conduit: Thick steel sheet of high gauge
Materials used in Conduit Wiring
 GI (Galvanised Iron) wire
 Elbow
 Coupling
 VIR (Vulcanized Indian Rubber) or PVC (Poly Vinyl
Chloride) insulated cables

 Lock nut

 Clip
 Junction Box

52
Advantages of conduit wiring
 Safe
 Better appearance
 No risk of fire
 No risk of damage of cable insulation 2 way Conduit
 Safe from humidity, smoke, steam, etc. 1 way Conduit
 No risk of shock
 Long lasting
Disadvantages of conduit wiring
 Expensive 3 way Conduit
 Installation is not easy
 Not easily customisable for future use Conduit wiring components
 Hard to detect faults

Concealed Wiring
It is laborious to install this wiring. The layout of this wiring is done
under the plaster of the wall of the building.

Advantages of concealed wiring

 Safe
 Better appearance
 No risk of fire
 No risk of damage of cable insulation
 Safe from humidity, smoke, steam, etc.
 No risk of shock
 Long lasting
Disadvantages of concealed wiring
 Expensive
 Installation not easy
 Not easily customisable for future use
 Hard to detect faults

Colour Code
.1 AC power circuit wiring colour codes

Function Label New colour Old colour

Protective ground PG Green or green-yellow Green

Neutral N White Gray

Line, single phase L Black or red _

53
 Line, three phase L1 Black Brown

Line, three phase L2 Red Orange

Line, three phase L3 Blue Yellow

Ictp SWItch and dIStrIbutIon board

ICTP (Iron Clad Triple Pole) Switch
It is used alongwith the energy meter to isolate the supply of electricity
automatically or manually (Fig. 3.20).

Distribution Board
A distribution board is a component of an electricity supply system that ICTP switch
divides an electrical power feed into subsidiary circuits, while providing a
protective fuse or circuit breaker for each circuit in a common enclosure.
A distribution board is also known as panelboard, breaker panel, or
electric panel .

Electrical Circuit
In an electric circuit the positive side of wire is connected to the negative
side of a load, for example, bulb, TV, etc. and power supply is started by
using a switch. The circuit is like an electrical house.
MCB distribution board
control the hazards. The technician must first recognise the hazards
at the workplace. When the technician installs or assembles the
Workplace health and Safety components, she/he may have to face hazards which are related to
the workplace. For instance, these hazards can be associated with the
MeaSureS installation and assembly process of a water purifier. The technician
Workplace hazardous systems should be aware of the hazards associated with the installation of a
are designed to protect the water purifier. Majority of the hazards can be avoided by being aware
health and safety of workers. and taking appropriate precautions.
Information must be provided
about the safe handling, usage, Electrical Hazard
storage and disposal of An electrical hazard defines a dangerous condition. This dangerous
hazardous systems. Workplace condition is related to energised equipment or a conductor at
hazard is something that can workplace. If a technician comes in contact with the energised
have potential to harm the equipment, then the equipment may cause injury to the technician.
technician. There are hazards in There is a possibility of being electrocuted or getting an arc flash
every type of job and every type burn, thermal burn or blast injury while assembling the components
of workplace. Everyone at the in a unit. Many of the hazards can be avoided by being aware and
workplace shares the taking appropriate precautions. This will ensure safety at workplace
responsibility to identify and

54
 Points that need to be 3.Use caution around heat sources. Some panel and equipment get
remembered for working safely
hot while operating. Everyone should be aware of these areas and
around electrical panel and
cabinet are as follows. use caution when nearby. PPE like gloves or flame-resistant clothing
may be required in these areas.
4.Be careful when cleaning: When cleaning around a panel or
1. Watch out for loose
cords and wires. Loose equipment, one should note other possible hazards too (Fig. 3.24):
cords and wires can  Fire and explosion hazards  Need for PPE during cleaning  Risk
cause physical hazards of electric shock
and even electrical Follow visual and written instructions panel,
hazards. Hazard Tape
should be placed if a cord
or wire is placed on a
pathway.

Loose cord which can be hazardous

Hazard tape

2.Wear proper personal protective

equipment. The kind of personal
protective equipment (PPE) required
around a machine will depend upon
the type of machine and task the
employee is performing. Nevertheless
gloves, hardhats, safety glasses,
earplugs and other gears are important
to use where necessary. For safety,
signs can be posted near panels
reminding employees to wear PPE .

55
 equipment has signs and labels on them alerting employees to
hazards .

5. Be cautious while testing, replacing the

safety helmet components in the panel. All levels of voltage
eye protection
should be considered equally dangerous. Even
ear plugs the voltage levels which cannot produce electrical
dust mask
shock should also not be ignored. We should
check and confirm that the circuit is dead before
protective
gloves
touching it for repairing maintenance or any
high visibility other work.
clothing
laced safety 6. Avoid water at all times when working
footwear with electricity. Never touch or try repairing any
electrical equipment or circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of electric current .
7. Never use equipment with damaged insulation or broken plugs.
8. If you are repairing an electrical device always turn off the mains supply.
9. Always use insulated tools while working.
10. Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves and goggles while working on any branch circuit
or any other electrical circuit.
11. Never try repairing energised equipment. Always check that is de-energised first by using a tester.
Chemical hazards are caused due to
1. improper storage of chemicals causing a chemical leakage
2. mishandling of chemicals due to inadequate training or negligence.

Fire Extinguisher
A fire extinguisher is a protection device used to cease fire. It is
the basic first aid equipment which can be effectively used for Pin and Seal

controlling fire. A fire extinguisher is a cylindrical pressure vessel Gauge

containing an agent which can be discharged to cease a fire. A Hose

fire extinguisher should

always be available in areas where persons work with electrical

equipment.
Nozzle
Different parts of a fire extinguisher are shown in The following
steps demonstrate the operation of a fire extinguisher in case of a
Inspection
fire emergency. Tag

Step 1: Identify the safety pin of the fire extinguisher which is generally present in its handle
Step 2: Break the seal and pull the safety pin from the handle
Step 3: Use the fire extinguisher by squeezing the lever
Step 4: Sweep it from side to side

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