Grade 12

Mathematics
Quick Wins
Table of Contents

Examination Overview ..............................................................................................................................................................................2

Chapter 1: Algebra ......................................................................................................................................................................................3
Chapter 2: Number Patterns ...................................................................................................................................................................9
Chapter 3: Finance ................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Chapter 4: Functions ............................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Chapter 5: Calculus .................................................................................................................................................................................. 78
Chapter 6: Statistics ............................................................................................................................................................................. 100
Chapter 7: Analytical Geometry ...................................................................................................................................................... 114
Chapter 8: Trigonometry ................................................................................................................................................................... 121
Chapter 9: Euclidian Geometry ........................................................................................................................................................ 143

1
Copyright reserved
Examination overview

1. Breakdown of marks per section in examinations

Paper 1 Marks % Paper 2 Marks %

A) Algebra 25±3 ±17% A) Statistics 20±3 ±13%
B) Number Patterns 25±3 ±17% B) Analytical Geometry 40±3 ±27%
C) Finance 15±3 ±10% C) Trigonometry 50±3 ±33%
D) Functions 35±3 ±23% D) Euclidean Geometry 40±3 ±27%
E) Calculus 35±3 ±23%
F) Probability 15±3 ±10%
Total 150 100% Total 150 100%
* Bookwork: maximum 6 marks
* Theorems and/or trigonometric proofs: maximum 12 marks

2. Breakdown of types of questions in examinations

Cognitive levels % Description of skills to be demonstrated

Knowledge 20% Straight recall e.g. domain and range
Routine 35% Routine exercises e.g. proofs of theorem proofs, solve for
Procedures 𝑥, general solutions
Complex 30% Routine exercises that require higher reasoning. There is
Procedures often not an obvious route to the solution e.g. complex
differentiation
Problem Solving 15% Non-routine exercises that require the ability to break
down the question into smaller parts (or sections), may
or may not be difficult

3. How to prepare for each type of question

Cognitive levels How to prepare

Knowledge It is important for learners to be aware that 55% of the
examination papers is based on knowledge and routine
Routine questions. These are basic questions. Learners assume that the
Procedures paper is based on mostly complex questions and hence place
much effort on complex questions without mastering the basics.
Complex Learners should practise complex procedure and problem
Procedures solving questions only after they have mastered the knowledge
Problem Solving and routine procedure questions. It is important for learners to
understand the Mathematical language as well as to know how
to apply the Mathematics tips in order to be able to attempt
complex procedure and problem solving questions. Learners
should break down these questions into smaller sections so as
to make them simpler to understand and to solve.

2
Copyright reserved
Chapter 1: Algebra

1 Solve for 𝑥 by factorising Use:

(p4)
a) trinomials
b) common factors
c) difference of 2 squares

2 Solve for 𝑥 by using the quadratic Use:

Formula
(p4) −𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

3 Inequalities Use:
(p4)
a) number line
b) graph

4 Solve for 𝑥 in surds Steps:

(p6)
a) square both sides of the equation
b) substitute 𝑥 values to check if 𝑥 values are
valid

5 Simultaneous equations Steps:

(p7)
a) make 𝑥 or 𝑦 the subject in the simpler
equation
b) substitute 𝑥 or y in the other equation and
solve

3
Copyright reserved
1 Solve for 𝑥 by factorising
Solve for 𝑥:
a) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 4 b) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 0 c) 𝑥 2 = 4

Answers:

a) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 4 b) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 0 c) 𝑥2 = 4
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0 𝑥(𝑥 − 3) = 0 𝑥2 − 4 = 0
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4) = 0 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) = 0
𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥 = 3
𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = 4 𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥 = −2
2 Solve for 𝑥 by using the quadratic formula
Solve for 𝑥:
a) 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 4 b) 2𝑥 2 = 4

Answers:

a) 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 4 b) 2𝑥 2 = 4
2 2
2𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0 2𝑥 − 4 = 0

−(−3) ± √(−3)2 − 4(2)(−4) −(0) ± √(0)2 − 4(2)(−4)

𝑥= 𝑥=
2(2) 2(2)
𝑥 = 2,35 or 𝑥 = −0,85 𝑥 = 1,41 or 𝑥 = −1,41
3 Inequalities
Solve for 𝑥:
a) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 < 4 b) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 ≤ 4 c) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 > 0 d) 𝑥 2 ≥ 4

Answers:

a) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 < 4
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 < 0
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4) < 0 (< 0 means 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞)

𝐂𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐬:
𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = 4

+ − +
−1 4 OR −1 4

−1 < 𝑥 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑥 < 4 𝐎𝐑 −1<𝑥 <4 𝐎𝐑 𝑥 ∈ (−1; 4)

4
Copyright reserved
 b) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 ≤ 4
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 ≤ 0
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4) ≤ 0 (≤ 0 means 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐨𝐫 𝐳𝐞𝐫𝐨)

𝐂𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐬:
𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = 4

+ − +
−1 4 OR −1 4

−1 ≤ 𝑥 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑥 ≤ 4 𝐎𝐑 −1≤𝑥 ≤4 𝐎𝐑 𝑥 ∈ [−1; 4]

c) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 > 0
𝑥 (𝑥 − 3) > 0 (> 0 means 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞)

𝐂𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐬:
𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥 =3

+ − +
0 3 OR 0 3

𝑥 < 0 𝐨𝐫 𝑥 > 3 𝐎𝐑 𝑥 ∈ (−∞; 0) ∪ (3; ∞)

d) 𝑥2 ≥ 4
𝑥2 − 4 ≥ 0
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) ≥ 0 (≥ 0 means 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞)

𝐂𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐬:
𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥 = −2

+ − +
−2 2 OR −2 2

𝑥 ≤ −2 𝐨𝐫 𝑥 ≥ 2 𝐎𝐑 𝑥 ∈ (−∞; −2] ∪ [2; ∞)

5
Copyright reserved
4 Solve for 𝑥 in surds
Solve for 𝑥:
a) √𝑥 + 3 = 3 b) √𝑥 + 3 − 𝑥 = −3 c) 2√𝑥 + 3 − 𝑥 = 3

Answers:
2
a) (√𝑥 + 3) = (3)2
𝑥+3=9
𝑥=6

𝐂𝐡𝐞𝐜𝐤: √(6) + 3 = 3
3=3
LHS = RHS

∴ 𝑥 = 6 is a solution

b) √𝑥 + 3 − 𝑥 = −3
√𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥 − 3
2
(√𝑥 + 3) = (𝑥 − 3)2
𝑥 + 3 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 9
𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9
0 = 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6
0 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 6)

𝑥 ≠ 1 or 𝑥 = 6

𝐂𝐡𝐞𝐜𝐤: √(1) + 3 − (1) ≠ −3 √(6) + 3 − (6) = −3

1 ≠ −3 − 3 = −3
LHS ≠ RHS LHS = RHS

∴ 𝑥 = 1 is not a solution ∴ 𝑥 = 6 is a solution

6
Copyright reserved
 c) 2√𝑥 + 3 − 𝑥 = 3
2√𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥 + 3
2
(2√𝑥 + 3) = (𝑥 + 3)2
4(𝑥 + 3) = (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 3)
4𝑥 + 12 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 9
4𝑥 + 12 = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9
0 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3
0 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)

𝑥 = 1 or 𝑥 = −3

𝐂𝐡𝐞𝐜𝐤: 2√(1) + 3 − (1) = 3 2√(−3) + 3 − (−3) = −3

3=3 − 3 = −3
LHS = RHS LHS = RHS

∴ 𝑥 = 1 is a solution ∴ 𝑥 = 6 is a solution

5 Simultaneous equations
a) Solve for 𝑥 and 𝑦 if 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 1 and 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 23

Answers:

𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏: 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 1
𝑥 = 1 + 3𝑦

𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐨 𝟐: 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 23

(1 + 3𝑦)2 + 2(1 + 3𝑦)𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 23
(1 + 3𝑦)(1 + 3𝑦) + 2𝑦(1 + 3𝑦) − 𝑦 2 = 23
1 + 3𝑦 + 3𝑦 + 9𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 6𝑦 2 − 𝑦 2 = 23
14𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 + 1 = 23
14𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 − 22 = 0

−(8) ± √(8)2 − 4(14)(−22)

𝑦=
2(14)
𝑦=1 or 7𝑦 = −11
11
𝑦=−
7

𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐨 𝟏: 𝑥 = 1 + 3𝑦 or 𝑥 = 1 + 3𝑦
11
𝑥 = 1 + 3(1) 𝑥 = 1 + 3 (− )
7
26
𝑥=4 𝑥=−
7

7
Copyright reserved
 b) Solve for 𝑥 and 𝑦 if 2𝑥−1 = 8𝑦 and 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 23

Answers:

𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏: 2𝑥−1 = 8𝑦
2𝑥−1 = 23𝑦
𝑥 − 1 = 3𝑦
𝑥 = 1 + 3𝑦

𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐨 𝟐: 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 23

(1 + 3𝑦)2 + 2(1 + 3𝑦)𝑦 − 𝑦 2 = 23
(1 + 3𝑦)(1 + 3𝑦) + 2𝑦(1 + 3𝑦) − 𝑦 2 = 23
1 + 3𝑦 + 3𝑦 + 9𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 6𝑦 2 − 𝑦 2 = 23
14𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 + 1 = 23
14𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 − 22 = 0

−(8) ± √(8)2 − 4(14)(−22)

𝑦=
2(14)
𝑦=1 or 7𝑦 = −11
11
𝑦=−
7

𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐨 𝟏: 𝑥 = 1 + 3𝑦 or 𝑥 = 1 + 3𝑦
11
𝑥 = 1 + 3(1) 𝑥 = 1 + 3 (− )
7
26
𝑥=4 𝑥=−
7

8
Copyright reserved
Chapter 2: Number Patterns
Section 1: Definitions

 𝒏: 𝑛 is the position of each term. 𝑛 cannot be a negative number, zero, a decimal or a

fraction.
 𝑺𝒏 : 𝑆𝑛 is the sum of the first 𝑛 terms. For complex questions, it is important to
remember that the sum is always from the first term.
 𝑻𝒏 : 𝑇𝑛 is the term in the sequence. This is the actual number that you see in the
sequence.
 ∑ 𝑻𝒌 (sigma): Sigma represents the sum of the terms in the sequence i.e. ∑ 𝑇𝑘 = 𝑆𝑛

Section 2: Sequence specific summary

Topic/point Linear Quadratic Geometric

1 Term 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑛 + 𝑐 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
formula 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑑𝑛 + 𝑐
(p11)
2 Variables 𝑎 = 𝑇1 𝑑2 = [𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ] − [𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ] 𝑎 = 𝑇1
𝑑1 = 𝑇𝑛 − 𝑇𝑛−1 2𝑎 = 𝑑2 𝑇𝑛
𝑟=
3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑑1 𝑇𝑛−1
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑇1
3 Sum (series) 𝑆 = 𝑛 (𝑎 + 𝑙) 𝑎 (𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
formula
𝑛
2 𝑆𝑛 = or
𝑛 𝑟−1
(p13) 𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑] 𝑎 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
2 𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
𝑎
𝑆∞ =
1−𝑟
(−1 < 𝑟 < 1)
4 Sigma (∑ 𝑇𝑘 ) ∑ 𝑇𝑘 = 𝑆𝑛 (sum of) ∑ 𝑇𝑘 = 𝑆𝑛 (sum of)
(p15)
5 Difference 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 [𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ] − [𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ] 𝑇2 𝑇3
=
Or Ratio = [𝑇4 − 𝑇3 ] − [𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ] 𝑇1 𝑇2
(p18)
6 Function Linear function Parabola/Quadratic Exponential function
7 Function 𝑇𝑛 = 𝒅𝑛 + 𝑐 𝑇𝑛 = 𝒂𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑛 + 𝑐 𝑇𝑛 = 𝒂𝑟 𝑛−1
formulae 𝑦 = 𝒎𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑦 = 𝒂𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑦 = 𝒂𝑏 𝑥−𝑝
8 Maximum or We find the turning point
Minimum −𝑏
𝑛=
term 2𝑎
(p24)

9
Copyright reserved
 Topic/point Linear Quadratic Geometric
9 Converge We use
(p25) ′ − 1 < 𝑟 < 1′
10 Linear and The first difference of a
Quadratic quadratic sequence
first forms a linear sequence
difference
(p27)

10
Copyright reserved
Examples
1. Term formula
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
a) Given 1; 3; 5; 7 …
i. Determine the next 2 terms.
ii. Determine the nth term (or the general term or the 𝑇𝑛 formula).
iii. What is the 20th term?
iv. Which term is 57?

Answers:

i. 1 ; 3 ; 5 ; 7 ; 𝟗 ; 𝟏𝟏 ii. 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑇𝑛 = 1 + (𝑛 − 1)(2)
2 2 2 𝟐 𝟐 𝑇𝑛 = 1 + 2𝑛 − 2
𝑇𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 1

iii. 𝑇𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 1 iv. 57 = 2𝑛 − 1
𝑇20 = 2(20) − 1 58 = 2𝑛
𝑇20 = 39 29 = 𝑛

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑛 + 𝑐
b) Given 1; 3; 7; 13 …
i. Determine the next 2 terms.
ii. Determine the nth term (or the general term or the 𝑇𝑛 formula).
iii. What is the 20th term?
iv. Which term is 57?

Answers:

i. 1 ; 3 ; 7 ; 13 ; 𝟐𝟏 ; 𝟑𝟏 ii. 2𝑎 = 2 3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 2 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 =1
𝑎=1 3(1) + 𝑏 = 2 1−1+𝑐 = 1
2 4 6 𝟖 𝟏𝟎 3+𝑏 = 2 𝑐=1
𝑏 = −1
2 2 𝟐 𝟐
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑛 + 𝑐
𝑇𝑛 = 1𝑛2 − 1𝑛 + 1
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑛2 − 𝑛 + 1

iii. 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑛2 − 𝑛 + 1 iv. 57 = 𝑛2 − 𝑛 + 1
𝑇20 = (20)2 − (20) + 1 0 = 𝑛2 − 𝑛 − 56
𝑇20 = 381 0 = (𝑛 + 7)(𝑛 − 8)

𝑛 = −7 or 𝑛 = 8

11
Copyright reserved
 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
c) Given 2; 6,18; 54 …
i. Determine the next 2 terms.
ii. Determine the nth term (or the general term or the 𝑇𝑛 formula).
iii. What is the 20th term?
iv. Which term is 13122?

Answers:

i. 2 ; 6 ; 18 ; 54 ; 𝟏𝟔𝟐 ; 𝟒𝟖𝟔 ii. 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

𝑇𝑛 = 2. 3𝑛−1
3 3 3 𝟑 𝟑

iii. 𝑇𝑛 = 2. 3𝑛−1 iv. 𝑇𝑛 = 2. 3𝑛−1

𝑇20 = 2. 320−1 13122 = 2. 3𝑛−1
𝑇20 = 2324522934 6561 = 3𝑛−1
log 3 6561 = 𝑛 − 1
8=𝑛−1
9=𝑛

3. Sum (series) formula

𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑙) or 𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2 2
a) Given 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +…
i. Determine the sum of the first 10 terms.
ii. Determine the value of 𝑛 for which the sum of the first 𝑛 terms is 225.

Answers:

𝑛 𝑛
i. 𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑] ii. 𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2 2
10 𝑛
𝑆10 = [2(1) + (10 − 1)(2)] 225 = [2(1) + (𝑛 − 1)(2)] (× 2 )
2 2
𝑆10 = 100 450 = 𝑛[2 + 2𝑛 − 2]
450 = 𝑛[2𝑛]
450 = 2𝑛2 (÷ 2 )
225 = 𝑛2 (root)
±15 = 𝑛

𝑛 = 15

( 𝑛 cannot be negative, zero, decimal or a fraction that cannot be simplified)

12
Copyright reserved
 b) Given −3 − 2 − 1 + 0 + 1 + 2 +… , determine the value of 𝑛 for which the sum of
the first
𝑛 terms is 1075.

Answers:

𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2
𝑛
1075 = [2(−3) + (𝑛 − 1)(1)] (× 2 )
2
2150 = 𝑛[−6 + 𝑛 − 1]
2150 = 𝑛[𝑛 − 7]
2150 = 𝑛2 − 7𝑛
0 = 𝑛2 − 7𝑛 − 2150 (root)

−(−7) ± √(−7)2 − 4(1)(−2150)

𝑥=
2𝑎

𝑥 = 50 or 𝑥 ≠ −43

( 𝑛 cannot be negative, zero, decimal or a fraction that cannot be simplified)

𝑎 (𝑟 𝑛 − 1) 𝑎 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝑎
𝑆𝑛 = or 𝑆𝑛 = or 𝑆∞ = (−1 < 𝑟 < 1)
𝑟−1 1−𝑟 1−𝑟
c) Given 2 + 6 + 15 + 54 +…
i. Determine the sum of the first 10 terms.
ii. Determine the value of 𝑛 for which the sum of the first 𝑛 terms is 242.

Answers:

𝑎 (𝑟 𝑛 − 1) 𝑎 (𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
i. 𝑆𝑛 = ii. 𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1 𝑟−1
2(310 − 1) 2( 3𝑛 − 1)
𝑆10 = 242 =
3−1 3−1
2(3 𝑛 − 1) 2
𝑆10 = 59048 242 = ( = 1)
2 2
𝑛 (+1)
242 = 3 − 1
243 = 3𝑛
log 3 243 = 𝑛
5=𝑛

13
Copyright reserved
 1 1
d) Given 3 + 1 + + +. ..
3 9
121
i. Determine the value of 𝑛 for which the sum of the first 𝑛 terms is .
27
ii. Determine the sum to infinity.

Answers:

𝑎 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝑎
i. 𝑆𝑛 = ii. 𝑆∞ =
1−𝑟 𝑛 1−𝑟
1
121 3 (1 − (3) ) 3
= 𝑆∞ =
27 1 1
1− 1−
3 𝑛 3
1
121 3 (1 − (3) ) 2 9
= (× ) 𝑆∞ =
27 2 3 2
3
242 1 𝑛
= 3 (1 − ( ) ) (÷ 3)
81 3
𝑛
242 1
=1−( ) (−1)
243 3
1 1 𝑛
− = −( ) (÷ −1)
243 3
1 1 𝑛
=( )
243 3
1
log 1 =𝑛
3 243
5=𝑛

e) Determine 5 − 2,5 + 1,25 − 0,625+. ..

Answers:

𝑎
𝑆∞ =
1−𝑟
5
𝑆∞ =
1 − (−0,5)
10
𝑆∞ =
3

14
Copyright reserved
4. Sigma (∑ 𝑇𝑘 = 𝑆𝑛 )
a) Given 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ⋯ + 39
Write the series in sigma notation.

Answers:

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1 )𝑑
𝑇𝑛 = 1 + (𝑛 − 1)(2)
𝑇𝑛 = 1 + 2𝑛 − 2
𝑇𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 1

39 = 2𝑛 − 1
40 = 2𝑛
20 = 𝑛
20

∑(2𝑘 − 1)
𝑘=1

b) Given 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + ⋯ + 13122
Write the series in sigma notation.

Answers:

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑇𝑛 = 2. 3𝑛−1

13122 = 2. 3𝑛−1
6561 = 3𝑛−1
log 3 6561 = 𝑛 − 1
8=𝑛−1
9=𝑛
9

∑(2. 3𝑘−1 )
𝑘=1

15
Copyright reserved
 13

c) Determine ∑(2𝑘 − 7)
𝑘=4

Answers:

𝑘=4 𝑘=5 𝑘=6

1 3 5

2 2

𝑛 = top − bottom + 1
𝑛 = 13 − 4 + 1
𝑛 = 10

𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2
10
𝑆10 = [2(1) + (10 − 1)(2)]
2
𝑆10 = 100

d) Determine ∑ (2. 3𝑘+2 )

𝑘=−2

Answers:

𝑘 = −2 𝑘 = −1 𝑘=0
2 6 18

3 3

𝑛 = top − bottom + 1
𝑛 = 7 − (−2) + 1
𝑛 = 10

𝑎 (𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1
2(310 − 1)
𝑆10 =
3−1
𝑆10 = 59048

16
Copyright reserved
 𝑥

e) Determine the value of 𝑥 if ∑(2𝑘 − 7) = 100

𝑘=4

Answers:

𝑘=4 𝑘=5 𝑘=6

1 3 5

2 2

𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2
𝑛
100 = [2(1) + (𝑛 − 1)(2)] (× 2)
2
200 = 𝑛[2 + 2𝑛 − 2]
200 = 𝑛[2𝑛]
200 = 2𝑛2 (÷ 2)
100 = 𝑛2 (root)
±10 = 𝑛

𝑛 = 10

( 𝑛 cannot be negative, zero, decimal or a fraction that cannot be simplified)

𝑛 = top − bottom + 1
10 = 𝑥 − 4 + 1
10 = 𝑥 − 3
13 = 𝑥

17
Copyright reserved
 𝑥

f) Determine the value of 𝑥 if ∑ (2. 3𝑘+2 ) = 59048

𝑘=−2

Answers:

𝑘 = −2 𝑘 = −1 𝑘=0
2 6 18

3 3

𝑎 ( 𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1
2( 3𝑛 − 1)
59048 =
3−1
2( 3𝑛 − 1) 2
59048 = ( = 1)
2 2
59048 = 3𝑛 − 1 (+1)
59049 = 3𝑛
log 3 59049 = 𝑛
10 = 𝑛

𝑛 = top − bottom + 1
10 = 𝑥 − (−2) + 1
10 = 𝑥 + 3
7=𝑥

5. Difference/Ratio
𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑇3 − 𝑇2
a) Determine the value of 𝑥 if the following sequence is an arithmetic (linear) sequence:
𝑥 − 1; 5 − 𝑥; 3𝑥 − 1

Answers:

𝑥−1 ; 5−𝑥 ; 3𝑥 − 1

5 − 𝑥 − (𝑥 − 1) = 3𝑥 − 1 − (5 − 𝑥)
5 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 1 = 3𝑥 − 1 − 5 + 𝑥
6 − 2𝑥 = 4𝑥 − 6
−6𝑥 = −12
𝑥=2

18
Copyright reserved
 𝐂𝐡𝐞𝐜𝐤: if 𝑥 = 2

1 ; 3 ; 5

2 2 (𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞)

b) Determine the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 if the following sequence is an arithmetic (linear)

sequence: 1; 𝑥; 𝑦; 7

Answers:

1 ; 𝑥 ; 𝑦 ; 7

𝑥−1 𝑦−𝑥 7−𝑦

𝑥−1=𝑦−𝑥 or 𝑦−𝑥 =7−𝑦

2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1 (𝟏 ) 2𝑦 − 𝑥 = 7 (𝟐 )

(𝟏 ): 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1
−𝑦 = 1 − 2𝑥 (÷ −1)
𝑦 = −1 + 2𝑥

𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐬 (𝟐): 2𝑦 − 𝑥 = 7
2 −1 + 2𝑥) − 𝑥 = 7
(
−2 + 4𝑥 − 𝑥 = 7
−2 + 3𝑥 = 7
3𝑥 = 9
𝑥=3

𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐬 (𝟏): 𝑦 = −1 + 2𝑥
𝑦 = −1 + 2(3)
𝑦=5

𝐂𝐡𝐞𝐜𝐤: if 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑦 = 5

1 ; 3 ; 5 ; 7

2 2 2 (𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞)

19
Copyright reserved
 [𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ] − [𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ] = [𝑇4 − 𝑇3 ] − [𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ]
c) Determine the value of 𝑥 if the following sequence is a quadratic sequence:
𝑥 − 1; 5 − 𝑥; 3𝑥 + 1; 13

Answers:

𝐔𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐦

𝑥−1 ; 5−𝑥 ; 3𝑥 + 1 ; 13

5 − 𝑥 − (𝑥 − 1) 3𝑥 + 1 − (5 − 𝑥) 13 − (3𝑥 + 1)
5−𝑥−𝑥+1 3𝑥 + 1 − 5 + 𝑥 13 − 3𝑥 − 1
6 − 2𝑥 4𝑥 − 4 12 − 3𝑥

4𝑥 − 4 − (6 − 2𝑥) = 12 − 3𝑥 − (4𝑥 − 4)
4𝑥 − 4 − 6 + 2𝑥 = 12 − 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 4
6𝑥 − 10 = 16 − 7𝑥
13𝑥 = 26
𝑥=2

𝐂𝐡𝐞𝐜𝐤: if 𝑥 = 2

1 ; 3 ; 7 ; 13

2 4 6

2 2 (𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞)

𝐎𝐑

𝐔𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚

[𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ] − [𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ] = [𝑇4 − 𝑇3 ] − [𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ]

[(3𝑥 + 1) − (5 − 𝑥)] − [(5 − 𝑥) − (𝑥 − 1)] = [(13) − (3𝑥 + 1)] − [(3𝑥 + 1) − (5 − 𝑥)]
[3𝑥 + 1 − 5 + 𝑥] − [5 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 1] = [13 − 3𝑥 − 1] − [3𝑥 + 1 − 5 + 𝑥]
[4𝑥 − 4] − [6 − 2𝑥] = [12 − 3𝑥] − [4𝑥 − 4]
4𝑥 − 4 − 6 + 2𝑥 = 12 − 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 4
6𝑥 − 10 = 16 − 7𝑥
13𝑥 = 26
𝑥=2

20
Copyright reserved
 𝐂𝐡𝐞𝐜𝐤: if 𝑥 = 2

1 ; 3 ; 7 ; 13

2 4 6

2 2 (𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞)

d) Determine the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 if the following sequence is a quadratic sequence:

1; 𝑥; 7; 𝑦; 21

Answers:

𝐔𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐦

1 ; 𝑥 ; 7 ; 𝑦 ; 21

𝑥−1 7−𝑥 𝑦−7 21 − 𝑦

7 − 𝑥 − (𝑥 − 1) 𝑦 − 7 − (7 − 𝑥 ) 21 − 𝑦 − (𝑦 − 7)
7−𝑥−𝑥+1 𝑦−7−7+𝑥 21 − 𝑦 − 𝑦 + 7
8 − 2𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 14 28 − 2𝑦

8 − 2𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 14 or 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 14 = 28 − 2𝑦
22 = 3𝑥 + 𝑦 (𝟏) 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 42 (𝟐)

(𝟏 ): 22 = 3𝑥 + 𝑦
22 − 3𝑥 = 𝑦

𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐬 (𝟐): 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 42
𝑥 + 3(22 − 3𝑥) = 42
𝑥 + 66 − 9𝑥 = 42
−8𝑥 = −24
𝑥=3

𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐬 (𝟏): 𝑦 = 22 − 3(3)

𝑦 = 13

𝐎𝐑

21
Copyright reserved
 𝐔𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐚

[𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ] − [𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ] = [𝑇4 − 𝑇3 ] − [𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ]

[7 − 𝑥 ] − [𝑥 − 1] = [𝑦 − 7] − [7 − 𝑥 ]
7−𝑥−𝑥+1 = 𝑦−7−7+𝑥
8 − 2𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 14
22 = 3𝑥 + 𝑦 (𝟏 )

[𝑇4 − 𝑇3 ] − [𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ] = [𝑇5 − 𝑇4 ] − [𝑇4 − 𝑇3 ]

[𝑦 − 7] − [7 − 𝑥] = [21 − 𝑦] − [𝑦 − 7]
𝑦 − 7 − 7 + 𝑥 = 21 − 𝑦 − 𝑦 + 7
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 14 = 28 − 2𝑦
𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 42 (𝟐 )

(𝟏 ): 22 = 3𝑥 + 𝑦
22 − 3𝑥 = 𝑦

𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐬 (𝟐): 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 42
𝑥 + 3(22 − 3𝑥) = 42
𝑥 + 66 − 9𝑥 = 42
−8𝑥 = −24
𝑥=3

𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐬 (𝟏): 𝑦 = 22 − 3(3)

𝑦 = 13

𝐂𝐡𝐞𝐜𝐤: if 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑦 = 13

1 ; 3 ; 7 ; 13 ; 21

2 4 6 8

(𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧 𝟐𝐧𝐝 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞) 2 2 2

22
Copyright reserved
 𝑇2 𝑇3
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
e) Determine the values of 𝑥 if the following sequence is a geometric sequence (𝑥 ≠ 0)
𝑥; 8 − 𝑥; 18

Answers:

𝑥 ; 8 − 𝑥 ; 18

8−𝑥 18
=
𝑥 8−𝑥
(8 − 𝑥)(8 − 𝑥) = 18𝑥
64 − 8𝑥 − 8𝑥 + 𝑥 2 = 18𝑥
𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 64 = 18𝑥
𝑥 2 − 34𝑥 + 64 = 0
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 32) = 0

𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥 = 32

𝐂𝐡𝐞𝐜𝐤: if 𝑥 = 2 if 𝑥 = 32

2 ; 6 ; 18 32 ; −24 ; 18

3 3
3 3 − − (𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨)
4 4

f) Determine the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 if the following sequence is a geometric sequence:

2; 𝑥; 𝑦; 54

Answers:

2 ; 𝑥 ; 𝑦 ; 54

𝑥 𝑦 54
2 𝑥 𝑦

𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 54
= or =
2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦
𝑥 2 = 2𝑦 (𝟏 ) 2
𝑦 = 54𝑥 (𝟐)

23
Copyright reserved
 (𝟏 ): 𝑥 2 = 2𝑦
𝑥2
=𝑦
2

𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐬 (𝟐): 𝑦 2 = 54𝑥

2
𝑥2
( ) = 54𝑥
2
𝑥4
= 54𝑥
4
𝑥 4 = 216𝑥
𝑥 4 − 216𝑥 = 0
𝑥(𝑥 3 − 216) = 0

𝑥 ≠ 0 or 𝑥 3 = 216
𝑥=6

𝑥2
𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐬 (𝟏): 𝑦 =
2
(6 )2
𝑦=
2
𝑦 = 18

𝐂𝐡𝐞𝐜𝐤: if 𝑥 = 6 and 𝑦 = 18
2 ; 6 ; 18 ; 54

3 3 3 (𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨)

8. −𝑏
Maximum or Minimum term (we find the turning point 𝑛 = )
2𝑎
a) Given 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑛2 − 10𝑛 − 30
i. Which term is the minimum term?
ii. Determine the minimum term.

Answers:

−𝑏
i. 𝑛 = ii. 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑛2 − 10𝑛 − 30
2𝑎
−(−10)
𝑛= 𝑇5 = (5)2 − 10(5) − 30
2(1)
𝑛=5 𝑇5 = −55

24
Copyright reserved
 b) Given 𝑇𝑛 = −3𝑛2 + 48𝑛 − 2
i. Which term is the maximum term?
ii. Determine the maximum term.

Answers:

−𝑏
i. 𝑛 = ii. 𝑇𝑛 = −3𝑛2 + 48𝑛 − 2
2𝑎
−(48)
𝑛= 𝑇8 = −3(8)2 + 48(8) − 2
2(−3)
𝑛=8 𝑇8 = 190

c) Given 𝑇𝑛 = 5𝑛2 − 50𝑛 + 1, does the sequence have a maximum or minimum term?
Give a reason for your answer.

Answers:

The sequence has a minimum term because 𝑎 > 0 (i. e. 5 is positive).

d) Given 𝑇𝑛 = −7𝑛2 + 84𝑛, does the sequence have a maximum or minimum term?
Give a reason for your answer.

Answers:

The sequence has a maximum term because 𝑎 < 0 (i. e. − 7 is negative).

9. Converge we use (′ − 1 < 𝑟 < 1′)

a) Given the following geometric series, state if the series are convergent or not.

i. 1 + 3 + 9 + 27 + ⋯

1 1
ii. 3 + 1 + + +⋯
3 9

iii. 5 − 2,5 + 1,25 − 0,625 + ⋯

iv. 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + ⋯

27
v. 4 + 6 + 9 + +⋯
2

vi. 54 + 36 + 24 + 16 + ⋯

25
Copyright reserved
 Answers:

i. The sequence does not converge because 𝑟 = 3 which lies outside − 1 < 𝑟 < 1 .

1
ii. The sequence converges because 𝑟 = which lies within − 1 < 𝑟 < 1 .
3

iii. The sequence converges because 𝑟 = −0,5 which lies within − 1 < 𝑟 < 1 .

iv. The sequence does not converge because 𝑟 = 3 which lies outside − 1 < 𝑟 < 1 .

3
v. The sequence does not converge because 𝑟 = which lies outside − 1 < 𝑟 < 1 .
2
2
vi. The sequence converges because 𝑟 = which lies within − 1 < 𝑟 < 1 .
3

b) For which values of 𝑥 will the following geometric series converge?

i. 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯

ii. 2𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 3 + 54𝑥 4 + ⋯

3 1 1 𝑥
iii. − + − +⋯
𝑥2 𝑥 3 9

iv. (𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 − 1)3 + (𝑥 − 1)4 + ⋯

v. 2(𝑥 − 1) + 6(𝑥 − 1)2 + 18(𝑥 − 1)3 + 54(𝑥 − 1)4 + ⋯

3 1 1 (𝑥 − 1)
vi. − + − +⋯
(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 1) 3 9

Answers:

i. − 1 < 𝑟 < 1 (𝑟 = 𝑥 ) ii. − 1 < 𝑟 < 1 (𝑟 = 3𝑥)

−1 < 𝑥 < 1 − 1 < 3𝑥 < 1 (÷ 3)
1 1
− < 𝑥 <
3 3

iii. −1 < 𝑟 < 1 (𝑟 = 𝑥 ) iv. −1 < 𝑟 <1 (𝑟 = 𝑥 − 1)

𝑥
−1 < − < 11 (× 3) −1<𝑥−1<1 (+1)
3
−3 < −𝑥 < 3 (÷ −1) 0< 𝑟 <2
3 > 𝑥 > −3
26
Copyright reserved
 𝑥−1
v. − 1 < 𝑟 <1 (𝑟 = 3(𝑥 − 1)) vi. −1 < 𝑟 <1 (𝑟 = )
3
𝑥−1
−1 < 3(𝑥 − 1) < 1 (÷ 3) −1< <1 (× 3)
3
1 1
− < 𝑥−1 < (+1) −3<𝑥−1<3 (+1)
3 3
2 4
< 𝑟 < −2< 𝑥 <4
3 3

10 The first difference of a quadratic sequence forms a linear sequence

. a) Given 1; 3; 7; 13 …
i. Which 2 terms in the quadratic sequence will have a difference of 62?
ii. Determine the sum of the first 23 first differences in the quadratic sequence.

Answers:

i. 1 ; 3 ; 7 ; 13

2 4 6 ← linear sequence

2 2

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
62 = 2 + (𝑛 − 1)(2)
62 = 2 + 2𝑛 − 2
62 = 2𝑛
31 = 𝑛

The terms are the 31st and the 32nd terms.

𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:

𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4 𝑻𝟑𝟏 𝑻𝟑𝟐

1 ; 3 ; 7 ; 13; … … … … ; 𝟗𝟑𝟏; 𝟗𝟗𝟑; …

2 4 6 𝟔𝟐

𝑛
ii. 𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2
23
𝑆23 = [2(2) + (23 − 1)(2)]
2
𝑆23 = 552

27
Copyright reserved
 b) Given 2; −6; −12; −16 … , which 2 terms in the quadratic sequence will have a
difference of 90?

Answers:

i. 2 ; −6 ; −12; −16

−8 − 6 − 4 ← linear sequence

2 2

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
90 = −8 + (𝑛 − 1)(2)
90 = −8 + 2𝑛 − 2
90 = 2𝑛 − 10
100 = 2𝑛
50 = 𝑛

The terms are the 50th and the 51st terms.

𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:

𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4 𝑻𝟓𝟎 𝑻𝟓𝟏

2; −6; −12; −16; … … … … ; 𝟏𝟗𝟔𝟐; 𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟐; …

−8 − 6 − 4 𝟗𝟎

28
Copyright reserved
Chapter 3: Finance
Section 1: Definitions

 𝑨: this the future value when there are no annuities.

 Advance: Payments/withdrawals made at the beginning.
 Arrears: Payments/withdrawals made at the end.
 𝑭𝑽: this is the future value when equal regular payments/withdrawals are made.
 𝒊: 𝑖 is the interest rate.
 Immediate and arrears: First payment/withdrawal is in advance and the rest of the
payments/withdrawals are in arrears.
 𝒏: this is the number of years, half-years, quarters, months or days in the 𝐴 formulae.
𝒏: this is the number of payments in the 𝐹𝑉 and 𝑃𝑉 formulae.
 𝑷: this is the present value when one payment is made into an account.
 𝑷𝑽: this is the present value when equal regular payments/withdrawals are made.
 Sequence: Sequence refers to numbers or variables that follow a pattern.
 Series: Series refers to the sum of numbers or variables that follow a pattern.
 𝒙: 𝑥 is the equal regular payment/withdrawal amount.

Section 2: Formula specific summary

1. When there is one lump sum payment or withdrawal amount.

a) Increasing 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖𝑛) Simple interest rate
interest 𝑛
𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖) Compound interest rate or Inflation
(p31)
b) Depreciation 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 − 𝑖𝑛) Straight line method
(p33) 𝑛
𝐴 = 𝑃(1 − 𝑖) Reducing balance method

2. When there are annuities (equal regular payments/withdrawals) that are in ARREARS.
a) Future Value 𝑥[(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1] For investments
(p36) 𝐹𝑉 =
𝑖
b) Present value 𝑥[1 − (1 + 𝑖)−𝑛 ] For loans
(p37) 𝑃𝑉 =
𝑖

3. When there are annuities (equal regular payments/withdrawals) that are IMMEDIATE
AND IN ARREARS.
a) Future Value 𝑥[(1 + 𝑖)𝑛+1 − 1] For investments
(p39) 𝐹𝑉 =
𝑖
b) Present value 𝑥[1 − (1 + 𝑖)−𝑛−1 ] For loans
(p40) 𝑃𝑉 =
𝑖

29
Copyright reserved
4. Effective and Nominal interest rates
𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚
1 + 𝑖𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (1 + ) Substitute for 𝑖 into the 𝐴, 𝐹𝑉 and 𝑃𝑉
𝑛 𝑛
(p42) formulae.

5. Complex procedures and Problem Solving

a) Total payment = 𝑛𝑥 (for equal regular payments) (p42)
b) Interest = 𝐴 − 𝑃 (when no equal regular payment)
Interest = 𝐹𝑉 − 𝑛𝑥 (for investment when there are equal regular payments)
Interest = 𝑛𝑥 − 𝑃𝑉 (for loan when there are equal regular payments) (p43)

30
Copyright reserved
1a 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖𝑛) or 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
i. Thabo deposits R10000 into an account. Determine how much Thabo will have in
his account 3 years after his deposit if the interest rate is 12% p.a.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖𝑛) (interest rate is not compounded hence this is a simple interest rate)
𝐴 = 10000(1 + 0,12 × 3)
𝐴 = R13600

ii. Palesa borrows R12000 from the bank. Determine how much Palesa will have to
pay back to the bank after 5 years if the interest rate is 10% p.a. compounded
monthly.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 (interest rate is compounded hence this is a compound interest rate)
0,10 5×12
𝐴 = 12000 (1 + )
12
𝐴 = R19743,71

iii. Thabo deposits an amount into an account. The interest rate is 12% p.a. If Thabo
has R13600 in his account 3 years after his deposit, determine how much Thabo
deposited.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖𝑛)
13600 = 𝑃(1 + 0,12 × 3) (÷ (1 + 0,12 × 3))
R10000 = 𝑃

iv. Palesa borrows an amount from the bank. The interest rate is 10% p.a.
compounded monthly. If Palesa pays back R19743,71 after 5 years, determine how
much Palesa borrowed.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
0,10 5×12 0,10 5×12
19743,71 = 𝑃 (1 + ) (÷ (1 + ) )
12 12
R12000 = 𝑃

31
Copyright reserved
 v. Thabo deposits R10000 into an account. If Thabo has R13600 in his account 3 years
after his deposit, determine the interest rate.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖𝑛)
13600 = 10000(1 + 𝑖 × 3) (÷ 10000)
1,36 = 1 + 3𝑖 (−1)
0,36 = 3𝑖 (÷ 3)
0,12 = 𝑖 (× 100%)
12% = 𝑖

vi. Palesa borrows R12000 from the bank. If Palesa pays back R19743,71 after 5 years,
determine the interest rate if the interest rate is compounded monthly.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
𝑖 5×12
19743,71 = 12000 (1 + ) (÷ 12000)
12
𝑖 60 60
1,645309167 = (1 + ) ( √60th root)
12
𝑖
1,008333336 = 1 + (−1)
12
𝑖
0,008333336 = (× 12)
12
0,10 = 𝑖 (× 100%)
10% = 𝑖

vii. Thabo deposits R10000 into an account. The interest rate is 12% p.a. Determine
how many years it will take Thabo to have R13600 in his account.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖𝑛)
13600 = 10000(1 + 0,12 × 𝑛) (÷ 10000)
1,36 = 1 + 0,12𝑛 (−1)
0,36 = 0,12𝑛 (÷ 0,12)
3 years = 𝑛

32
Copyright reserved
 viii. Palesa borrows R12000 from the bank. The interest rate is 10% compounded
monthly. Palesa pays back R19743,71 at the end of the term of the loan. How long
(in years) is the term of the loan?

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
0,10 𝑦×12
19743,71 = 12000 (1 + ) (÷ 12000)
12
121 12𝑦
1,645309167 = ( )
120
log 121 (1,645309167) = 12𝑦
120
60 = 12𝑦 (÷ 12)
5 years = 𝑦

𝐎𝐑

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
0,10 𝑛
19743,71 = 12000 (1 + ) (÷ 12000)
12
121 𝑛
1,645309167 = ( )
120
log 121 (1,645309167) = 𝑛
120
60 = 𝑛

60 = 𝑦 × 12 (÷ 12)
5 years = 𝑦

1b 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 − 𝑖𝑛) or 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 − 𝑖)𝑛

i. Thabo buys a R10000 printer. Determine how much the printer will be worth after
3 years if the depreciation rate is 12% p.a. according to the straight line method.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 − 𝑖𝑛)
𝐴 = 10000(1 − 0,12 × 3)
𝐴 = R6400

33
Copyright reserved
 ii. Palesa buys a R12000 machine. Determine how much the machine will be worth
after 5 years if the depreciation rate is 10% p.a. according to the reducing balance
method.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 − 𝑖)𝑛
𝐴 = 12000(1 − 0,1)5
𝐴 = R7085,88

iii. Thabo buys a printer. The depreciation rate is 12% p.a. according to the straight
line method. If the printer is worth R6400 after 3 years, determine the original
value of the printer.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 − 𝑖𝑛)
6400 = 𝑃(1 − 0,12 × 3) (÷ (1 − 0,12 × 3))
R10000 = 𝑃

vi. Palesa buys a machine. The depreciation rate is 10% p.a. according to the reducing
balance method. If the machine is worth R7085,88 after 5 years, determine the
original value of the machine.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
7085,88 = 𝑃(1 − 0,1)5 (÷ (1 − 0,1)5 )
R12000 = 𝑃

v. Thabo buys a R10000 printer. If the printer is worth R6400 after 3 years, determine
the depreciation rate according to the straight line method.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 − 𝑖𝑛)
6400 = 10000(1 − 𝑖 × 3) (÷ 10000)
0,64 = 1 − 3𝑖 (−1)
−0,36 = −3𝑖 ( ÷ −3)
0,12 = 𝑖 (× 100%)
12% = 𝑖

34
Copyright reserved
 vi. Palesa buys a R12000 machine. If the machine is worth R7085,88 after 5 years,
determine the depreciation rate according to the reducing balance method.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 − 𝑖)𝑛
7085,88 = 12000(1 − 𝑖)5 (÷ 12000)
5
0,59049 = (1 − 𝑖)5 (√5th root)
0,9 = 1 − 𝑖 (−1)
−0,1 = −𝑖 (÷ −1)
0,10 = 𝑖 (× 100%)
10% = 𝑖

vii. Thabo buys a R10000 printer. The depreciation rate is 12% p.a. according to the
straight line method. After how many years will the printer be worth R6400?

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 − 𝑖𝑛)
6400 = 10000(1 − 0,12 × 𝑛) (÷ 10000)
0,64 = 1 − 0,12𝑛 (−1)
−0,36 = −0,12𝑛 (÷ −0,12)
3 years = 𝑛

viii. Palesa buys a R12000 machine. The depreciation rate is 10% p.a. according to the
reducing balance method. After how many years will the machine be worth
R7085,88?

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 − 𝑖)𝑛
7085,88 = 12000(1 − 0,1)𝑛 (÷ 12000)
0,59049 = (0,9)𝑛
log 0,9 (0,59049) = 𝑛
5 years = 𝑛

35
Copyright reserved
2a 𝑥[(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1]
𝐹𝑉 = (Arrears)
𝑖
i. Cindy deposits R1000 every month into an account. Determine how much Cindy
will have in her account after 3 years if the interest rate is 10% p.a. compounded
monthly. The first deposit is at the end of the first month (or the first deposit is one
month later).

Answers:

𝑥 [(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1]
𝐹=
𝑖
0,1 3×12
1000 [(1 + ) − 1]
12
𝐹=
0,1
12
𝐹 = R41781,82

ii. Cindy wants to make monthly deposits into an account. The interest rate is 10% p.a.
compounded monthly. How much must she deposit every month if she wants to
have R41781,92 in her account after 3 years? The first deposit is at the end of the
first month (or the first deposit is one month later).

Answers:

𝑥[(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1]
𝐹=
𝑖
0,1 3×12
𝑥 [(1 + ) − 1]
12
41781,92 =
0,1
12
41781,92 = 𝑥(41,78182109) (÷ 41,78182109)
R1000 = 𝑥

36
Copyright reserved
 iii. Cindy deposits R1000 every month into an account. After how many deposits will
she have R41781,92 in her account if the interest rate is 10% p.a. compounded
monthly? The first deposit is at the end of the first month (or the first deposit is one
month later).

Answers:

𝑥 [(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1]
𝐹=
𝑖
0,1 𝑛
1000 [(1 + ) − 1] 0,1
12
41781,92 = (× )
0,1 12
12𝑛
121
348,1826667 = 1000 [( ) − 1] (÷ 1000)
120
121 𝑛
0,3481826667 = ( ) −1 (+1)
120
121 𝑛
1,3481826667 = ( )
120
log 121 1,3481826667 = 𝑛
120
36 deposits = 𝑛

If the question was after how many years, we would divide the 36 by 12 at the end.

36
𝑦= = 3 years
12

2b 𝑥[1 − (1 + 𝑖)−𝑛 ]
𝑃𝑉 = (Arrears)
𝑖
i. Sarah takes out a loan. Determine the loan amount if Sarah has to pay R3360,79
every 3 months (quarterly) for 5 years if the interest rate is 12% p.a. compounded
quarterly. The first payment is at the end of the third month (or the first payment is
three months later).

Answers:

𝑥 [1 − (1 + 𝑖)−𝑛 ]
𝑃=
𝑖
0,12 −5×4
3360,79 [1 − (1 + ) ]
4
𝑃=
0,12
4
𝑃 = R50000,07

37
Copyright reserved
 ii. Sarah takes out a loan of R50000. The interest rate is 12% p.a. compounded
quarterly. How much must the quarterly payments be if she has to pay off the loan
in 5 years? The first payment is at the end of the third month (or the first payment
is three months later).

Answers:
𝑥 [1 − (1 + 𝑖)−𝑛 ]
𝑃=
𝑖
0,12 −5×4
𝑥 [1 − (1 + ) ]
4
50000 =
0,12
4
50000 = 𝑥 14,87747486)
( (÷ 14,87747486)
R3360,79 = 𝑥

iii. Sarah takes out a loan of R50000. The interest rate is 12% p.a. compounded
quarterly. How many payments must she make in order to pay off the loan if she
pays R3360,79 every 3 months (quarterly). The first payment is at the end of the
third month (or the first payment is three months later).

Answers:
𝑥 [1 − (1 + 𝑖)−𝑛 ]
𝑃=
𝑖
0,12 −𝑛
3360,79 [1 − (1 + ) ] 0,12
4
50000 = (× )
0,12 4
4
103 −𝑛
1500 = 3360,79 [1 − ( ) ] (÷ 3360,79)
100
103 −𝑛
0,4463236322 = 1 − ( ) (−1)
100
103 −𝑛
−0,5536763678 = − ( ) (÷ −1)
100
103 −𝑛
0,5536763678 = ( )
100
log 103 0,5536763678 = −𝑛
100
−19,99996251 = −𝑛 (÷ −1)
20 payments = 𝑛
If the question was after how many years, we would divide the 20 by 4 at the end.
20
𝑦= = 5 years
4
38
Copyright reserved
3a 𝑥[(1 + 𝑖)𝑛+1 − 1]
𝐹𝑉 = (Immediate and Arrears)
𝑖
i. Cindy deposits R1000 every month into an account. Determine how much Cindy
will have in her account after 3 years if the interest rate is 10% p.a. compounded
monthly. The first deposit is immediate and the rest of the deposits are at the end
of the month (or the first deposit is at the beginning of the month and the rest of
the deposits are at the end of the month).

Answers:

𝑥 [(1 + 𝑖)𝑛+1 − 1]
𝐹=
𝑖
0,1 3×12+1
1000 [(1 + ) − 1]
12
𝐹=
0,1
12
𝐹 = R43130

ii. Cindy wants to make monthly deposits into an account. The interest rate is 10% p.a.
compounded monthly. How much must she deposit every month if she wants to
have R43130 in her account after 3 years? The first deposit is immediate and the
rest of the deposits are at the end of the month (or the first deposit is at the
beginning of the month and the rest of the deposits are at the end of the month).

Answers:

𝑥 [(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1]
𝐹=
𝑖
0,1 3×12+1
𝑥 [(1 + ) − 1]
12
43130 =
0,1
12
43130 = 𝑥 43,13000293)
( (÷ 43,13000293)
R1000 = 𝑥

39
Copyright reserved
 iii. Cindy deposits R1000 every month into an account. After how many deposits will
she have R43130 in her account if the interest rate is 10% p.a. compounded
monthly? The first deposit is immediate and the rest of the deposits are at the end
of the month (or the first deposit is at the beginning of the month and the rest of
the deposits are at the end of the month).

Answers:
𝑥 [(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1]
𝐹=
𝑖
0,1 𝑛+1
1000 [(1 + ) − 1] 0,1
12
43130 = (× )
0,1 12
12
121 𝑛+1
359,4166667 = 1000 [( ) − 1] (÷ 1000)
120
121 𝑛+1
0,3594166667 = ( ) −1 (+1)
120
121 𝑛+1
1,3594166667 = ( )
120
log 121 1,3594166667 = 𝑛 + 1
120
36,99999784 = 𝑛 + 1 (−1)
36 deposits = 𝑛
If the question was after how many years, we would divide the 36 by 12 at the end.
36
𝑦= = 3 years
12
3b 𝑥[1 − (1 + 𝑖)−𝑛−1 ]
𝑃𝑉 = (Immediate and Arrears)
𝑖
i. Sarah takes out a loan. Determine the loan amount if Sarah has to pay R3243,59
every 3 months (quarterly) for 5 years if the interest rate is 12% p.a. compounded
quarterly. The first payment is immediate and the rest of the payments are in
arrears.

Answers:

𝑥 [1 − (1 + 𝑖)−𝑛−1 ]
𝑃=
𝑖
0,12 −5×4−1
R3243,59 [1 − (1 + ) ]
4
𝑃=
0,12
4
𝑃 = R50000,02

40
Copyright reserved
 ii. Sarah takes out a loan of R50000. The interest rate is 12% p.a. compounded
quarterly. How much must the quarterly payments be if she has to pay off the loan
in 5 years? The first payment is immediate and the rest are in arrears.
Answers:
𝑥 [1 − (1 + 𝑖)−𝑛−1 ]
𝑃=
𝑖
0,12 −5×4−1
𝑥 [1 − (1 + ) ]
4
50000 =
0,12
4
50000 = 𝑥 (15,41502414) (÷ 15,41502414)
R3243,59 = 𝑥

iii. Sarah takes out a loan of R50000. The interest rate is 12% p.a. compounded
quarterly. How many payments must she make in order to pay off the loan if she
pays R3243,59 every 3 months (quarterly). The first payment is immediate and the
rest of the payments are in arrears.
Answers:

𝑥 [1 − (1 + 𝑖)−𝑛−1 ]
𝑃=
𝑖
0,12 −𝑛−1
3243,59 [1 − (1 + ) ] 0,12
4
50000 = (× )
0,12 4
4
103 −𝑛−1
1500 = 3243,59 [1 − ( ) ] (÷ 3243,59)
100
103 −𝑛−1
0,4624505563 = 1 − ( ) (−1)
100
103 −𝑛−1
−0,5375494437 = − ( ) (÷ −1)
100
103 −𝑛−1
0,5375494437 = ( )
100
log 103 0,5375494437 = −𝑛 − 1
100
−20,99998944 = −𝑛 − 1 (+1)
−19,99998944 = −𝑛 (÷ −1)
20 payments = 𝑛
If the question was after how many years, we would divide the 20 by 4 at the end.
20
𝑦= = 5 years
4
41
Copyright reserved
4. 𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝑛
1 + 𝑖𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (1 + )
𝑛
i. An account has an interest rate of 12% p.a. compounded bi-annualy (or half-yearly).
Determine the effective interest rate.

Answers:

𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝑛
1 + 𝑖𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (1 + )
𝑛
0,12 2
1 + 𝑖𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (1 + )
2
1 + 𝑖𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 1,1236 (−1)
𝑖𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 0,1236 (× 100%)
𝑖𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 12,36%

ii. An account has an interest rate of 12,36% p.a. Determine the nominal interest rate
interest rate is compounded bi-annualy (or half-yearly).

Answers:

𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝑛
1 + 𝑖𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (1 + )
𝑛
𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚 2
1 + 0,1236 = (1 + )
2
𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚 2
1,1236 = (1 + ) ( 2√square root)
2
𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚
1,06 = 1 + (−1)
2
𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚
0,06 = (× 2)
2
0,12 = 𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚 (× 100%)
12% = 𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚

5a Total payment = 𝑛𝑥 (for equal regular payments)

i. Cindy deposits R1000 every month into an account. The interest rate is 10% p.a.
compounded
monthly. Determine the total amount that is deposited over 3 years.

Answers:

Total deposit = 𝑛𝑥
Total deposit = (3 × 12) × 1000
Total deposit = R36000

42
Copyright reserved
 ii. Sarah takes out a loan. The interest rate is 12% p.a. compounded quarterly. If she
pays R3360,79every 3 months (quarterly), determine the total payment over 5
years.

Answers:

Total payment = 𝑛𝑥
Total payment = (5 × 4) × 3360,79
Total payment = R67215,80

5b Interest = 𝐴 − 𝑃 or Interest = 𝐹𝑉 − 𝑛𝑥 or Interest = 𝑛𝑥 − 𝑃𝑉

i. Thabo deposits R10000 into an account. The interest rate is 12% p.a. Determine the
interest after
3 years.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖𝑛) (interest rate is not compounded hence this is a simple interest rate)
𝐴 = 10000(1 + 0,12 × 3)
𝐴 = R13600

Interest = 𝐴 − 𝑃
Interest = 13600 − 10000
Interest = R3600

ii. Palesa borrows R12000 from the bank. The interest rate is 10% p.a. compounded
monthly. Determine the interest after 5 years.

Answers:

𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 (interest rate is compounded hence this is a compound interest rate)
0,10 5×12
𝐴 = 12000 (1 + )
12
𝐴 = R19743,71

Interest = 𝐴 − 𝑃
Interest = 19743,71 − 12000
Interest = R7743,71

43
Copyright reserved
 iii. Cindy deposits R1000 every month into an account. The interest rate is 10% p.a.
compounded monthly. Determine the interest after 3 years.

Answers:

Total deposit = 𝑛𝑥
Total deposit = (3 × 12) × 1000
Total deposit = R36000

𝑥 [(1 + 𝑖)𝑛 − 1]
𝐹=
𝑖
0,1 3×12
1000 [(1 + ) − 1]
12
𝐹=
0,1
12
𝐹 = R41781,82

Interest = 𝐹𝑉 − 𝑛𝑥
Interest = 41781,82 − 36000
Interest = R5781,82

vi. Sarah takes out a R50000 loan. The interest rate is 12% p.a. compounded quarterly.
If she pays R3360,79 every 3 months (quarterly), determine the total payment over
5 years.

Answers:

Total payment = 𝑛𝑥
Total payment = (5 × 4) × 3360,79
Total payment = R67215,80

Interest = 𝑛𝑥 − 𝑃𝑉
Interest = 67215,80 − 50000
Interest = R17215,80

44
Copyright reserved
Chapter 4: Functions
Section 1: Definitions

 Asymptotes: Asymptotes are lines that graphs continuously approach but never
touch. Asymptotes are vertical or horizontal straight line graphs and are therefore
written as equations.
 Axis of symmetry: An axis of symmetry is a line that divides a graph in half.
 Decreasing: Decreasing means that the 𝑦 values on a graph decrease as the 𝑥 values
increase.
 Domain: These are all the possible 𝑥 values.
 𝒇(𝒙): 𝑓(𝑥) is the 𝑦.
 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙): 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is the 𝑦 in the inverse function of 𝑓(𝑥).
 𝒇′ (𝒙): 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is the gradient of 𝑓(𝑥).
 Gradient: The gradient refers to the steepness and direction of the slope of a graph.
 Increasing: Increasing means that the 𝑦 values on a graph increase as the 𝑥 values
increase.
 Intercept: An intercept is a point where a graph meets an 𝑥 or 𝑦 axis.
 Intersection: An intersection is a point where two graphs meet. The 𝑥 and 𝑦 values of
the two graphs are equal at this point.
 Inverse: An inverse of a graph is a reflection of the graph across the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
 Range: These are all the possible 𝑦 values.
 Transformation: Transformation refers to horizontal or vertical shifts as well as
reflections across the 𝑥 or 𝑦 axis or across other lines. Transformations also include
changes in steepness.
 Turning point: This is the point where the graph turns. The 𝑦 value at the turning
point is either the minimum or maximum value of the graph. Turning point only
applies to parabola (quadratic) functions.

45
Copyright reserved
Section 2: Formula specific summary

No. Point/topic Linear Parabola/quadratic Hyperbola Exponential

1 Formulae 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑞 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥−𝑝 + 𝑞
𝑦= +𝑞
(p50) 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) 𝑥−𝑝
𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑝)2 + 𝑞
2 𝒂 and 𝒎 Positive 𝒂 Positive 𝒂 Positive 𝒂 Positive 𝒂
𝑏>1

0<𝑏<1

Negative 𝒂 Negative 𝒂 Negative 𝒂 Negative 𝒂

𝑏>1

0<𝑏<1

3 𝒄 𝑦 – intercept 𝑦 intercept value

4 𝒑 𝑥 turning point 𝑥 asymptote
value value
5 𝒒 𝑦 – intercept 𝑦 turning point 𝑦 asymptote 𝑦 asymptote
value value value
6 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐 Roots
(𝑥 intercept values)
7 Turning −𝑏
𝑥= or (𝑝; 𝑞)
point(p51) 2𝑎
8 𝒙 𝑥=𝑝
asymptote
9 𝒚 𝑦=𝑞 𝑦=𝑞
asymptote
10 Axis of −𝑏 Increasing
𝑥= or 𝑥 = 𝑝
symmetry 2𝑎 function
(p52) 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑘 or
𝑦 = (𝑥 − 𝑝) + 𝑞

Decreasing
function
𝑦 = −𝑥 + 𝑘 or
𝑦 = −(𝑥 − 𝑝) + 𝑞

46
Copyright reserved
No. Point/topic Linear Parabola/quadratic Hyperbola Exponential
11 Steps for 𝑥 – intercept 𝑥 – intercept 𝑥 – intercept 𝑥 – intercept
drawing 𝑦 – intercept 𝑦 – intercept 𝑦 – intercept 𝑦 – intercept
graphs Turning point 𝑥 asymptote 𝑦 asymptote
(p53) 𝑦 asymptote
12 Finding the Find 𝑚 by When given the 𝑎 Equation will
𝑦= +𝑞
equation of using: turning point 𝑥−𝑝 be given
a graph 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑝)2 + 𝑞
𝑚=
(p56) 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 When not given the
𝑚1 × 𝑚2 = −1 turning point
𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )

Then use
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
13 Domain 𝑥∈𝑅 𝑥∈𝑅 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅; 𝑥 ≠ 𝑝 𝑥∈𝑅
(p60) or
(−∞; 𝑝) ∪ (𝑝; ∞)
or
𝑥 < 𝑝 or 𝑥 > 𝑝
14 Range 𝑦∈𝑅 𝑎 > 0; 𝑦 ≥ 𝑞 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅; 𝑦 ≠ 𝑞 𝑎 > 0; 𝑦 > 𝑞
(p61) or or or
𝑎 > 0; 𝑦 ∈ [𝑞; ∞) (−∞; 𝑞) ∪ (𝑞; ∞) 𝑎 > 0;
or 𝑦 ∈ (𝑞; ∞)
𝑎 < 0; 𝑦 ≤ 𝑞 𝑦 < 𝑞 or 𝑦 > 𝑞
or 𝑎 < 0; 𝑦 < 𝑞
𝑎 < 0; 𝑦 ∈ (−∞; 𝑞] or
𝑎 < 0;
𝑦 ∈ (−∞; 𝑞)

47
Copyright reserved
Section 3: General function rules

1 Using graph to determine 𝒙 values

a 𝑓(0) (p62) This represents the 𝑦 intercept(s).
b 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 (p62) This represents the 𝑥 intercept(s).
c 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) 62 This is an intersection.
d 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0 (p63) Give the 𝑥 values where 𝑓(𝑥) is above the 𝑥 axis.
e 𝑓 (𝑥) < 0 (p63) Give the 𝑥 values where 𝑓(𝑥) is below the 𝑥 axis.
f 𝑓 (𝑥) > 𝑔(𝑥) 64 Give the 𝑥 values where 𝑓(𝑥) is above 𝑔(𝑥).
g 𝑓 (𝑥) < 𝑔(𝑥) 64 Give the 𝑥 values where 𝑓(𝑥) is below 𝑔(𝑥).
h Increasing Give the 𝑥 values where the 𝑦 values on a graph increase as the 𝑥
(p65) values increase.
i Decreasing Give the 𝑥 values where the 𝑦 values on a graph decrease as the 𝑥
(p65) values increase.
j > or < When we have these inequality signs we use round brackets ( or ).
k ≥ or ≤ When we have these inequality signs we use square brackets [ or ].
l Asymptotes 66 𝑥 values that lie on 𝑥 asymptotes should have round brackets ( or )

2 Transformations
a 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑘) This is a horizontal shift. A positive 𝑘 means that we are shifting to
(p67) the left. A negative 𝑘 means that we are shifting to the right. We write
𝑥 + 𝑘 in place of 𝑥.
b 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑘 This is a vertical shift. A positive 𝑘 means that we are shifting
(p67) upwards. A negative 𝑘 means that we are shifting downwards. We
write +𝑘 after the original equation.
c 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑘. 𝑓(𝑥) This is a change in gradient.
d 𝑓 (𝑥) → 𝑓(−𝑥) This is a reflection across the 𝑦 axis. We write −𝑥 in place of 𝑥.
(p68)
e 𝑓 (𝑥) → −𝑓(𝑥) This is a reflection across the 𝑥 axis. We write " − " in front of the
(p68) original equation.
f 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) This is a reflection across the 𝑦 = 𝑥. We swap the 𝑥 and 𝑦 and make 𝑦
(p69) the subject.

3 Important points
a Length (p73) Use 𝑑 = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 − (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2
b Vertical line Equation of a vertical line is 𝑥 = 𝑘 where 𝑘 is the 𝑥 value on the 𝑥
(p73) intercept.
c Horizontal line Equation of a horizontal line is 𝑦 = 𝑘 where 𝑘 is the 𝑦 value on the 𝑦
(p73) intercept.
d (𝑥; 𝑓(𝑥)) 𝑓(𝑥) can be expressed in terms of 𝑥.
e.g. if 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 we can express coordinates as (𝑥; 2𝑥 2 )

48
Copyright reserved
3 Important points
e Completing the Change format 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 into format 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑝)2 + 𝑞 by
square using
−𝑏 −𝑏
𝑥= and 𝑓 ( )
2𝑎 2𝑎
f Function A function is a one to one or a many to one relation. It passes the
(p75) vertical line test.
g Average 𝑦1 − 𝑦2
𝑚=
gradient 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
h Minimum or This is the 𝑦 turning point value.
maximum

49
Copyright reserved
1 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑞 or 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
a) 𝑚>0 𝑚<0

𝑦 𝑦

𝑐 𝑐

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 or 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) or 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑝)2 + 𝑞

b) 𝑎>0 𝑎<0

𝑦 𝑦
(𝑝; 𝑞)
𝑐

𝑥 𝑥
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥1 𝑥2
𝑐
(𝑝; 𝑞)

𝑎
𝑦= +𝑞
𝑥−𝑝
c) 𝑎>0 𝑎<0

𝑦 𝑦

𝑦=𝑞
𝑞 𝑦=𝑞 𝑞

𝑝 𝑥 𝑝 𝑥

𝑥=𝑝 𝑥=𝑝

50
Copyright reserved
 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥−𝑝 + 𝑞
d) 𝑎>0 𝑎<0

𝑦 𝑦

𝑦=𝑞
𝑞
𝑥 𝑥

𝑞 𝑦=𝑞

7 −𝑏
𝑥= or (𝑝; 𝑞)
2𝑎
a) Determine the turning points of 𝑓 and 𝑔 if 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 and
𝑔(𝑥) = −2(𝑥 − 1)2 + 8.

Answers:

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 𝑔(𝑥) = −2(𝑥 − 1)2 + 8

−𝑏
𝑥= 𝑝=1 and 𝑞=8
2𝑎
−(−4)
𝑥= Turning point is (1; 8)
2(2)
𝑥=1

𝑓 (1) = 2(1)2 − 4(1) − 6

𝑓(1) = −8

Turning point is (1; −8)

𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:

𝑦 𝑦
(1; 8)

𝑥 𝑥

(1; −8)

51
Copyright reserved
10 Axis of symmetry
a) Determine the axis of symmetry of 𝑓 and 𝑔 if 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 and
𝑔(𝑥) = −2(𝑥 − 1)2 + 8.

Answers:

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 𝑔(𝑥) = −2(𝑥 − 1)2 + 8

−𝑏
𝑥= 𝑝=1
2𝑎
−(−4)
𝑥= ∴𝑥=1
2(2)
𝑥=1

𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:

𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥
1 1

𝑥=1 𝑥=1

4
b) Determine the axis of symmetry of 𝑓 if 𝑓(𝑥) = +2
𝑥−1

Answers:

𝐈𝐧𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐲𝐦𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐲 𝐃𝐞𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐲𝐦𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐲

𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑘 or 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 𝑝) + 𝑞 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 𝑘 or 𝑦 = −(𝑥 − 𝑝) + 𝑞
2=1+𝑘 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1) + 2 2 = −1 + 𝑘 𝑦 = −(𝑥 − 1) + 2
1=𝑘 𝑦=𝑥−1+2 3=𝑘 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 1 + 2
𝑦=𝑥+1 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3
∴𝑦 =𝑥+1 ∴ 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3

52
Copyright reserved
 𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:

𝑦 𝑦=𝑥+1

2
𝑥
1

𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3

11 Steps for drawing graphs

a) Draw the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 4

Answers:

𝒙 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭:
0 = 2𝑥 − 4
−2𝑥 = −4
𝑥=2
(2; 0)

𝒚 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭:
𝑓 (0) = 2(0) − 4
𝑓(0) = −4
(0; −4)

𝑦 𝑓

2 𝑥

−4

53
Copyright reserved
 b) Draw the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 or 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2(𝑥 − 1)2 − 8

Answers:

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2 (𝑥 − 1)2 − 8

𝒙 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭: 𝒙 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭:
0 = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 (÷ 2) 0 = 2(𝑥 − 1)2 − 8
0 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 8 = 2(𝑥 − 1)2 (÷ 2)
2
0 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3) 4 = (𝑥 − 1) (√root)
±2 = 𝑥 − 1
𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = 3
(−1; 0) (3; 0) − 2 = 𝑥 − 1 or 2 = 𝑥 − 1
−1 = 𝑥 3=𝑥
(−1; 0) (3; 0)

𝒚 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭: 𝒚 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭:
𝑓 (0) = 2(0)2 − 4(0) − 6 𝑓 (0) = 2(0 − 1)2 − 8
𝑓(0) = −6 𝑓(0) = −6
(0; −6) (0; −6)

𝐓𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐓𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭

−𝑏
𝑥= 𝑝=1 𝑞 = −8
2𝑎
−(−4)
𝑥= (1; −8)
2(2)
𝑥=1

𝑓 (0) = 2(1)2 − 4(1) − 6

𝑓(0) = −8
(1; −8)

𝑦
𝑓

−1 3 𝑥
−6
(1; −8)

54
Copyright reserved
 4
c) Draw the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = +2
𝑥−1

Answers:

𝒙 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭:
4
0= +2 𝑦
𝑥−1
4
−2 = (× (𝑥 − 1)) 𝑓
𝑥−1
−2(𝑥 − 1) = 4
−2𝑥 + 2 = 4 2 𝑦=2
−2𝑥 = 2
𝑥 = −1 (−1; 0)
−1 1
𝒚 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭: −2
4
𝑓 (0) = +2
0−1
𝑓(0) = −2 (0; −2) 𝑥=1

𝒙 − 𝐚𝐬𝐲𝐩𝐦𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐞:
𝑥=1

𝒚 − 𝐚𝐬𝐲𝐩𝐦𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐞:
𝑦=2

d) Draw the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3. 2𝑥 − 12

Answers:

𝒙 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭:
0 = 3. 2𝑥 − 12
12 = 3. 2𝑥 (÷ 3) 𝑦
𝑥
4=2
log 2 4 = 𝑥 𝑓
2 = 𝑥 (2; 0)
2 𝑥
𝒚 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭: −9
𝑓(0) = 3. 20 − 12
𝑓(0) = −9 (0; −9) − 12 𝑦 = −12
(0; −9)

𝒚 − 𝐚𝐬𝐲𝐩𝐦𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐞:
𝑦 = −12
55
Copyright reserved
12 Finding the equation of a graph
a) Determine the equation of 𝑓.

𝑦 𝑓

2 𝑥

−4

Answers:

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚= 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 or 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
−4 − 0
𝑚= − 4 = (2)(0) + 𝑐 𝑦 − (−4) = 2(𝑥 − 0)
0−2
𝑚=2 −4=𝑐 𝑦 + 4 = 2𝑥
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4
∴ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4

b) Determine the equation of 𝑓 if 𝑓 is parallel to 𝑔 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 7 .

𝑦 𝑓 𝑔

−4

Answers:

The gradient of 𝑔 is 2 therefore the gradient of 𝑓 will also be 2 since 𝑓 ∣∣ 𝑔.

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 or 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
−4 = (2)(0) + 𝑐 𝑦 − (−4) = 2(𝑥 − 0)
−4 = 𝑐 𝑦 + 4 = 2𝑥
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4
∴ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4

56
Copyright reserved
 𝑥
c) Determine the equation of 𝑓 if 𝑓 is perpendicular to 𝑔 and 𝑔(𝑥) = − .
2

𝑦 𝑓

−4 𝑔

Answers:

1
The gradient of 𝑔 is − .
2

𝑚1 × 𝑚2 = −1 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 or 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
1
(− ) × 𝑚2 = −1 − 4 = (2)(0) + 𝑐 𝑦 − (−4) = 2(𝑥 − 0)
2
𝑚2 = 2 −4=𝑐 𝑦 + 4 = 2𝑥
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4
∴ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4

d) Determine the equation of 𝑓 if the angle of inclination is 63,43° .

𝑦 𝑓

63,43° 𝑥

−4

Answers:

𝑚 = tan 𝜃 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 or 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑚 = tan 63,43° − 4 = (2)(0) + 𝑐 𝑦 − (−4) = 2(𝑥 − 0)
𝑚=2 −4=𝑐 𝑦 + 4 = 2𝑥
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4
∴ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4

57
Copyright reserved
 e) Determine the equation of 𝑓 .

𝑦 𝑓

𝑥
−6
(1; −8)

Answers:
𝑦 = 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑝 )2 + 𝑞
−6 = 𝑎(0 − 1)2 − 8 [(0 − 1)2 = 1 and − 6 + 8 = 2]
2 = 𝑎. 1 (𝑎. 1 = 𝑎)
2=𝑎
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 1)2 − 8
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1) − 8
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 1) − 8
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) − 8
𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2 − 8
𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6

f) Determine the equation of 𝑓 .

𝑦 𝑓

−1 3 𝑥
−6

Answers:
𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )
−6 = 𝑎(0 + 1)(0 − 3) [(0 + 1)(0 − 3) = −3]
−6 = 𝑎. (−3) (÷ −3)
2=𝑎
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 𝑥 − 3)
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3)
𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6

58
Copyright reserved
 g) Determine the equation of 𝑓 .

𝑦=2
2

−1 1 𝑥

𝑥=1
Answers:
𝑎
𝑦= +𝑞
𝑥−𝑝
𝑎
0= +2
−1 − 1
𝑎
−2 =
−2
4=𝑎
4
𝑦= +2
𝑥−1

h) Determine the equation of 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑞

𝑦
𝑓

2 𝑥
−3
𝑦 = −4
−4

Answers:
𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑞
0 = 𝑏2 − 4
4 = 𝑏2
2=𝑏
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4

59
Copyright reserved
 i) Determine the equation of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎. 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑞

𝑦
𝑓

2 𝑥
−9
−12 𝑦 = −12

Answers:

𝑦 = 𝑎. 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑞
−9 = 𝑎. 𝑏0 − 12 [𝑏0 = 1 and − 9 + 12 = 3]
3 = 𝑎. 1
3=𝑎
𝑦 = 𝑎. 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑞
0 = 3. 𝑏2 − 12
12 = 3. 𝑏2 (÷ 3)
4 = 𝑏2
2=𝑏
𝑦 = 3. 2𝑥 − 12
13 Domain
Determine the domain of 𝑓 .

𝑦
𝑓

2 𝑦=2

1 𝑥

𝑥=1

Answers:

𝑥 ∈ 𝑅; 𝑥 ≠ 1 𝐨𝐫 𝑥 ∈ (−∞; 1) ∪ (1; ∞) 𝐨𝐫 𝑥 < 1 or 𝑥 > 1

60
Copyright reserved
14 Range
a) Determine the range of 𝑓 and 𝑔 .

𝑦 𝑦
𝑓 (1; 8)

𝑥 𝑥

(1; −8)

Answers:

𝒇: 𝒈:
𝑦 ≥ −8 𝐨𝐫 𝑦 ∈ [−8; ∞) 𝑦≤8 𝐨𝐫 𝑦 ∈ (−∞; 8]

b) Determine the range of 𝑓 .

𝑦
𝑓

2 𝑦=2

1 𝑥

𝑥=1

Answers:

𝑦 ∈ 𝑅; 𝑦 ≠ 2 𝐨𝐫 𝑦 ∈ (−∞; 2) ∪ (2; ∞) 𝐨𝐫 𝑦 < 2 or 𝑦 > 2

61
Copyright reserved
 c) Determine the range of 𝑓 and 𝑔 .

𝑦 𝑦
12 𝑦 = 12
𝑓

𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = −12 𝑔
−12

Answers:
𝒇: 𝒈:
𝑦 > −12 𝐨𝐫 𝑦 ∈ (−12; ∞) 𝑦 < 12 𝐨𝐫 𝑦 ∈ (−∞; 12)

15 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0 , 𝑓(0) and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)

Given 𝑓 and 𝑔 below:

𝑦 𝑓
E
D
A B 𝑥
𝑔
C

Determine the coordinates at A , B , C , D and E if 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 and

𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 2 .
Answers:
𝐀 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐁 (𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎): 𝐂 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐃 (𝒇(𝟎)): 𝐄 (𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒈(𝒙)):
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑔 (𝑥 )
0 = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 𝑓 (0) = 2( 0)2 − 4(0) − 6 2
2𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 6 = 2𝑥 + 2
0 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 𝑓(0) = −6 2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 8 = 0
0 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0
𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = 3 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4) = 0
𝑔 (0) = 2 (0) + 2 𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = 4
𝑔 (0) = 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6
𝑓 (4) = 2(4)2 − 4(4) − 6
𝑓(4) = 10
A(−1; 0) B(3; 0) C(0; −6) D(0; 2) E(4; 10)

62
Copyright reserved
16 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0 and 𝑓(𝑥) < 0
a) Given 𝑓 below:

𝑦 𝑓

−1 3 𝑥

Determine the value(s) of 𝑥 for which:

i. 𝑓(𝑥) > 0
ii. 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0

Answers:

i. 𝑥 ∈ (−∞; −1) ∪ (3; ∞) 𝐨𝐫 𝑥 < −1 or 𝑥 > 3

ii. 𝑥 ∈ (−∞; −1] ∪ [3; ∞) 𝐨𝐫 𝑥 ≤ −1 or 𝑥 ≥ 3

b) Given 𝑓 below:

𝑦 𝑓

−1 3 𝑥

Determine the value(s) of 𝑥 for which:

i. 𝑓(𝑥) < 0
ii. 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0

Answers:

i. 𝑥 ∈ (−1; 3) 𝐨𝐫 −1<𝑥 <3 𝐨𝐫 − 1 < 𝑥 and 𝑥 < 3

ii. 𝑥 ∈ [−1; 3] 𝐨𝐫 −1≤𝑥 ≤3 𝐨𝐫 − 1 ≤ 𝑥 and 𝑥 ≤ 3

63
Copyright reserved
17 𝑓 (𝑥) > 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑔(𝑥)
a) Given 𝑓 and 𝑔 below:

𝑓 𝑦
(4; 10)

−1 𝑥
𝑔

Determine the value(s) of 𝑥 for which:

i. 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑔(𝑥)
ii. 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥)

Answers:

i. 𝑥 ∈ (−∞; −1) ∪ (4; ∞) 𝐨𝐫 𝑥 < −1 or 𝑥 > 4

ii. 𝑥 ∈ (−∞; −1] ∪ [4; ∞) 𝐨𝐫 𝑥 ≤ −1 or 𝑥 ≥ 4

b) Given 𝑓 and 𝑔 below:

𝑓 𝑦
(4; 10)

−1 𝑥

Determine the value(s) of 𝑥 for which:

i. 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑔(𝑥)
ii. 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥)

Answers:

i. 𝑥 ∈ (−1; 4) 𝐨𝐫 −1<𝑥 <4 𝐨𝐫 − 1 < 𝑥 and 𝑥 < 4

ii. 𝑥 ∈ [−1; 4] 𝐨𝐫 −1≤𝑥 ≤4 𝐨𝐫 − 1 ≤ 𝑥 and 𝑥 ≤ 4

64
Copyright reserved
18 Increasing and Decreasing
a) Given 𝑓 below:

𝑦 𝑓

(1; −8)

Determine the value(s) of 𝑥 for which 𝑓 is increasing?

Alternatively the question could be, "Determine the value(s) of 𝑥 for which
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0. "

Answers:

𝑥 ∈ (1; ∞) 𝐨𝐫 𝑥>1

b) Given 𝑓 below:

𝑦 𝑓

(1; −8)

Determine the value(s) of 𝑥 for which 𝑓 is decreasing?

Alternatively the question could be, "Determine the value(s) of 𝑥 for which
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0. "

Answers:

𝑥 ∈ (−∞; 1) 𝐨𝐫 𝑥<1

65
Copyright reserved
19 Asymptotes
a) Given 𝑓 below:

𝑦
𝑓

2 𝑦=2

−1 1 𝑥

𝑥=1

Determine the value(s) of 𝑥 for which 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0?

Answers:

𝑥 ∈ [−1; 1) 𝐨𝐫 −1≤𝑥 <1 𝐨𝐫 − 1 ≤ 𝑥 and 𝑥 < 1

b) Given 𝑓 below:

𝑦
𝑓

2 𝑦=2

−1 1 𝑥

𝑥=1

Determine the value(s) of 𝑥 for which 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0?

Answers:

𝑥 ∈ (−∞; −1] ∪ (1; ∞) 𝐨𝐫 𝑥 ≤ −1 or 𝑥 > 1

66
Copyright reserved
20 𝑓 (𝑥) → 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑘 ) and 𝑓 (𝑥) → 𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑘
a) Given 𝑓 below:

𝑦 𝑓

(1; −8)

Determine the coordinates at the turning point of:

i. 𝑔 if 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 − 3)
ii. ℎ if ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 3)
iii. 𝑗 if 𝑗(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 3
iv. 𝑘 if 𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 3
v. 𝑙 if 𝑙(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥 − 3) − 3

Answers:

i. (4; −8) (𝟏 + 𝟑 ; −8)

ii. (−2; −8) (𝟏 − 𝟑 ; −8)
iii. (1; −11) (1 ; −𝟖 − 𝟑)
iv. (1; −5) (1 ; −𝟖 + 𝟑)
v. (4; −11) (𝟏 + 𝟑 ; −𝟖 − 𝟑)

𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬

𝑦 𝑘 𝑦

𝑓 𝑓

𝑥 𝑥

ℎ 𝑔 𝑗 (1; −5)

(−2; −8) (1; −8) (4; −8) (1; −8)

(1; −11)

67
Copyright reserved
 b) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2(𝑥 − 1)2 − 8 determine the coordinates of the turning point of 𝑙 if
𝑙 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 − 3) − 3

Answers:

𝑙 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 − 3) − 3
𝑙(𝑥) = 2(𝑥 − 3 − 1)2 − 8 − 3
𝑙(𝑥) = 2(𝑥 − 4)2 − 11 The turning point coordinates are (4; −11) .

21 𝑓 (𝑥) → 𝑓(−𝑥) and 𝑓(𝑥) → −𝑓 (𝑥)

a) Given 𝑓 below:

𝑦 𝑓

(1; −8)

Determine the coordinates at the turning point of:

i. 𝑔 if 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(−𝑥)
ii. ℎ if ℎ(𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
iii. 𝑗 if 𝑗(𝑥) = −𝑓 (𝑥) − 3

Answers:

i. (−1; −8) (−(𝟏) ; −8)

ii. (1; 8) (1 ; −(−𝟖))
iii. (1; 5) (1 ; −(−𝟖) − 𝟑)

𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬

𝑦 𝑦 (1; 8) 𝑦
𝑓 𝑓 (1; 8) 𝑓
(1; 5)
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

𝑔 ℎ 𝑗

(−1; −8) (1; −8) (1; −8) (1; −8)

68
Copyright reserved
 b) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2(𝑥 − 1)2 − 8 determine the coordinates of the turning point of 𝑗 if
𝑗(𝑥) = −𝑓 (𝑥) − 3 .

Answer:

𝑗(𝑥) = −𝑓 (𝑥) − 3
𝑗(𝑥) = −(2(𝑥 − 1)2 − 8) − 3
𝑗(𝑥) = −2(𝑥 − 1)2 + 8 − 3
𝑗(𝑥) = −2(𝑥 − 1)2 + 5 The turning point coordinates are (1; 5) .

22 𝑓 (𝑥) → 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
a) Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 determine the equation of 𝑓 −1 .

Answer:

𝑦 = 2𝑥 2
(swap 𝑥 and 𝑦)

𝑥 = 2𝑦 2 (÷ 2)
𝑥
= 𝑦2 (root)
2
𝑥 𝑥
±√ = 𝑦 ∴ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = ±√
2 2

b) Given 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2(𝑥 − 1)2 − 8 determine the equation of 𝑓 −1 .

Answer:

𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 1)2 − 8 or 𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 1)2 − 8

(swap 𝑥 and 𝑦) (swap 𝑥 and 𝑦)

𝑥 = 2(𝑦 − 1)2 − 8 𝑥 = 2(𝑦 − 1)2 − 8

𝑥 + 8 = 2(𝑦 − 1)2 (÷ 2) 𝑥 + 8 = 2(𝑦 − 1)2 (÷ 2)
𝑥+8 𝑥
= (𝑦 − 1)2 (root) + 4 = (𝑦 − 1)2 (root)
2 2
𝑥+8 𝑥
±√ =𝑦−1 ±√ +4=𝑦−1
2 2

𝑥+8 𝑥
±√ +1=𝑦 ±√ +4+1=𝑦
2 2

𝑥+8 𝑥
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = ±√ +1 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = ±√ + 4 + 1
2 2

69
Copyright reserved
 c) Given 𝑓 below:

𝑦
𝑓

𝑥
−1 3
−6
(1; −8)

Draw the graph of 𝑓 −1 .

Answer:

𝑦 𝑓 −1 𝑓 → 𝑓 −1
3
𝒙 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭 → 𝒚 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭:
(−8; 1) (3; 0) → (0; 3)
(−1; 0) → (0; −1)
−6 𝑥
−1 𝒚 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭 → 𝒙 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭:
(0; −6) → (−6; 0)

𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭:
(1; −8) → (−8; 1)

c) Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 determine the equation of 𝑓 −1 .

Answer:

𝑦 = 2𝑥 (swap 𝑥 and 𝑦)

𝑥 = 2𝑦
log 2 𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = log 2 𝑥

70
Copyright reserved
 d) Given 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 4 determine the equation of 𝑓 −1 .

Answer:

𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4 (swap 𝑥 and 𝑦)

𝑥 = 2𝑦 − 4
𝑥 + 4 = 2𝑦
log 2 (𝑥 + 4) = 𝑦
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = log 2 (𝑥 + 4)

e) Given 𝑓, 𝑔 and ℎ below, draw the graphs of 𝑓 −1 , 𝑔−1 and ℎ−1 .

𝑦 𝑦 𝑦

𝑓 𝑔 ℎ

(2; 4) 2 𝑥 (−2; 4)
1 −3 1
𝑥 𝑦 = −4 𝑥

Answers:

𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
−1 −1
𝑓 𝑔
(4; 2) 2 1 𝑥
1 𝑥 −3 𝑥 (4; −2)
ℎ−1
𝑥 = −4

𝑓 → 𝑓 −1 𝑔 → 𝑔−1 ℎ → ℎ−1
𝒚 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭 → 𝒙 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭: 𝒚 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭 → 𝒙 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭: 𝒚 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭 → 𝒙 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭:
(0; 1) → (1; 0) (0; −3) → (−3; 0) (0; 1) → (1; 0)

𝐎𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭: 𝒙 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭 → 𝒚 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭: 𝐎𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭:

(2; 4) → (4; 2) (2; 0) → (0; 2) (−2; 4) → (4; −2)

𝒚 − 𝐚𝐬𝐲 → 𝒙 − 𝐚𝐬𝐲: 𝒙 − 𝐚𝐬𝐲 → 𝒚 − 𝐚𝐬𝐲: 𝒚 − 𝐚𝐬𝐲 → 𝒙 − 𝐚𝐬𝐲:

𝑦=0 → 𝑥=0 𝑦 = −4 → 𝑥 = −4 𝑦=0 → 𝑥=0

71
Copyright reserved
 f) Given 𝑓 below:

𝑦
𝑓

(1; −8)

Determine the domain and range of:

i. 𝑓
ii. 𝑓 −1

Answer:

i. Domain: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 𝐨𝐫 𝑥 ∈ (−∞; ∞) Range: 𝑦 ≥ −8 𝐨𝐫 𝑦 ∈ [−8; ∞)

ii. Domain: 𝑥 ≥ −8 𝐨𝐫 𝑥 ∈ [−8; ∞) Range: 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 𝐨𝐫 𝑦 ∈ (−∞; ∞)

The domain of 𝑓 is the range of 𝑓 −1 . The range of 𝑓 is the domain of 𝑓 −1 .

g) Given 𝑓 below:

Determine the domain and range of:

i. 𝑓
ii. 𝑓 −1

Answer:

i. Domain: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 𝐨𝐫 𝑥 ∈ (−∞; ∞) Range: 𝑦 > 0 𝐨𝐫 𝑦 ∈ (0; ∞)

ii. Domain: 𝑥 > 0 𝐨𝐫 𝑥 ∈ (0; ∞) Range: 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 𝐨𝐫 𝑦 ∈ (−∞; ∞)

The domain of 𝑓 is the range of 𝑓 −1 . The range of 𝑓 is the domain of 𝑓 −1 .

72
Copyright reserved
23 Vertical line, horizontal line and length
a) Given the graphs below:

1 𝑥

Determine the equations of:

i. vertical line if it is parallel to the 𝑦 axis
ii. horizontal line if it is parallel to the 𝑥 axis

Answer:

i. 𝑥 = 1
ii. 𝑦 = 3

b) Given 𝑓 below:

−1 𝑥

−3

Determine the domain and range of:

i. vertical line if it is parallel to the 𝑦 axis
ii. horizontal line if it is parallel to the 𝑥 axis

Answer:

i. 𝑥 = −1
ii. 𝑦 = −3

73
Copyright reserved
 𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:

𝑥 is 1 throughout the line 𝑦 is 3 throughout the line

𝑦 𝑥=1 𝑦

(𝟏; 3) (−1; 𝟑) (0; 𝟑) (1; 𝟑) 𝑦=3

(𝟏; 0) 𝑥 𝑥

(𝟏; −3)

c) Given 𝑓 and 𝑔 below where 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 6:

𝑦 𝑓
A

−2 1 𝑥
C
B D

If AB and CD are parallel to the 𝑦 axis (or perpendicular to the 𝑥 axis), determine
the length of:
i. AB
ii. CD
ii. BC

Answers:

i. 𝐀: 𝒙 = −𝟐 𝐚𝐭 𝐀 𝐁: 𝒙 = −𝟐 𝐚𝐭 𝐁 𝐀𝐁:
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 6 AB = 10 − (−10)
𝑓(−2) = 2(−2)2 − 4(−2) − 6 𝑔(−2) = 2(−2) − 6 AB = 20 units
𝑓(−2) = 10 𝑔(−2) = −10

ii. 𝐂: 𝒙 = 𝟏 𝐚𝐭 𝐂 𝐃: 𝒙 = 𝟏 𝐚𝐭 𝐃 𝐂𝐃:
𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 6 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 CD = −4 − (−8)
𝑔 (1) = 2(1 ) − 6 𝑓 (1) = 2(1)2 − 4(1) − 6 CD = 4 units
𝑔(1) = −4 𝑓(1) = −8

74
Copyright reserved
 iii. 𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
BC = √((−2) − (1))2 + ((−10) − (−4))2
BC = 3√5 units

24 Function
a) Given 𝑓 below:

𝑦
𝑓

State, giving a reason, whether 𝑓 is a function or not.

Answer:

𝑓 is a function because it passes the vertical line test.

𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:

𝑦
𝑓

Vertical line test means that a vertical line intersects 𝑓 onlyonce at all points on 𝑓 .
The vertical line 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐬 𝑓 only 𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞 hence 𝑓 𝐩𝐚𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐬 the vertical line test.

75
Copyright reserved
 b) Given 𝑓 −1 below:

𝑦 𝑓 −1

State, giving a reason, whether 𝑓 −1 is a function or not.

Answer:

𝑓 −1 is not a function because it does not pass the vertical line test.

𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:

𝑦 𝑓 −1

Vertical line test means that a vertical line intersects 𝑓 only once at all points on 𝑓 .
The vertical line 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐬 𝑓 𝐭𝐰𝐢𝐜𝐞 hence 𝑓 𝐝𝐨𝐞𝐬 𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐩𝐚𝐬𝐬 the vertical line test.

76
Copyright reserved
 c) Given 𝑓 −1 below:

𝑦 𝑓 −1

(−8; 1)
𝑥

Restrict the range of 𝑓 −1 so that 𝑓 −1 is a function.

Answer:

𝑦≤1 or 𝑦 ∈ (−∞; 1] 𝐎𝐑 𝑦≥1 or 𝑦 ∈ [1; ∞)

𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:

𝑦≤1 or 𝑦 ∈ (−∞; 1] 𝑦≥1 or 𝑦 ∈ [1; ∞)

𝑦 𝑦 𝑓 −1

(−8; 1) (−8; 1)

𝑥 𝑥

𝑓 −1

77
Copyright reserved
Chapter 5: Calculus
Section 1: Definitions
 𝒇(𝒙): 𝑓(𝑥) is the 𝑦.
 𝒇′ (𝒙): 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is the gradient of 𝑓(𝑥).
 𝒇′′ (𝒙): 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) is the concavity of 𝑓(𝑥). It is also the gradient of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: This means finding the gradient equation by using 𝑥 𝑛 → 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕: The gradient refers to the steepness and direction of the slope of a graph.
 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚: This is the bend of a graph.
 𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕: This is the point where the concavity changes
 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎: This is the higher turning point.
 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎: This is the lower turning point.
Important Note: General function rules from Chapter 4 apply in cubic functions.
Section 2: Summary of Calculus sections
No. Point Detail
First principles ′( )
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
1 Use 𝑓 𝑥 = lim
(p80) ℎ→0 ℎ
2 Differentiation 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑛 or 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑛 or 𝐷𝑥 [𝑥 𝑛 ]
notation 𝑑𝑦
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
(p82) 𝑑𝑥
3 Differentiation i. 𝑛√𝑥 𝑚 → 𝑥 𝑚 𝑛
steps 1 𝑥 −𝑛
(p82) ii. 𝑛
→
𝑚𝑥 𝑚
𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥 + 𝑚
iii. → separate numerators by writing separate fractions
𝑥
𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥 + 𝑚
iv. → factorise the numerator or denominator or both
𝑥+𝑘
4 Steps for 𝑥 – intercept(s)
drawing cubic 𝑦 – intercept
graphs Turning points
(p87) Inflection point
5 Steps for i. When there are 𝑥-intercepts
finding the 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 )
equation of a
cubic graph ii. When there are no 𝑥-intercepts
(p91) • 𝑓 (𝑥 )
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 )
• 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥)
6 Tangent line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 can be written as 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥). 𝑥 + 𝑐
(p97)
A curve and a tangent line share the same 𝑥, 𝑦 and gradient.

78
Copyright reserved
7 𝒇(𝒙) (𝑦 value) 𝒇′ (𝒙) (gradient) 𝒇′′ (𝒙) (concavity)
a =𝟎 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 0 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 0
(𝑥 intercept) (turning point) (inflection point)
b >𝟎 𝑓 (𝑥 ) > 0 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) > 0 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) > 0
(positive 𝑦) (positive gradient) (concave upward)
c <𝟎 𝑓 (𝑥 ) < 0 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) < 0 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) < 0
(negative 𝑦) (negative gradient) (concave downward)

79
Copyright reserved
1 First principles
a) Determine 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) from first principles if 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 .
Answer:
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) = 2(𝑥 + ℎ )2
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 2(𝑥 + ℎ)(𝑥 + ℎ)
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 2(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 )
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ2
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ2 − 2𝑥 2
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓 (𝑥) = 4𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ2
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
2
′( )
4𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ
𝑓 𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ ( 4𝑥 + 2ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
′( )
𝑓 𝑥 = lim(4𝑥 + 2ℎ)
ℎ→0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 2(0)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥

b) Determine 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) from first principles if 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 .

Answer:
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) = 2(𝑥 + ℎ )2 − (𝑥 + ℎ )
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 2(𝑥 + ℎ)(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑥 − ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 2(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ) − 𝑥 − ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ2 − 𝑥 − ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ2 − 𝑥 − ℎ − (2𝑥 2 − 𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ2 − 𝑥 − ℎ − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓 (𝑥) = 4𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ2 − ℎ
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
2
4𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ −ℎ
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ ( 4𝑥 + 2ℎ − 1)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim(4𝑥 + 2ℎ − 1)
ℎ→0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 2(0) − 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 1
80
Copyright reserved
 2
c) Determine 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) from first principles if 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥

Answer:

2
𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥

2
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) =
𝑥+ℎ

2 2
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = −
𝑥+ℎ 𝑥
2𝑥 − 2(𝑥 + ℎ)
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ)
2𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 2ℎ
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ)
−2ℎ
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ)

𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
−2ℎ
𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
−2ℎ
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim ÷ℎ
ℎ→0 𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ)
−2ℎ 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim ×
ℎ→0 𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ) ℎ
−2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ)
−2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) =
𝑥(𝑥 + 0)
2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = − 2
𝑥

81
Copyright reserved
2 Differentiation notation
a) Determine 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 .

Answer:

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3

𝑑𝑦
b) Determine if 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4 .
𝑑𝑥

Answer:

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4
𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3
𝑑𝑥

c) Determine 𝐷𝑥 [𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4] .

Answer:

𝐷𝑥 [𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 4]
= 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3

3 𝑛
𝑚 1 𝑥 −𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥 + 𝑚 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥 + 𝑚
Differentiation steps i. √𝑥 𝑚 → 𝑥 𝑛 ii. → iii. iv.
𝑚𝑥 𝑛 𝑚 𝑥 𝑥+𝑘
a) Determine 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) if:
i. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4√𝑥 3
3
ii. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 √𝑥 4
iii. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 4√𝑥
3
4√𝑥 4
iv. 𝑓 (𝑥) =
5

Answers:

3
i. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4√𝑥 3 ii. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 √𝑥 4
3 4
𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3
1
1 16𝑥 3
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 6𝑥 2 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) =
3

82
Copyright reserved
 3
4√𝑥 4
iii. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4√𝑥 iv. 𝑓(𝑥) =
5
4
1 4𝑥 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
5
1
1 16𝑥 3
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 −2 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) =
15
2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 1
𝑥2

𝑑𝑦
b) Determine if:
𝑑𝑥
1
i. 𝑦 =
𝑥
4
ii. 𝑦 = 2
𝑥
4
iii. 𝑦 =
√𝑥 3
4𝑥 2
iv. 𝑦 =
√𝑥 3
4
v. 𝑦 =
5√𝑥 3
4
vi. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 4√𝑥 +
√𝑥 3

Answers:

1 4
i. 𝑦= ii. 𝑦=
𝑥 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑥 −1 𝑦 = 4𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= −𝑥 −2 = −8𝑥 −3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 8
=− 2 =− 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥

83
Copyright reserved
 4 4𝑥 2
iii. 𝑦 = iv. 𝑦=
√𝑥 3 √𝑥 3
4 4𝑥 2
𝑦= 3 𝑦= 3
𝑥2 𝑥2
3 3
𝑦 = 4𝑥 −2 𝑦 = 4𝑥 2−2
𝑑𝑦 5 1
= −6𝑥 −2 𝑦 = 4𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 6 𝑑𝑦 1
=− 5 = 2𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
𝑑𝑦 2
= 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2

4 4
v. 𝑦= vi. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 4√𝑥 +
5√𝑥 3 √𝑥 3
4 1 4
𝑦= 3 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 3
5𝑥 2 𝑥2
3
4𝑥 −2 1 3
𝑦= 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 −2
5
5
𝑑𝑦 6𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑦 1 5
=− = 6𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 −2 − 6𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 6 𝑑𝑦 2 6
=− 5 = 6𝑥 2 + 1 − 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
5𝑥 2 𝑥2 𝑥2

𝑑𝑦
c) Determine if:
𝑑𝑥
3𝑥 − 4
i. 𝑦 =
𝑥
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4
ii. 𝑦 =
𝑥2
3𝑥 − 4
iii. 𝑦 =
√𝑥 3
3𝑥 − 4
vi. 𝑦 = 𝜋𝑥 2 +
𝑥

84
Copyright reserved
 Answers:

3𝑥 − 4 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4
i. 𝑦= ii. 𝑦=
𝑥 𝑥2
2
3𝑥 4 𝑥 3𝑥 4
𝑦= − 𝑦= 2+ 2− 2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = 3 − 4𝑥 −1 𝑦 = 1 + 3𝑥 1−2 − 4𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑦
= 4𝑥 −2 𝑦 = 1 + 3𝑥 −1 − 4𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 4 𝑑𝑦
= 2 = −3𝑥 −2 + 8𝑥 −3
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 3 8
=− 2+ 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

3𝑥 − 4 3𝑥 − 4
iii. 𝑦 = iv. 𝑦 = 𝜋𝑥 2 +
√𝑥 3 𝑥
3𝑥 − 4 3𝑥 4
𝑦= 3 𝑦 = 𝜋𝑥 2 + −
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥2
3𝑥 4
𝑦= 3− 3 𝑦 = 𝜋𝑥 2 + 3 − 4𝑥 −1
𝑥2 𝑥2
3 3 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 3𝑥 1−2 − 4𝑥 −2 = 2𝜋𝑥 + 4𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑥
1 3 𝑑𝑦 4
𝑦 = 3𝑥 −2 − 4𝑥 −2 = 2𝜋𝑥 + 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
3
𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 −2 5
=− + 6𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 3 6
=− 3+ 5
𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 2 𝑥 2

d) Determine the following:

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥
i. 𝐷𝑥 [ ]
𝑥−4
𝑥 2 − 16
ii. 𝐷𝑥 [ ]
𝑥−4
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4
iii. 𝐷𝑥 [ ]
𝑥−4
𝑥 3 − 64
iv. 𝐷𝑥 [ ]
𝑥−4
𝑥 2 − 16
v. 𝐷𝑥 [ 2 ]
𝑥 − 4𝑥

85
Copyright reserved
 Answers:

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 𝑥 2 − 16
i. 𝐷𝑥 [ ] ii. 𝐷𝑥 [ ]
𝑥−4 𝑥−4
𝑥(𝑥 − 4) (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 4)
= 𝐷𝑥 [ ] = 𝐷𝑥 [ ]
𝑥−4 𝑥−4
= 𝐷𝑥 [𝑥] = 𝐷𝑥 [𝑥 + 4]
=1 =1

𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 𝑥 3 − 64
iii. 𝐷𝑥 [ ] iv. 𝐷𝑥 [ ]
𝑥−4 𝑥−4
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4) (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 16)
= 𝐷𝑥 [ ] = 𝐷𝑥 [ ]
𝑥−4 𝑥−4
= 𝐷𝑥 [𝑥 + 1] = 𝐷𝑥 [𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 16]
=1 = 2𝑥 + 4

𝑥 2 − 16
v. 𝐷𝑥 [ 2 ]
𝑥 − 4𝑥
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 4)
= 𝐷𝑥 [ ]
𝑥(𝑥 − 4)
𝑥+4
= 𝐷𝑥 [ ]
𝑥
𝑥 4
= 𝐷𝑥 [ + ]
𝑥 𝑥
= 𝐷𝑥 [1 + 4𝑥 −1 ]
= −4𝑥 −2
4
=− 2
𝑥

86
Copyright reserved
4 Steps for drawing cubic graphs
a) Draw the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 30 .
Answers:

𝒙 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭:
0 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 30 𝐎𝐑 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 15
0 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 15) 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 30
2𝑘𝑥 − 15𝑥 = −11𝑥 (÷ 𝑥) − (𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 )
2𝑘 − 15 = −11 2𝑥 2 − 11𝑥
0 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 15) 2𝑘 = 4 − (2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥)
0 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 5) 𝑘=2 − 15𝑥 − 30
𝑥 = −2 or 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = −5 − (−15𝑥 − 30)
(−2; 0) (3; 0) (−5; 0) 0
0 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 15)
0 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 5)
𝑥 = −2 or 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = −5
𝐎𝐑 (−2; 0) (3; 0) (−5; 0)

0 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 30 −2 1 4 − 11 − 30
0 = (𝑥 + 2)(1𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 15) + + +
0 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 5) −2 −4 30
𝑥 = −2 or 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = −5 1 2 − 15 0
(−2; 0) (3; 0) (−5; 0)

𝒚 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭:
𝑓(0) = (0)3 + 4(0)2 − 11(0) − 30
𝑓(0) = −30
(0; −30)

𝐓𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭:
𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 11
0 = 3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 11
0 = (3𝑥 + 11)(𝑥 − 1)
3𝑥 = −11 or 𝑥=1
11
𝑥=− (or − 3,7)
3

−11 −11 3 −11 2 −11

𝑓( )=( ) + 4( ) − 11 ( ) − 30 or 𝑓(1) = (1)3 + 4(1)2 − 11(1) − 30
3 3 3 3
11 400
𝑓 (− ) = (or 14,8) 𝑓(1) = −36
3 27
11 400
(− ; ) (or (−3,7; 14,8)) (1; −36)
3 27

87
Copyright reserved
 𝐈𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭:
𝑓′′(𝑥) = 6𝑥 + 8
0 = 6𝑥 + 8
−6𝑥 = 8
4
𝑥 = − (or − 1,3)
3

4 4 3 4 2 4
𝑓 (− ) = (− ) + 4 (− ) − 11 (− ) − 30
3 3 3 3
4 286
𝑓 (− ) = − (or − 10,6)
3 27
4 286
(− ; − ) (or (−1,3; −10,6))
3 27

𝐎𝐑

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑥= or 𝑦 =
2 2
11 400
− +1 − 36
𝑥= 3 𝑦 = 27
2 2
4 286
𝑥=− 𝑦=−
3 27
4 286
(− ; − ) (or (−1,3; −10,6))
3 27

𝑦 𝑓

(−3,7; 14,8)

−5 −2 3 𝑥

(−1,3; −10,6)

−30
(1; −36)

88
Copyright reserved
 b) Draw the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 5 .

Answers:

𝒙 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭:
0 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 5 𝐎𝐑 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5
0 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 5) 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 5
𝑘𝑥 − 5𝑥 = −9𝑥 (÷ 𝑥) − (𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 )
𝑘 − 5 = −9 − 4𝑥 2 − 9𝑥
0 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5) 𝑘 = −4 − (−4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥)
0 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 5) − 5𝑥 − 5
𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = 5 − (−5𝑥 − 5)
(−1; 0) (−1; 0) (5; 0) 0

0 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5)
0 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 5)
𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = 5
𝐎𝐑 (−1; 0) (−1; 0) (5; 0)

0 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 5 −1 1 −3 −9 −5
0 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5) + + +
0 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 5) −1 4 5
𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = 5 1 −4 −5 0
(−1; 0) (−1; 0) (5; 0)

𝒚 − 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭:
𝑓 ( 0) = ( 0) 3 − 3( 0 ) 2 − 9( 0) − 5
𝑓(0) = −5
(0; −5)

𝐓𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭:
𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 9
0 = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 9
0 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
0 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = 3

𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 − 3(−1)2 − 9(−1) − 5 or 𝑓 (3) = (3)3 − 3(3)2 − 9(3) − 5

𝑓(−1) = 0 𝑓(3) = −32
(−1; 0) (3; −32)

89
Copyright reserved
 𝐈𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭:
𝑓′′(𝑥) = 6𝑥 − 6
0 = 6𝑥 − 6
−6𝑥 = −6
𝑥=1

𝑓 ( 1) = ( 1) 3 − 3( 1 ) 2 − 9( 1) − 5
𝑓(𝑥) = −16
(1; −16)

𝐎𝐑

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑥= or 𝑦=
2 2
−1 + 3 0 − 32
𝑥= 𝑦=
2 2
𝑥=1 𝑦 = −16
(1; −16)

−1 5 𝑥
−5

(1; −16)

𝑓 (3; −32)

90
Copyright reserved
5 Steps for finding the equation of a cubic graph
a) Given the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 , determine the values of 𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑐
and 𝑑.

𝑦
(4; 54)

−5 −2 3 𝑥

Answer:

𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 )

54 = 𝑎(4 + 5)(4 + 2)(4 − 3)
54 = 54𝑎
1=𝑎

𝑦 = 1(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3)

𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 10)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 10)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 2 − 21𝑥 + 10𝑥 − 30
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 30

𝑎=1 𝑏=4 𝑐 = −11 𝑑 = −30

91
Copyright reserved
 b) Given the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 , determine the values of 𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑐
and 𝑑.

𝑦
(4; 108)

−5 −2 3 𝑥

Answer:

𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 )

108 = 𝑎 (4 + 5)(4 + 2)(4 − 3)
108 = 54𝑎
2=𝑎

𝑦 = 2(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3)

𝑦 = 2(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 10)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 10)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 2 − 21𝑥 + 10𝑥 − 30)
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 30)
𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 − 22𝑥 − 60

𝑎=2 𝑏=8 𝑐 = −22 𝑑 = −60

92
Copyright reserved
 c) Given the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 , determine the values of 𝑏 , 𝑐 and 𝑑.

𝑦
𝑓

−5 −2 3 𝑥

Answer:

𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 )

𝑦 = 1(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 10)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 10)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 2 − 21𝑥 + 10𝑥 − 30
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 30

𝑏=4 𝑐 = −11 𝑑 = −30

93
Copyright reserved
 d) Given the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 , determine the values of 𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑐
and 𝑑.

𝑦
𝑓

−1 5 𝑥

(4; −25)

Answer:

𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 )

−25 = 𝑎(4 + 1)(4 + 1)(4 − 5)
−25 = −25𝑎
1=𝑎

𝑦 = 1(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 5)

𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 5)
𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 5)
𝑦 = (𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 𝑥 − 5)
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 5

𝑎=1 𝑏 = −3 𝑐 = −9 𝑑 = −5

94
Copyright reserved
 e) Given the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 − 30 and turning point (1; −36), show
that 𝑏 = 4 and 𝑐 = −11.

𝑦
𝑓

(1; −36)

Answer:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 − 30
−36 = (1)3 + 𝑏(1)2 + 𝑐 (1) − 30
−36 = 1 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 30
−36 = 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 29
−7 = 𝑏 + 𝑐 (1)

𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
0 = 3(1)2 + 2𝑏(1) + 𝑐
0 = 3 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐
−3 = 2𝑏 + 𝑐 (2)

(𝟐 ) : − 3 = 2𝑏 + 𝑐
−3 − 2𝑏 = 𝑐

𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬 (𝟏) : −7=𝑏+𝑐

−7 = 𝑏 + (−3 − 2𝑏)
−7 = 𝑏 − 3 − 2𝑏
−7 = −𝑏 − 3
−4 = −𝑏
4=𝑏

𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬 (𝟐): 𝑐 = −3 − 2𝑏
𝑐 = −3 − 2(4)
𝑐 = −11

95
Copyright reserved
 f) Below is graph 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 − 30 . The straight line 𝑦 = 17𝑥 − 62 is a
tangent to 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 2 . Show that 𝑏 = 4 and 𝑐 = −11 .

(2; 𝑦)
𝑓

Answer:
𝑦 = 17𝑥 − 62
𝑦 = 17(2) − 62
𝑦 = −28
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 − 30
−28 = (2)3 + 𝑏(2)2 + 𝑐 (2) − 30
−28 = 8 + 4𝑏 + 2𝑐 − 30
−28 = 4𝑏 + 2𝑐 − 22
−6 = 4𝑏 + 2𝑐 (1)
𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
17 = 3(2)2 + 2𝑏(2) + 𝑐
17 = 12 + 4𝑏 + 𝑐
5 = 4𝑏 + 𝑐 (2)
(𝟐 ): 5 = 4𝑏 + 𝑐
5 − 4𝑏 = 𝑐
𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬 (𝟏) : − 6 = 4𝑏 + 2𝑐
−6 = 4𝑏 + 2(5 − 4𝑏)
−6 = 4𝑏 + 10 − 8𝑏
−6 = −4𝑏 + 10
−16 = −4𝑏
4=𝑏
𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬 (𝟐): 𝑐 = 5 − 4𝑏
𝑐 = 5 − 4(4)
𝑐 = −11

96
Copyright reserved
6 Tangent line
a) Given the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 30 , determine the equation of the
tangent line to 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 2 .

(2; 𝑦)
𝑓

Answer:

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 30
𝑓(2) = (2)3 + 4(2)2 − 11(2) − 30
𝑓(2) = −28

𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 11
𝑓′(2) = 3(2)2 + 8(2) − 11
𝑓′(2) = 17

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
−28 = (17)(2) + 𝑐
−28 = 34 + 𝑐
−62 = 𝑐

𝑦 = 17𝑥 − 62

97
Copyright reserved
 b) Given the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 30 , determine the equation of the
tangent line to 𝑓 that is parallel to 𝑦 = 17𝑥 − 30 where 𝑥 > 0 .

(𝑥; 𝑦)
𝑓

𝑦 = 17𝑥 − 30

Answer:

𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 11
17 = 3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 11
0 = 3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 28
0 = (3𝑥 + 14)(𝑥 − 2)
3𝑥 = −14 or 𝑥 = 2
14
𝑥≠−
3

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 30
𝑓(2) = (2)3 + 4(2)2 − 11(2) − 30
𝑓(2) = −28

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
−28 = (17)(2) + 𝑐
−28 = 34 + 𝑐
−62 = 𝑐

𝑦 = 17𝑥 − 62

98
Copyright reserved
 c) Given the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 30 , determine the equation of the
1
tangent line to 𝑓 that is perpendicular to 𝑦 = − 𝑥 − 30 where 𝑥 > 0 .
17

(𝑥; 𝑦)
𝑓
𝑥
𝑦=− − 30
17

Answer:

𝑚1 × 𝑚2 = −1
1
− × 𝑚2 = −1
17
𝑚2 = 17

𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 11
17 = 3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 11
0 = 3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 28
0 = (3𝑥 + 14)(𝑥 − 2)
3𝑥 = −14 or 𝑥 = 2
14
𝑥≠−
3

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 30
𝑓(2) = (2)3 + 4(2)2 − 11(2) − 30
𝑓(2) = −28

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
−28 = (17)(2) + 𝑐
−28 = 34 + 𝑐
−62 = 𝑐

𝑦 = 17𝑥 − 62

99
Copyright reserved
Chapter 6: Statistics
Section 1: Definitions

 Correlation coefficient: This is the coefficient that represents how well the two
variables in the data set correlate with each other.
 Cumulative frequency: This is the total number of items from the lowest to the given
interval.
 Decile: Decile is the value below which a tenth (1/10) of items in a set fall.
 Frequency: Frequency is the number of items in a given interval.
 Interquartile range (𝑰𝑸𝑹): This is the difference between the upper quartile and the
lower quartile.
 Lower quartile (𝑸𝟏 ): This is the value below which twenty five percent (25%) of
items in a set fall.
 Maximum (𝑸𝟒 ): Maximum is the highest number.
 Mean ( 𝒙 ̅ ): Mean is the average number.
 Median (𝑸𝟐 ): This is the middle number or the value below which fifty percent (50%)
of items in a set fall.
 Minimum: Minimum is the lowest number.
 Mode: Mode is the number that appears the most.
 Modal class: Modal class is the interval that has the highest frequency.
 𝒏: 𝑛 is the total frequency.
 Percentile: Percentile is the value below which a given percentage of items in a set fall
 Range: Range is the difference between the maximum and the minimum.
 Regression line: Regression line is the line that best represents the data in the set
(line of best fit).
 Standard deviation: A number that represents how far a set of numbers have spread
from the mean.
 Upper quartile (𝑸𝟑 ): This is the value below which seventy five percent (75%) of
items in a set fall.
 Variance: Variance describes the spread of the data.

100
Copyright reserved
Section 2: Regression line

No.
1 Regression line formula 𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 (p104)
2 Regression line graph illustrations
𝑦 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 (𝐵 > 0)

𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 (𝐵 < 0)
𝑥 𝑥
3 𝜎𝑥
𝑟=𝐵
𝜎𝑦
Correlation coefficient

-1 -0,8 -0,5 0 0,5 0,8 1

Strong Moderate Weak Weak Moderate Strong

Perfect correlation No Perfect correlation

Section 3: Formulae

No. Variable Formula

1 Median 𝑛+1
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 =
2
2 Lower quartile 𝑛+1
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 =
4
3 Upper quartile 3(𝑛 + 1)
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 =
4
4 Decile 𝑥(𝑛 + 1)
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑒 =
10
5 Percentile 𝑥(𝑛 + 1)
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 =
100
6 Mean ∑𝑛𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ∑𝑛𝑖 𝑓𝑖 𝑥̅𝑖
𝑥= or 𝑥 = (frequency table)
𝑛 𝑛
7 Standard deviation
∑𝑛𝑖(𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇)2
𝜎𝑥 = √
𝑛
𝑛
8 Variance 2
∑𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇)2
𝜎𝑥 =
𝑛
9 Range 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
10 Interquartile range 𝐼𝑄𝑅 = 𝑄3 − 𝑄1
11 Regression line 𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥
12 Correlation coefficient 𝜎𝑥
𝑟=𝐵
𝜎𝑦

101
Copyright reserved
Section 4: Calculating the mean, standard deviation and regression line variables using STAT
function (p107)

No. Variable Step

1 𝑥̅ or 𝜎𝑥 Press Mode → STATS → 1−VAR → enter 𝑥 values → AC → Shift → 1 →
VAR → 𝑥̅ or 𝜎𝑥 → =
2 𝐴 or 𝐵 or 𝑟 Press Mode → STATS → 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 → enter 𝑥 and 𝑦 values → AC → Shift → 1
→ Reg → 𝐴 or 𝐵 or 𝑟 → =

Section 5: Box and Whisker (p108)

Note: 25% of the data lies between each quartile see below.

Skewness: symmetrical
25% 25% 25% 25%

Skewness: skewed left

Min Q1 Q2 Q3 Max

Interquartile range (IQR)

Skewness: skewed right
Range

Section 6: Frequency table and ogive (cumulative frequency diagram) (p109)

No. Detail
1 Frequency column relates to histogram or frequency polygon.
2 Cumulative frequency column relates to ogive.
3 To determine the cumulative frequency amounts add the frequency amounts.
4 To determine the frequency amounts subtract cumulative frequency amounts.
5 Modal class is the interval that has the highest frequency, the highest bar on the
histogram and the steepest gradient on the ogive.
6 ∑𝑛𝑖 𝑓𝑖 𝑥̅𝑖
To calculate the mean we use the formula 𝜇 =
𝑛
7 𝑛
To find the median use the formula 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = and trace on the ogive.
2
8 𝑛
To find the lower quartile use the formula 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = and trace on the ogive.
4
9 3𝑛
To find the upper quartile use the formula 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = and trace on the
4
ogive.

102
Copyright reserved
Section 7: Mean and standard deviation (p107)

No. Detail
1 𝑥̅ (mean) is the middle point of the normal distribution.
2 𝜎 (standard deviation) represents the spread from the mean
3 The greater the range the greater the standard deviation.
The diagram below is a Normal distribution where the skewness is symmetrical.

𝑥̅ − 2𝜎 𝑥̅ − 𝜎 𝑥̅ 𝑥̅ + 𝜎 𝑥̅ + 2𝜎

One standard deviation

Two standard deviations

103
Copyright reserved
1 Regression line formula 𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥
a) The height of ten long jump athletes were recorded. The distances that the athletes
jumped were also recorded. Below is a table and a scatter plot of the height and
distance jumped by each athlete.

Athlete 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Height 1,60 1,70 1,75 1,75 1,80 1,85 1,90 1,95 2,05 2,15
Length 7,1 7 6,9 7,3 7,5 7,4 7,2 8,1 7,9 8

Height of athlete vs distance jumped by athlete

8,5
8,4
8,3
8,2
8,1
Disatnce jumped by athletes (m)

8,0
7,9
7,8
7,7
7,6
7,5
7,4
7,3
7,2
7,1
7,0
6,9
6,8
6,7
6,6
6,5
1,50 1,55 1,60 1,65 1,70 1,75 1,80 1,85 1,90 1,95 2,00 2,05 2,10 2,15 2,20
Height of athletes (m)

i. Determine the equation of least squares (or regression line).

ii. Estimate the distance that would be jumped by a long jump athlete who has a height
of 2,1m.
iii. Estimate the height of a long jump athlete who jumps 7,7m.
iv. Determine the correlation coeffcient.
v. Comment on the strength of the relationship between height of athlete and distance
jumped (or correlation of height of athlete and distance jumped).

Answer:

i. 𝑦 = 3,52 + 2,12𝑥 (from 𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥)

ii. 𝑦 = 3,52 + 2,12(2,1) = 7,97m

104
Copyright reserved
 iii. 7,7 = 3,52 + 2,12𝑥
4,18 = 2,12𝑥
1,97m = 𝑥
iv. 𝑟 = 0,83
v. Correlation is strong and positive.
(strong because 0,8 < 𝑟 < 1 and positive because 𝑟 is positive)

b) The height of ten athletes were recorded. The times taken by the athletes to complete a 100m
were also recorded. Below is a table and a scatter plot of the height and time of each athlete.
Athlete 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Height 1,6 1,7 1,75 1,75 1,8 1,85 1,9 1,95 2,05 2,15
Time 10 9,7 10,2 10,4 9,3 10,4 10,3 9,1 9,2 9,8

Height of athletes vs Time taken to complete 100m sprint

10,5
10,4
10,3
Time taken to complete 100m sprint (s)

10,2
10,1
10,0
9,9
9,8
9,7
9,6
9,5
9,4
9,3
9,2
9,1
9,0
1,50 1,55 1,60 1,65 1,70 1,75 1,80 1,85 1,90 1,95 2,00 2,05 2,10 2,15 2,20
Height of Athletes

i. Determine the equation of least squares (or regression line).

ii. Estimate the time taken to complete a 100m sprint by an athlete who has a height of
2,1m.
iii. Estimate the height of an athlete who takes 9,9s to complete a 100m sprint.
iv. Determine the correlation coeffcient.
v. Comment on the strength of the relationship between height of athlete and time
taken to complete 100m sprint
(or correlation of height of athlete and time taken to complete 100m sprint).
vi. Draw a regression line on the scatter plot.

105
Copyright reserved
 Answer:

i. 𝑦 = 11,88 − 1,1𝑥 (from 𝑦 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥)

ii. 𝑦 = 11,88 − 1,1(2,1) = 9,57s

iii. 9,9 = 11,88 − 1,1𝑥

−1,98 = −1,1𝑥
1,8m = 𝑥

iv. 𝑟 = −0,37

v. Correlation is weak and negative.

(weak because 0 < 𝑟 < 0,5 and negative because 𝑟 is negative)

vi.

Height of athletes vs Time taken to complete 100m sprint

10,5
10,4
10,3
Time taken to complete 100m sprint (s)

10,2
10,1
10,0
9,9
9,8
9,7
9,6
9,5
9,4
9,3
9,2
9,1
9,0
1,50 1,55 1,60 1,65 1,70 1,75 1,80 1,85 1,90 1,95 2,00 2,05 2,10 2,15 2,20
Height of Athletes

Determine two points on the graph and draw a straight line through the two points.
e. g. 𝑦 = 11,88 − 1,1𝑥
𝑦 = 11,88 − 1,1(1,8) = 9,9 (1,8; 9,9)
𝑦 = 11,88 − 1,1(1,7) = 10 (1,7; 10)

106
Copyright reserved
2 Standard deviation and mean
The maximum temparature each day is recorded for 10 consective days. Below are the
temperatures for the ten days.

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Temperature
20 21 25 26 28 30 31 33 35 36
(ᵒC)

a) Determine the mean.

b) Determine the standard deviation.
c) How many days had a temperature that is more than one standard deviation above the
mean?
d) How many days had a temperature that is less than one standard deviation below the
mean?
e) How many days had a temperature that is within one standard deviation from the
mean?

Answer:

a) 28,5 ℃

b) 5,24 ℃

c) one standard deviation above = 28,5 + 5,24 = 33,74 ℃

2 days had a temperature that is more than one standard deviation above the mean.

d) one standard deviation below = 28,5 − 5,24 = 23,26 ℃

2 days had a temperature that is less than one standard deviation below the mean.

e) 6 days had a temperature that is within one standard deviation from the mean.

𝐈𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:

23,26 28,5 33,74

(1 standard below) (1 standard above)

20; 21 25; 26; 28; 30; 31; 33 35; 36

(2 days) (6 days) (2 days)

107
Copyright reserved
3 Box and whisker
The maximum temperature of each day is recorded for 20 consective days. Below is a box and w
diagram representing the maximum temperatures (in ℃) of the 20 days.

20 23 28 32 36

a) What was the highest (maximum) temperature experienced during the 20 days?
b) What was the lowest (minimum) temperature experienced during the 20 days?
c) Determine the range of the temperatures.
d) Determine the interquartile range (IQR) of the temperatures.
e) Comment on the skewness of the data.
f) What percentage of days had a maximum temperature that is less than 23 ℃?
g) What percentage of days had a maximum temperature that is more than 23 ℃?
h) What percentage of days had a maximum temperature that is less than 28 ℃?
i) What percentage of days had a maximum temperature that is less than 32 ℃?
j) What percentage of days had a maximum temperature that is more than 32 ℃?
k) How many days had a maximum temperature that is less than 23 ℃?
l) How many days had a maximum temperature that is less than 28 ℃?

Answer:

a) 36 ℃

b) 20 ℃

c) range = maximum − minimum

range = 36 − 20
range = 16 ℃

d) IQR = Q 3 − Q1
IQR = 32 − 23
IQR = 9 ℃

e) The data is symmetric (or normal).

f) 25%

g) 75% (25% + 25% + 25% or 3 × 25%)

h) 50% (25% + 25% or 2 × 25%)

108
Copyright reserved
 i) 75% (25% + 25% + 25% or 3 × 25%)

j) 25%

k) 25% × 20 = 5 days

l) 50% × 20 = 10 days

4 Frequency table and Ogive (Cumulative Frequency Diagram)

a) The maximum temperature of each day is recorded for 165 consective days. Below is a
frequency table representing the maximum temperatures (in ℃) of the 165 days.

Temperature Frequency Cumulative

(ᵒC) (days) Frequency
20 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 25 34 𝑎
25 < 𝑥 ≤ 30 50 𝑏
30 < 𝑥 ≤ 35 58 𝑐
35 < 𝑥 ≤ 40 23 𝑑
Total 165

i. Determine the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑.

ii. Determine the modal class.
iii. Determine the mean.
iv. Draw the ogive (or cumulative frequency diagram).
v. How many days had a temperature that is less than 28 ℃?
vi. How many days had a temperature that is between 28 ℃ and 33 ℃?
vii. How many days had a temperature that is more than 33 ℃?
viii. Determine the lower quartile (or 𝑄1 ).
ix. Determine the median (or 𝑄2 ).
x. Determine the upper quartile (or 𝑄3 ).
xi. Determine the interquartile range (or IQR).
xii. Determine the range.

Answer:

i. 𝑎 = 34
𝑏 = 34 + 50 = 84
𝑐 = 84 + 58 = 142
𝑑 = 142 + 23 = 165

ii. 30 < 𝑥 ≤ 35 (the modal class has the highest frequency which is 58 in this case)

109
Copyright reserved
 iii. 29,62 ℃ (see below two methods to determine the mean)

𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐡𝐨𝐝 𝟏: 𝐂𝐚𝐥𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫

Press Mode → STATS → 1 − VAR → enter values as indicated below → AC → Shift → 1

→ VAR → 𝑥̅ → =

X FREQ
(20 + 25)
34
2
(25 + 30) 50
2
(30 + 35) 58
2
(35 + 40) 23
2
Total 165

𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐡𝐨𝐝 𝟐: 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

Cumulative
Temperature (ᵒC) 𝒇 ̅
𝒙
Frequency
(20 + 25)
20 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 25 34 𝑎 = 22,5
2
25 < 𝑥 ≤ 30 50 (25 + 30)
𝑏 = 27,5
2
30 < 𝑥 ≤ 35 58 (30 + 35)
𝑐 = 32,5
2
35 < 𝑥 ≤ 40 23 (35 + 40)
𝑑 = 37,5
2
Total 165

(34 × 22,5) + (50 × 27,5) + (58 × 32,5) + (23 × 37,5)

Estimated mean =
165
Estimated mean = 29,62 ℃

110
Copyright reserved
 iv.

Ogive of Temperatures vs Days

170

160

150

140

130

120

110

100
Number of days

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Temperature (⁰C)

v. 62 days

vi. 120 − 62 = 58 days

vii. 165 − 120 = 45 days

111
Copyright reserved
 Ogive of Temperatures vs Days
170

160

150

140

130

120

110

100
Number of days

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Temperature (⁰C)

𝑛 165
viii. Position = = = 41,25 Q1 = 25,9 ℃
4 4

𝑛 165
ix. Position = = = 82,5 Q 2 = 29,9 ℃
2 2

3𝑛 3(165)
x. Position = = = 123,75 Q 3 = 33,2 ℃
4 2

xi. IQR = Q 3 − Q1
IQR = 33,2 − 25,9
IQR = 7,3 ℃

xii. range = maximum − minimum

range = 40 − 20
range = 20 ℃

112
Copyright reserved
 b) The maximum temperature of each day is recorded for 165 consective days. Below is a
frequency table representing the maximum temperatures (in ℃) of the 165 days.

Temperature Frequency Cumulative

(ᵒC) (days) Frequency
20 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 25 𝑎 34
25 < 𝑥 ≤ 30 𝑏 84
30 < 𝑥 ≤ 35 𝑐 142
35 < 𝑥 ≤ 40 𝑑 165

Determine the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑.

Answer:

𝑎 = 34
𝑏 = 84 − 34 = 50
𝑐 = 142 − 84 = 58
𝑑 = 165 − 142 = 23

113
Copyright reserved
Chapter 7: Analytical Geometry
Section 1: Definitions

 Bisect: To bisect means to cut in half.

 Collinear: Points are collinear if they have the same gradient or lie on the same line.
 Decreasing: Decreasing means that the 𝑦 values on a graph decrease as the 𝑥 values
increase.
 Diameter: Diameter is the line from the circumference of a circle through the centre
to the other side of the circumference of the circle.
 Gradient: Gradient refers to the steepness and direction of a graph.
 𝒇(𝒙): 𝑓(𝑥) is the 𝑦.
 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙): 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is the 𝑦 in the inverse function of 𝑓(𝑥).
 𝒇′ (𝒙): 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is the gradient of 𝑓(𝑥).
 Increasing: Increasing means that the 𝑦 values on a graph increase as the 𝑥 values
increase.
 Intercept: An intercept is a point where a graph meets an 𝑥 or 𝑦 axis.
 Intersection: An intersection is a point where two graphs meet. The 𝑥 and 𝑦 values of
the two graphs are equal at this point.
 Inverse: An inverse of a graph is reflection of the graph across the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
 Midpoint: The middle point between two points.
 Perpendicular: This is an angle of 90°.
 Radius: The line from the centre to the circumference of a circle.
 Transformation: Transformation refers to horizontal or vertical shifts as well as
reflections across the 𝑥 or 𝑦 axis or across other lines.
 Tangent: Line that only touches the circle once and cannot cut through the
circumference if extended.
 Vertex: The corner of a shape where two lines intersect.

Important Note: General function rules from Chapter 4 apply in Analytical Geometry.

Section 2: Formulae

No. Formula Use when

1 𝑚 = 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 given 2 points
𝑥1 − 𝑥2
2 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 given parallel lines or a shape that has parallel lines
3 𝑚1 × 𝑚2 = −1 given perpendicular lines or a shape that has
perpendicular lines
4 𝑚 = tan 𝜃 (p116) given or asked to calculate an angle

114
Copyright reserved
No. Formula Use when
5 𝑑 = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 − (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2 given or asked to calculate length
6 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 asked to calculate midpoint or given that a line
(𝑥 = ;𝑦 = )
2 2 bisects another line
(p118)
7 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 asked to find the equation of a straight line
or 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
8 (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 asked to find the equation of a circle
𝑎 is the 𝑥 value at the centre
𝑏 is the 𝑦 value at the centre
𝑟 is the radius
(p119)
9 Tangent to circle Tangent is 90° to the radius or diameter.
(p120)

115
Copyright reserved
4 𝑚 = tan 𝜃
a) Determine the equations of graphs 𝑓 and 𝑔 .
𝑦 𝑓 𝑔 𝑦

(−1; 2) (1; 2)

63,43° 116,57°
𝑥 𝑥

Answer:
𝒇: 𝑚 = tan 𝜃 𝒈: 𝑚 = tan 𝜃
𝑚 = tan 63,43° 𝑚 = tan 116,57°
𝑚=2 𝑚 = −2
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 𝐨𝐫 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 𝐨𝐫 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
2 = 2(−1) + 𝑐 𝑦 − (2) = 2(𝑥 − (−1)) 2 = −2(1) + 𝑐 𝑦 − (2) = −2(𝑥 − (1))
2 = −2 + 𝑐 𝑦 − 2 = 2(𝑥 + 1) 2 = −2 + 𝑐 𝑦 − 2 = −2(𝑥 − 1)
4=𝑐 𝑦 − 2 = 2𝑥 + 2 4=𝑐 𝑦 − 2 = −2𝑥 + 2
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 4 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 4
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 4 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 4

b) Determine the angle of inclination for graphs 𝑓 and 𝑔 if 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 4 and

𝑔(𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 4 .
𝑦 𝑦

𝑓 𝑔

𝑥 𝑥

Answer:
𝒇: 𝑚 = tan 𝜃 𝒈: 𝑚 = tan 𝜃
2 = tan 𝜃 − 2 = tan 𝜃
63,43° = 𝜃 63,43° = Ref. angle
𝜃 = 180° − 63,43°
𝜃 = 116,57°

116
Copyright reserved
 c) Determine the angle of inclination for graphs 𝑓 and 𝑔 .
𝑦 𝑦

(1; 6) (−1; 6)

𝑥 𝑥
(−3; −2) (3; −2)

Answer:
𝑦1 − 𝑦2 𝑦1 − 𝑦2
𝒇: 𝑚= 𝒈: 𝑚=
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
(−2) − (6) (−2) − (6)
𝑚= 𝑚=
(−3) − (1) (3) − (−1)
𝑚=2 𝑚 = −2
𝑚 = tan 𝜃 𝑚 = tan 𝜃
2 = tan 𝜃 − 2 = tan 𝜃
63,43° = 𝜃 63,43° = Ref. angle
𝜃 = 180° − 63,43°
𝜃 = 116,57°

d) Determine the values of 𝛼 and 𝛽 if 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 4 and 𝑔(𝑥) = −2𝑥 − 1 .

𝑦
𝑓

𝛼
𝛽
𝑥

Answer:
𝒇: 𝒈: 𝜶: 𝜷:
𝑚 = tan 𝜃 𝑚 = tan 𝜃 𝛼 = 116,57° − 63,43° 𝛽 = 180° − 53,14°
2 = tan 𝜃 − 2 = tan 𝜃 𝛼 = 53,14° 𝛽 = 126,86
63,43° = 𝜃 63,43° = Ref. angle
𝜃 = 180° − 63,43°
𝜃 = 116,57°

117
Copyright reserved
 e) Determine the value of 𝛼 if 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 4 and 𝑔(𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 1 .
𝑦
𝑓

𝑥
𝑔

Answer:
𝒇: 𝒈: 𝜶:
𝑚 = tan 𝜃 𝑚 = tan 𝜃 𝛼 = 116,57° − 63,43°
2 = tan 𝜃 − 2 = tan 𝜃 𝛼 = 53,14°
63,43° = 𝜃 63,43° = Ref. angle
𝜃 = 180° − 63,43°
𝜃 = 116,57°
6 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
(𝑥 = ;𝑦 = )
2 2
a) Determine the coordinates at B, the midpoint of A and C.

C(1; 6)

B
𝑥
A(−3; −2)

Answer:

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑥= 𝑦=
2 2
(−3) + (1) (−2) + (6)
𝑥= 𝑦=
2 2
𝑥 = −1 𝑦=2

A(−1; 2)

118
Copyright reserved
 b) Determine the coordinates at C if B is the midpoint of A and C.

B(−1; 2)
𝑥
A(−3; −2)

Answer:

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑥= 𝑦=
2 2
(−3) + 𝑥 (−2) + 𝑦
−1 = (× 2) 2= (× 2)
2 2
−2 = −3 + 𝑥 4 = −2 + 𝑦
1=𝑥 6=𝑦

C(1; 6)

8 (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2
a) Determine the equation of the circle if (−2; 3) is the centre and (1; −1) lies on the
circle.

(−2; 3)
𝑥
(1; −1)

Answer:

(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2
(1 + 2)2 + (−1 − 3)2 = 𝑟 2
25 = 𝑟 2 (note that the radius is 5 and not 25 i. e. 𝑟 = √25 = 5)

(𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 25

119
Copyright reserved
 b) Given circle below with equation 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 − 12 = 0 and centre A:

A
𝑥

i. Determine the coordinates at A, the centre of the circle.

ii. Determine the length of the radius of the circle.
Answer:
i. 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 − 12 = 0
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 = 12
4 2 −6 2 4 2 −6 2 𝑏 2
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + ( ) + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + ( ) = 12 + ( ) + ( ) (use ( ) )
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 (factorise)
𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 − 6𝑦 + 9 = 25
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 2) + (𝑦 − 3)(𝑦 − 3) = 25
(𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 25 A(−2; 3)
ii. 𝑟 = 5 (𝑟 2 = 25)
9 Tangent to circle
b) Determine the equation of the tangent passing through B on circle with centre A below
𝑦

B(2; 6)
A(−2; 3)
𝑥

Answer:
𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐀𝐁 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚= 𝑚1 × 𝑚2 = −1 (tan − rad) 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 𝐨𝐫 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
(3) − (6) 3 3 4 4
𝑚= × 𝑚 = −1 (÷ ) 6 = − (2) + 𝑐 𝑦 − 6 = − (𝑥 − 2)
(−2) − (2) 4 4 3 3
3 4 8 4 8
𝑚= 𝑚=− 6=− +𝑐 𝑦−6=− 𝑥+
4 3 3 3 3
26 4 26
=𝑐 𝑦=− 𝑥+
3 3 3
4 26
𝑦=− 𝑥+
3 3
120
Copyright reserved
Chapter 8: Trigonometry
Section 1: Definitions

 Amplitude: Amplitude is the height from the middle value of a trigonometric function
(the amplitude value is always positive).
 Asymptote: These are lines that graphs continuously approach but never touch.
 Cofunction: Cofunction refers to the use of (90° − 𝜃) or (90° + 𝜃).
 Intersection: An intersection is a point where two graphs meet. The 𝑥 and 𝑦 values of
the two graphs are equal at this point.
 Period: Period is a full horizontal cycle of a function.

Section 2: Basics of Trigonometry

1 Trigonometric ratios 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽

a Ratios 𝑜 𝑎 𝑜
ℎ ℎ 𝑎
b Inverses ℎ ℎ 𝑎
cosec 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =
𝑜 𝑎 𝑜

2 Quadrants and triangle

Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1

sin 𝜃 > 0 all ratios > 0

hypotenuse (ℎ) opposite (𝑜)
(180° − 𝜃) (𝜃)
0°
180° 360°
(180° + 𝜃) (360° − 𝜃) 𝜃
adjacent (𝑎)
tan 𝜃 > 0 cos 𝜃 > 0

Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4

3 Special angles

30° 45°

2 √3 2 √2

60° 45°
1 √2

121
Copyright reserved
4 Cofunctions
sin(90° − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃 cos(90° − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃
sin(90° + 𝜃) = cos 𝜃 cos(90° + 𝜃) = −sin 𝜃

Section 3: Compound and Double angles

No. Rule Detail

1 Compound i. sin(𝜃 + 𝛽) = sin 𝜃 . cos 𝛽 + cos 𝜃 . sin 𝛽
angles ii. sin(𝜃 − 𝛽) = sin 𝜃 . cos 𝛽 − cos 𝜃 . sin 𝛽
iii. cos(𝜃 + 𝛽) = cos 𝜃 . cos 𝛽 − sin 𝜃 . sin 𝛽
iv. cos(𝜃 − 𝛽) = cos 𝜃 . cos 𝛽 + sin 𝜃 . sin 𝛽
2 Double angles i. sin 2𝜃 = 2sin 𝜃 . cos 𝜃
ii. cos 2𝜃 = cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃
iii. cos 2𝜃 = 2cos2 𝜃 − 1
iv. cos 2𝜃 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝜃

Section 4: Trigonometric diagrams (p124)

No. Step Detail

1 Step 1: Identify the i. Use a restriction (e.g. 90° < 𝜃 < 270°)
quadrant −1
ii. Use signs (e. g. sin θ = or sin θ < 0 which both
(if the quadrant is not 2
given) mean that sin θ is negative therefore we use the third or
forth quadrant)
iii. Use angles (e.g. sin 23° = 𝑘 means that we use the first
quadrant since the angle is 23°)
2 Step 2: draw the triangle i. Opposite = 𝑥
and label the sides of the ii. Adjacent = 𝑦
triangle. iii. Hypotenuse = 𝑟
iv. Use Pythagoras to find the third side
3 Step 3: Use the diagram i. If the angle is a number, manipulate the angle to be the
to answer the questions same as the angle on the diagram.
ii. Use the following to manipulate the angle:
a. Reduction
b. Cofunction
c. Compound angle (use a special angle)
d. Double angle

122
Copyright reserved
Section 5: Reduction (p128)

1 If angle is larger than Use quadrants in Section 2

90°, apply reduction
2 Take note of the sign Use quadrants in Section 2
change of trigonometric
ratio when reducing
3 If an angle is larger than Subtract the number of revolutions (𝑘. 360°) that are
360° required to bring the value of the angle to below 360°
4 If an angle is negative Add the number of revolutions that are required to make
the angle positive (𝑘. 360°)
Or
Change the sign of sine and tangent and make the angle
positive. Keep the sign of cosine the same and make the
angle positive.
5 If an angle is a constant Check if cofunction should be used (in some cases, if a
and is not a special angle cofunction is used, trigonometric ratios that do not have
special angles may cancel each other out)
6 If a trigonometric ratio Write the ratio inside brackets and the squared outside
is squared brackets when applying the quadrant rules. Square the ratio
in the next step.

Section 7: General/specific solutions (p140)

No. Option 1 Option 2 Option 3

1 sin(𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒) = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 i. Substitute identity i. Make both sides the
(applies to cos 𝜃 and tan 𝜃 (if necessary) same trigonometric
as well) ii. Take all the terms to ratio.
one side. (e.g. sin 𝜃 = sin 2𝜃)
iii. Factorise and make ii. Reference angle is the
factors equal to zero. angle that is on the right
hand side.

2 General Solution rules

a When working out the reference angle, do not enter the negative sign on the
calculator.
b Use the positive or negative sign to determine the quadrants (use quadrants in
Section 2).
c We add 𝑘. 360° in each quadrant for sin 𝜃 and cos 𝜃 and we add 𝑘. 180° for tan 𝜃.
d We need to have two quadrants for sin 𝜃 and cos 𝜃 but we only need one quadrant for
tan 𝜃.
e If there is no restriction given, we always write 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍 at the end.
f If there is a restriction (e.g. −360° < 𝜃 < 360°), we substitute integer values for 𝑘
that will give angles that lie within the restriction

123
Copyright reserved
4 Trigonometric diagrams
a) Use the following diagram to answer the questions below.

𝑦
P(−3; 4)

𝜃
O 𝑥

Determine:
i. the length of OP.
ii. tan 𝜃
iii. sin(180° − 𝜃)
iv. cos(180° + 𝜃)
v. sin 2𝜃
vi. cos 2𝜃
vii. sin(30° + 𝜃)
viii. cos(45° − 𝜃)

Answer:

i. 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2 𝑦
(−3)2 + (4)2 = 𝑟 2
25 = 𝑟 2
5=𝑟 4 5
𝜃
ii. tan 𝜃 −3 𝑥
4
=
−3

iii. sin(180° + 𝜃)
= sin 𝜃
4
=
5

iv. cos(180° − 𝜃)
= − cos 𝜃
−3
= −( )
5
3
=
5

124
Copyright reserved
 v. sin 2𝜃
= 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
4 −3
= 2( )( )
5 5
24
=−
25

vi. cos 2𝜃
= cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃
−3 2 4 2
=( ) −( )
5 5
7
=−
25

vii. sin(30° + 𝜃)
= sin 30° cos 𝜃 + cos 30° sin 𝜃
1 −3 √3 4
= ( )( ) − ( )( )
2 5 2 5
−3 − 4√3 3 + 4 √3
= (or − )
10 10

viii. cos(45° − 𝜃)
= cos 45° cos 𝜃 + sin 45° sin 𝜃
√2 −3 √2 4
= ( )( ) + ( )( )
2 5 2 5
√2
=
10

3
b) Given cos 𝜃 = − (0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180°), determine the following without the use of
5
a calculator.

i. Draw a sketch.
ii. tan 𝜃

125
Copyright reserved
 Answer:

i. 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2 𝑦 • cos 𝜃 is negative in
(−3)2 + 𝑦 2 = (5)2 quadrants 2 and 3
9 + 𝑦 2 = 25
𝑦 2 = 16 4 5 • 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180° refers
𝑦=4 𝜃 to quadrants 1 and 2
−3 𝑥
• ∴ we use quadrant 2

−3 𝑥
• cos 𝜃 = ( )
5 𝑟
𝑟 is always positive

• ∴ determine the value

of 𝑦
ii. tan 𝜃
4
=
−3

4
c) Given sin 𝜃 = (tan 𝜃 < 0), determine the following without the use of a calculator.
5

i. Draw a sketch.
ii. tan 𝜃

Answer:

i. 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2 𝑦 • sin 𝜃 is positive in
𝑥 2 + (4)2 = (5)2 quadrants 1 and 2
𝑥 2 + 16 = 25
𝑥2 = 9 4 5 • tan 𝜃 is negative in
𝑥 = −3 𝜃 quadrants 2 and 4
−3 𝑥
• ∴ we use quadrant 2

4 𝑦
• sin 𝜃 = ( )
5 𝑟

• ∴ determine the value

of 𝑥

126
Copyright reserved
 ii. tan 𝜃
4
=
−3

d) Given sin 23° = 𝑘, determine the following in terms of 𝑘.

Determine:
i. Draw a sketch.
ii. tan 23°
iii. sin 157°
iv. cos 67°
v. sin 46°
vi. cos 53°

Answer:

i. 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2 𝑦 • 23° is in quadrant 1
𝑥 + (𝑘)2 = (1)2
2
67° quadrants 1 and 2
𝑥2 + 𝑘2 = 1 1 𝑘
𝑥2 = 1 − 𝑘2
𝑥 = √1 − 𝑘 2 23° 𝑥
√1 − 𝑘 2

𝑘 𝑦
• sin 𝜃 = ( )
1 𝑟

• ∴ determine the value

of 𝑥

ii. tan 23°

𝑘
=
√1 − 𝑘 2

iii. sin 157°

= sin(180° − 23°)
= sin 23°
=𝑘

iv. cos 67°

= cos(90° − 23°)
= sin 23°
=𝑘

127
Copyright reserved
 v. sin 46°
= 2 sin 23° cos 23°
√1 − 𝑘 2
= 2𝑘 ( )
1

vi. cos 53°

= cos(30° + 23°)
= cos 30° cos 23° − sin 30° sin 23°
1 √1 − 𝑘 2 √3 𝑘
= ( )( ) − ( )( )
2 1 2 1
2
√1 − 𝑘 − 3𝑘
=
2

5 Reduction
a) Simplify the following:
i. sin(180° − 𝑥) ii. cos(180° − 𝑥) iii. tan(180° − 𝑥)
iv. sin(180° + 𝑥) v. cos(180° + 𝑥) vi. tan(180° + 𝑥)
vii. sin(360° − 𝑥) viii. cos(360° − 𝑥) ix. tan(360° − 𝑥)

Answer:

i. sin(180° − 𝑥) (180° − 𝑥 is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟐 and 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 2)

= sin 𝑥

ii. cos(180° − 𝑥) (180° − 𝑥 is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟐 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quad. 2)

= − cos 𝑥

iii. tan(180° − 𝑥) (180° − 𝑥 is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟐 and 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quad. 2)

= − tan 𝑥

iv. sin(180° + 𝑥) (180° + 𝑥 is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟑 and 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 3)

= − sin 𝑥

v. cos(180° + 𝑥) (180° + 𝑥 is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟑 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quad. 3)

= − cos 𝑥

vi. tan(180° + 𝑥) (180° + 𝑥 is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟑 and 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quad. 3)

= tan 𝑥

vii. sin(360° − 𝑥) (360° − 𝑥 is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟒 and 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 4)

= − sin 𝑥

128
Copyright reserved
 viii. cos(360° − 𝑥) (360° − 𝑥 is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟒 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quad. 4)
= cos 𝑥

ix. tan(360° − 𝑥) (360° − 𝑥 is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟒 and 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quad. 4)

= − tan 𝑥

b) Simplify the following:

i. sin 150° ii. cos 120° iii. tan 135°
iv. sin 210° v. cos 240° vi. tan 225°
vii. sin 330° viii. cos 300° ix. tan 315°

Answer:

i. sin 150° (150° is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝. 𝟐, we use 180° − 𝑥 , note: 180° − 30° = 150°)
= sin(180° − 30°) (𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 2)
= sin 30° (30° is a special angle)
1
=
2

ii. cos 120° (120° is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝. 𝟐, we use 180° − 𝑥 , note: 180° − 60° = 120°)
= cos(180° − 60°) (𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 2)
= − cos 60° (60° is a special angle)
1
=−
2

iii. tan 135° (135° is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝. 𝟐, we use 180° − 𝑥 , note: 180° − 45° = 135°)
= tan 180° − 45° (𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 2)
( )
= − tan 45° (45° is a special angle)
= −1

iv. sin 210° (210° is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝. 𝟑, we use 180° + 𝑥 , note: 180° + 30° = 210°)
= sin 180° + 30° (𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 3)
( )
= − sin 30° (30° is a special angle)
1
=−
2

v. cos 240° (240° is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝. 𝟑, we use 180° + 𝑥 , note: 180° + 60° = 240°)
= cos(180° + 60°) (𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 3)
= − cos 60° (60° is a special angle)
1
=−
2

129
Copyright reserved
 vi. tan 225° (225° is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝. 𝟑, we use 180° + 𝑥 , note: 180° + 45° = 225°)
= tan(180° + 45°) (𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 3)
= tan 45° (45° is a special angle)
=1

vii. sin 330° (330° is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝. 𝟒, we use 360° − 𝑥 , note: 360° − 30° = 330°)
= sin(360° − 30°) (𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 4)
= − sin 30° (30° is a special angle)
1
=−
2

viii. cos 300° (300° is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝. 𝟒, we use 360° − 𝑥 , note: 360° − 60° = 300°)
= cos(360° − 60°) (𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 4)
= cos 60° (60° is a special angle)
1
=
2

ix. tan 315° (315° is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝. 𝟒, we use 360° − 𝑥 , note: 360° − 45° = 315°)
= tan(360° − 45°) (𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 4)
= − tan 45° (45° is a special angle)
= −1

c) Simplify the following: (cofunctions)

i. sin(90° − 𝑥) ii. cos(90° − 𝑥)
iii. sin(90° + 𝑥) iv. cos(90° + 𝑥)

Answer:

i. sin(90° − 𝑥) (90° − 𝑥 is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟏 and 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 1)

= cos 𝑥 (sine changes to cosine because of 90°)

ii. cos(90° − 𝑥) (90° − 𝑥 is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟏 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 1)

= sin 𝑥 (cosine changes to sine because of 90°)

iii. sin(90° + 𝑥) (90° + 𝑥 is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟐 and 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 2)

= cos 𝑥 (sine changes to cosine because of 90°)

iv. cos(90° + 𝑥) (90° + 𝑥 is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟐 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quadrant 2)

= − sin 𝑥 (cosine changes to sine because of 90°)

130
Copyright reserved
 d) Simplify the following: (cofunctions)
i. sin(90° − 30°) ii. cos(90° − 60°)

Answer:

i. sin(90° − 30°) (90° − 30° is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟏 and 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quad. 1)

= cos 30° (sine changes to cosine because of 90°)
√3
=
2
ii. cos(90° − 60°) (90° − 60° is in 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟏 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 in quad. 1)
= sin 60° (cosine changes to sine because of 90°)
√3
=
2

e) Simplify the following: (angles greater than 360°)

i. sin(360° + 𝑥) ii. cos(450° − 𝑥) iii. tan(540° + 𝑥)
iv. sin(720° − 𝑥) v. cos(720° + 𝑥) vi. tan(900° − 𝑥)

Answer:

i. sin(360° + 𝑥) (sin(360° + 𝑥 − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))

= sin 𝑥

ii. cos(450° − 𝑥) (cos(450° − 𝑥 − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))

= cos(90° − 𝑥)
= sin 𝑥

iii. tan(540° + 𝑥) (tan(540° + 𝑥 − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))

= tan(180° + 𝑥)
= tan 𝑥

iv. sin(720° − 𝑥) (sin(720° − 𝑥 − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))

= sin(360° − 𝑥)
= − sin 𝑥

v. cos(720° + 𝑥) (cos(720° + 𝑥 − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))

= cos(360° + 𝑥) (cos(360° + 𝑥 − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))
= cos 𝑥

vi. tan(900° − 𝑥) (tan(900° − 𝑥 − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))

= tan(540° − 𝑥) (tan(540° − 𝑥 − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))
= tan(180° − 𝑥)
= − tan 𝑥

131
Copyright reserved
 f) Simplify the following: (angles greater than 360°)
i. sin 390° ii. cos 480° iii. tan 585°
iv. sin 690° v. cos 780° vi. tan 855°

Answer:

i. sin 390° (sin(390° − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))

= sin 30°
1
=
2

ii. cos 480° (cos(480° − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))

= cos 120°
= cos(180° − 60°)
= − cos 60°
1
=−
2

iii. tan 585° (tan(585° − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))

= tan 225°
= tan(180° + 45°)
= tan 45°
=1

iv. sin 690° (sin(690° − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))

= sin 330°
= sin(360° − 30°)
= − sin 30°
1
=−
2

v. cos 780° (cos(780° − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))

= cos 420° (cos(420° − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))
= cos 60°
1
=
2

vi. tan 855° (tan(855° − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))

= tan 495° (tan(495° − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°))
= tan 135°
= tan(180° − 45°)
= − tan 45°
= −1

132
Copyright reserved
 g) Simplify the following: (negative angles)
i. sin(−𝑥) ii. cos(−180° − 𝑥) iii. tan(−180° + 𝑥)
iv. sin(−360° − 𝑥) v. cos(−360° + 𝑥) vi. tan(𝑥 − 360°)

Answer:

i. sin(−𝑥) (sin(−𝑥 + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°)) 𝐎𝐑 sin(−𝑥)

= sin(360° − 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
= − sin 𝑥

ii. cos(−180° − 𝑥) (cos(−180° − 𝑥 + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°)) 𝐎𝐑 cos(−180° − 𝑥)

= cos(180° − 𝑥) = cos(180° + 𝑥)
= − cos 𝑥 = − cos 𝑥

iii. tan(−180° + 𝑥) (tan(−180° + 𝑥 + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°)) 𝐎𝐑 tan(−180° + 𝑥)

= tan(180° + 𝑥) = − tan(180° − 𝑥)
= tan 𝑥 = −(− tan 𝑥 )
= tan 𝑥 = tan 𝑥

iv. sin(−360° − 𝑥) (sin(−360° − 𝑥 + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°)) 𝐎𝐑 sin(−360° − 𝑥)

= sin(−𝑥) (sin(−𝑥 + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°)) = − sin(360° + 𝑥)
= sin(360° − 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
= − sin 𝑥

v. cos(−360° + 𝑥) (cos(−360° + 𝑥 + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°)) 𝐎𝐑 cos(−360° + 𝑥)

= cos 𝑥 = cos(360° − 𝑥)
= cos 𝑥

vi. tan(𝑥 − 360°) 𝐎𝐑 tan(𝑥 − 360°)

= tan(−360° + 𝑥) (tan(−360° + 𝑥 + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°)) = tan(−360° + 𝑥)
= tan 𝑥 = − tan(360° − 𝑥)
= −(− tan 𝑥 )
= tan 𝑥

h) Simplify the following: (negative angles)

i. sin(−30°) ii. cos(−240°) iii. tan(−135°)
iv. sin(−390°) v. cos(−300°) vi. tan(−300°)

133
Copyright reserved
 Answer:

i. sin(−30°) (sin(−30° + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°)) 𝐎𝐑 sin(−30°)

= sin(330°) = − sin 30°
1
= sin(360° − 30°) =−
2
= − sin 30°
1
=−
2

ii. cos(−240°) (cos(−240° + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°)) 𝐎𝐑 cos(−240°)

(
= cos 120° ) = cos(240°)
= cos(180° − 60°) = cos(180° + 60°)
= − cos 60° = − cos 60°
1 1
=− =−
2 2

iii. tan(−135°) (tan(−135° + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°)) 𝐎𝐑 tan(−135°)

= tan(225°) = − tan(135°)
= tan(180° + 45°) = − tan(180° − 45°)
= tan 45° = −(− tan 45°)
=1 = tan 45°
=1

iv. sin(−390°) (sin(−390° + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°)) 𝐎𝐑 sin(−390°)

= sin(−30°) (sin(−30° + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°)) = − sin(390°)
= sin(330°) = − sin(30°)
1
= sin(360° − 30°) =−
2
= − sin 30°
1
=−
2

v. cos(−300°) (cos(−300° + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°)) 𝐎𝐑 cos(−300°)

= cos 60° = cos(300°)
1
= = cos(360° − 60°)
2
= cos 60°
1
=
2

134
Copyright reserved
 vi. tan(−300°) (tan(−300° + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°)) 𝐎𝐑 tan(−300°)
= tan 60° = − tan(300°)
= √3 = − tan(360° − 60°)
= −(− tan 60°)
= tan 60°
= √3

i) Simplify the following to one trigonometric ratio: (combined exercises)

cos(360° − 𝑥) . sin(180° − 𝑥)
i.
cos(180° + 𝑥)
cos 720° − 𝑥) . cos(90° − 𝑥)
(
ii.
cos(−180° − 𝑥)
cos(360° + 𝑥) . cos(90° − 𝑥)
iii.
cos(180° − 𝑥) . cos(−180° + 𝑥)
cos2 (90° + 𝑥)
iv.
tan(540° + 𝑥) . cos(−180° + 𝑥) . cos(180° − 𝑥)

Answer:

cos(360° − 𝑥) . sin(180° − 𝑥)
i.
cos(180° + 𝑥)
cos 𝑥 . sin 𝑥
=
(− cos 𝑥 )
cos 𝑥 . sin 𝑥
= −
cos 𝑥
= − sin 𝑥

cos(720° − 𝑥) . cos(90° − 𝑥) cos(720° − 𝑥) . cos(90° − 𝑥)

ii. 𝐎𝐑
cos(−180° − 𝑥) cos(−180° − 𝑥)
cos 360° − 𝑥) . sin 𝑥
( cos 360° − 𝑥) . sin 𝑥
(
= =
cos(180° − 𝑥) cos(180° + 𝑥)
cos 𝑥 . sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 . sin 𝑥
= =
(− cos 𝑥 ) (− cos 𝑥 )
cos 𝑥 . sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 . sin 𝑥
=− =−
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
= − sin 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥

135
Copyright reserved
 cos(360° + 𝑥) . cos(90° − 𝑥) cos(360° + 𝑥) . cos(90° − 𝑥)
iii. 𝐎𝐑
cos(180° − 𝑥) . cos(−180° + 𝑥) cos(180° − 𝑥) . cos(−180° + 𝑥)
cos 𝑥 . sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 . sin 𝑥
= =
(− cos 𝑥 ). cos(180° + 𝑥) (− cos 𝑥 ). cos(180° − 𝑥)
cos 𝑥 . sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 . sin 𝑥
= =
(− cos 𝑥 ). (− cos 𝑥 ) (− cos 𝑥). (− cos 𝑥 )
cos 𝑥 . sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 . sin 𝑥
= =
cos 𝑥 . cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 . cos 𝑥
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
= =
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
= tan 𝑥 = tan 𝑥

cos2 (90° + 𝑥)
iv.
tan(540° + 𝑥) . cos(−180° + 𝑥) . cos(180° − 𝑥)
(− sin 𝑥 )2
=
tan(180° + 𝑥) . cos(180° + 𝑥) . (− cos 𝑥 )
sin2 𝑥
=
tan 𝑥 . (− cos 𝑥 ). (− cos 𝑥 )
sin2 𝑥
=
tan 𝑥 . cos 𝑥 . cos 𝑥
sin2 𝑥
=
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
. .
cos 𝑥 1 1
sin2 𝑥
=
sin 𝑥 . cos 𝑥
sin 𝑥
=
cos 𝑥
= tan 𝑥

𝐎𝐑

𝐏. 𝐓. 𝐎.

136
Copyright reserved
 cos2 (90° + 𝑥)
tan(540° + 𝑥) . cos(−180° + 𝑥) . cos(180° − 𝑥)
(− sin 𝑥 )2
=
tan(180° + 𝑥) . cos(180° − 𝑥) . (− cos 𝑥 )
sin2 𝑥
=
tan 𝑥 . (− cos 𝑥 ). (− cos 𝑥 )
sin2 𝑥
=
tan 𝑥 . cos 𝑥 . cos 𝑥
sin2 𝑥
=
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
. .
cos 𝑥 1 1
sin2 𝑥
=
sin 𝑥 . cos 𝑥
sin 𝑥
=
cos 𝑥
= tan 𝑥

f) Simplify the following: (combined exercises)

cos(330°) . sin(120°)
i.
cos(225°)
cos(690°) . cos(70°)
ii.
sin(−200°)
cos(390°) . sin(35°)
iii.
cos(135°) . cos(−125°)
cos2 (170°)
iv.
tan(570°) . cos(−170°) . sin(100°)
Answer:
cos(330°) . sin(120°)
i.
cos(225°)
cos(360° − 30°) . sin(180° − 60°)
=
cos(180° + 45°)
cos 30° . sin 60°
=
(− cos 45°)
cos 30° . sin 60°
= −
cos 45°
√3 √3
( ).( )
2 2
=−
√2
( )
2
3√2
=−
4
137
Copyright reserved
 cos(690°) . cos(70°) cos(690°) . cos(70°)
ii. 𝐎𝐑
sin(−200°) sin(−200°)
cos(330°) . cos(70°) cos(330°) . cos(70°)
= =
sin(160°) (− sin(200°))
cos(360° − 30°) . cos(70°) cos(360° − 30°) . cos(70°)
= =
sin(180° − 20°) (− sin(180° + 20°))
cos 30° . cos(70°) cos 30° . cos(70°)
= =
sin 20° (−(− sin 20°))
cos 30° . cos(90° − 20°) cos 30° . cos(90° − 20°)
= =
(sin 20°) (sin 20°)
cos 30° . sin 20° cos 30° . sin 20°
= =
sin 20° sin 20°
= cos 30° = cos 30°
√3 √3
= =
2 2

cos(390°) . sin(35°) cos(390°) . sin(35°)

iii.
cos(135°) . cos(−125°) cos(135°) . cos(−125°)
cos 30° . sin 35° cos 30° . sin 35°
= =
cos(180° − 45°) . cos(235°) cos(180° − 45°) . cos(125°)
cos 30° . sin 35° cos 30° . sin 35°
= =
(− cos 45°). cos(180° + 55°) (− cos 45°). cos(180° − 55°)
cos 30° . sin 35° cos 30° . sin 35°
= =
(− cos 45°). (− cos 55°) (− cos 45°). (− cos 55°)
cos 30° . sin(90° − 55°) cos 30° . sin(90° − 55°)
= =
cos 45° . cos 55° cos 45° . cos 55°
cos 30° . cos 55° cos 30° . cos 55°
= =
cos 45° . cos 55° cos 45° . cos 55°
cos 30° cos 30°
= =
cos 45° cos 45°
√3 √3
( ) ( )
2 2
= =
√2 √2
( ) ( )
2 2
√6 √6
= =
2 2

138
Copyright reserved
 cos2 (170°)
iv.
tan(570°) . cos(−170°) . sin(100°)
cos2 (180° − 10°)
=
tan(210°) . cos(190°) . sin(180° − 80°)
(− cos 10°)2
=
tan(180° + 30°) . cos(180° + 10°) . sin(80°)
cos2 10°
=
tan 30° . (− cos 10°). sin(80°)
cos 2 10°
=−
tan 30° . cos 10° . sin(90° − 10°)
cos2 10°
=−
tan 30° . cos 10° . cos 10°
cos2 10°
=−
tan 30° . cos 10° . cos 10°
1
=−
tan 30°
1
=−
√3
( )
3
= −√3

cos2 (170°)
tan(570°) . cos(−170°) . sin(100°)
cos2 (180° − 10°) cos2 (180° − 10°)
=
tan(210°) . cos(190°) . sin(180° − 80°) tan(210°) . cos(170°) . sin(180° − 80°)
(− cos 10°)2
=
tan(180° + 30°) . cos(180° − 10°) . sin(80°)
cos2 10°
=
tan 30° . (− cos 10°). sin(80°)
cos 2 10°
=−
tan 30° . cos 10° . sin(90° − 10°)
cos2 10°
=−
tan 30° . cos 10° . cos 10°
cos2 10°
=−
tan 30° . cos 10° . cos 10°
1
=−
tan 30°
1
=−
√3
( )
3
= −√3

139
Copyright reserved
7 General Solutions
Determine the general solution for the following:
1
a) sin 𝑥 =
2
1
b) sin 𝑥 = −
2
c) 2 sin 𝑥 + 1 = 0
1
d) cos 𝑥 = −
2
e) tan 𝑥 = −1
f) sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 = 0

Answer:

1
a) sin 𝑥 = (sine is positive in quadrants 1 and 2)
2
1
Reference angle = sin−1 ( )
2
Reference angle = 30°

𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟏: 𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟐:
𝑥 = 30° + 360°. 𝑘 𝑥 = 180° − 30° + 360°. 𝑘
𝑥 = 150° + 360°. 𝑘
𝑘∈𝑍

1
b) sin 𝑥 = − (sine is negative in quadrants 3 and 4)
2
1
Reference angle = sin−1 ( )
2
Reference angle = 30°

𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟑: 𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟒:
𝑥 = 180° + 30° + 360°. 𝑘 𝑥 = 360° − 30° + 360°. 𝑘
𝑥 = 210° + 360°. 𝑘 𝑥 = 330° + 360°. 𝑘

𝑘∈𝑍

140
Copyright reserved
 c) 2 sin 𝑥 + 1 = 0
2 sin 𝑥 = −1
1
sin 𝑥 = − (sine is negative in quadrants 3 and 4)
2
1
Reference angle = sin−1 ( )
2
Reference angle = 30°

𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟑: 𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟒:
𝑥 = 180° + 30° + 360°. 𝑘 𝑥 = 360° − 30° + 360°. 𝑘
𝑥 = 210° + 360°. 𝑘 𝑥 = 330° + 360°. 𝑘

𝑘∈𝑍

1
d) cos 𝑥 = − (cosine is negative in quadrants 2 and 3)
2
1
Reference angle = cos −1 ( )
2
Reference angle = 60°

𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟐: 𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟑:
𝑥 = 180° − 60° + 360°. 𝑘 𝑥 = 180° + 60° + 360°. 𝑘
𝑥 = 120° + 360°. 𝑘 𝑥 = 240° + 360°. 𝑘

𝑘∈𝑍

e) tan 𝑥 = −1 (tangent is negative in quadrants 2 and 4)

Reference angle = tan−1 (1)
Reference angle = 45°

𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟐: 𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟒:
𝑥 = 180° − 45° + 360°. 𝑘 𝑥 = 360° − 45° + 360°. 𝑘
𝑥 = 135° + 360°. 𝑘 𝑥 = 315° + 360°. 𝑘
(only choose 𝐨𝐧𝐞 quadrant for tangent)

𝑘∈𝑍

141
Copyright reserved
 f) sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 = 0
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
sin 𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 (divide both sides by cos 𝑥 i. e. =− )
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
tan 𝑥 = −1 (tangent is negative in quadrants 2 and 4)
Reference angle = tan−1 (1)
Reference angle = 45°

𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟐: 𝐐𝐮𝐚𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝟒:
𝑥 = 180° − 45° + 360°. 𝑘 𝑥 = 360° − 45° + 360°. 𝑘
𝑥 = 135° + 360°. 𝑘 𝑥 = 315° + 360°. 𝑘
(only choose 𝐨𝐧𝐞 quadrant for tangent)

𝑘∈𝑍

142
Copyright reserved
Chapter 9: Euclidian Geometry
Circles
1. Radius, diameter, chord and tangent

radius

diameter

chord

tangent

2. Circle Theorems
2a) Line from centre bisects chord
Given that AB = BC prove that OB ⏊ AC.

1 2
A B C
Construct OA and OC.
OA = OC (radii)
OB = OB (common side)
AB = BC (given)
∴ ∆OAB ≡ ∆OCB (SSS)
B1 + B2 = 180° (∠ on straight line)
B1 = B2 = 90° (OAB ≡ ∆OCB)
∴ OB ⏊ AC

143
Copyright reserved
2b) Line from centre ⏊ to chord
Given that OB ⏊ AC prove that AB = BC.

Construct OA and OC. 1 2

A B C

OA = OC (radii)
OB = OB (common side)
B1 = B2 = 90° (given)
∴ ∆OAB ≡ ∆OCB (RHS)
AB = BC (OAB ≡ ∆OCB)
2c) Angle at the centre is equal to 2 times the angle at the circumference
Prove that the angle at the centre is equal to 2 times the angle at the circumference.
B B

12 1 2

A C

O O
1 2 1 2

A C

D Construct line BOD D

OA = OB (radii)
A = B1 (∠s opp. = sides )
O1 = A + B1 (ext. ∠ of ∆ )
∴ O1 = 2B1
Similarly O2 = 2B2
O1 + O2 = 2B1 + 2B2
O1 + O2 = 2(B1 + B2 )

144
Copyright reserved
 Prove that the angle at the centre is equal to 2 times the angle at the circumference.

D O B
1 2 1
2

A C

Construct line BOD

OA = OB (radii)
̂=B
A ̂1 (∠s opp. = sides )
̂1 = A
O ̂+B ̂1 (ext. ∠ of ∆ )
̂ 1 = 2B
∴O ̂1
̂1 + O
Similarly O ̂ 2 = 2(B
̂1 + B
̂2 )
̂1 + O
O ̂ 2 = 2B
̂1 + 2B
̂2
̂1 + O
(O ̂ 2 ) − (O
̂ 1 ) = (2B
̂1 + 2B
̂2 ) − (2B
̂1 )
̂ 2 = 2B
O ̂2
2d) Angles in same segment (or angles subtended by same chord)
Prove that Â=B ̂.

A B Construct lines OD and OC.

̂1 = 2A
O ̂ (∠ at cent. = 2 × ∠ at circum. )
̂1 = 2B
O ̂ (∠ at cent. = 2 × ∠ at circum. )
̂ = 2B
∴ 2A ̂ (÷ 2)
̂=B
A ̂
O
1

D C

145
Copyright reserved
2e) Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
̂+D
Prove that B ̂ = 180°.

D
Construct lines OA and OC.

̂ 1 = 2B
O ̂ (∠ at cent. = 2 × ∠ at circum. )
O2 = 2D̂ (∠ at cent. = 2 × ∠ at circum. )
̂1 + O
∴O ̂ 2 = 2B
̂ + 2D
̂

O1 O ̂ 2 = 360° (∠s around a pt. )

̂1 + O
𝐎𝐑 revolution
2
̂ + 2D
∴ 360° = 2B ̂ (÷ 2)
180° = B̂+D̂
A C

B
2f) Tan − chord theorem
̂1 = Ĉ1 .
Prove that B
D

2
A C
1
O

23
1 4
B Construct line BOD

̂1 + B
B ̂2 = 90° (tan − radius)
Ĉ1 + Ĉ2 = 90° (∠ in semi − circle 𝐎𝐑 ∠ subtended by diameter)
̂1 + B
∴B ̂2 = Ĉ1 + Ĉ2

̂2 = Ĉ2
B (∠ in same segment)
̂1 = Ĉ1
∴B

146
Copyright reserved
2g) Tangents from the same point
Prove that AB = BC.

O 1 1
2 2 B

Construct lines OA, OB and OC.

̂ = 90°
A (tan − radius)
Ĉ = 90° (tan − radius)
C ̂ = Ĉ
∴A
OA = OC (radii)
OB = OB (common side)
∴ ∆OAB ≡ ∆OCB (RHS)
∴ AB = BC (∆OAB ≡ ∆OCB)
Triangle Theorems
1. Proportionality theorem
AB AE
Prove that = .
BC ED
Construct lines ℎ1 , ℎ2 , BD and CE.
A
1
Area ∆ABE = AB. ℎ1
2
1
Area ∆ABE = AE. ℎ2
2
1
B ℎ2 ℎ1 E Area ∆BCE = BC. ℎ1
2
1
Area ∆BDE = ED. ℎ2
2
Area ∆BCE = Area ∆BDE
(same base and height)
C D
1 1
AB. ℎ1 AE. ℎ2
2 =2
1 1
BC. ℎ1 ED. ℎ2
2 2
AB AE
=
BC ED

147
Copyright reserved
2. Similarity
Triangles that are equiangular are similar
AB AC
̂=D
Prove that if A ̂, B ̂ and Ĉ = F̂ then
̂=E = .
DE DF

A D

G 1 1 H
B C 2 2

E F

Construct line GH such that AB=DG and AC=DH.

̂=D
A ̂ (given)
AB = DG (construction)
AC = DH (construction)
∴ ∆ABC ≡ ∆DGH (SAS)

̂=G
B ̂1 (∆ABC ≡ ∆DGH)
̂=E
B ̂ (given)
∴Ĝ1 = Ê
∴ GH ∣∣ EF (corresp. ∠s =)

DG DH
= (prop. theorem 𝐎𝐑 line ∣∣ one side of ∆)
DE DF
AB AC
=
DE DF

148
Copyright reserved