Waves and Acoustics

1. INTRODUCTION
A Define
wave is a disturbance ove 9
which
nouon iS he phenomenon that propagates energy and momentum from onc place to the other without tthe transport of matter. Wave
can be ohserved alnmost everywhere around us, as wcll it
Ouae Waves on bodies of matter arce commonly observed. Sound waves and appears in almost every branch ot pnys
light
environment. All waves have a similar mathematical description, which makes the waves are essential to our perceptuon ol ie
of other kinds of study of one kind of wave useful for the Study
waves.
Mechanmcal waves: Mechanical waves originate
disturbance propagates through the medium. The from a disturbance in the medium (such as a stone dropping in a pond) and the
forces between the atoms in the medium are responsible for the
mechanical waves. Each atom exerts a force on the atoms ncar it, and propagationot
others. The atoms in the medium do not, however, experience any netthrough this force the motion of the atom is transmitted to the
back and forth. Again for simplicity, we concentrate on the study of displacement. As the wave passes, the atoms simply move
and cosine functions). harmonic waves (that is those that can be represcnted by sine
Non-mechanical waves: The waves which do not essentially require any material
mechanical waves. AJlclectromagnetic waves such as y-rays, x-rays, radio waves, medium for their propagation ar called non
light ctc. are non-mechanical.
2. TYPES OF MECHANICAL WAVES
Mechanical waves can be classified according to the physical properties of'
Transverse waves:]In this case the oscillations are at right angles to thethe nnediun, as woll as in other ways.
in strings are transvcrsel These are propagated as crests and troughs, lirection ol wave noion or cnergy propagaion, Waves
" I ravels in the form of crests and troughs.
.rA crest is a portion of the medium which is raiscd
temporarily abuve the nomal position ol rest of the purticls of the
when a transverse wave passes through it.7 mcdiun
A
E

Crest
Normal level
Particle
Trough Wave

Atrough is a portion ofthe medium which is depressed tempoarily helow the

medium, when transverse wave passes through it. normal position of rost of
the paricles of the
"Examples of transverse wave motion: Movement of string ofa sitar or violin, novement
movement of kink on a rope, Wiaves sel-up 0n the surface of waler. of the nentbrang of a
'Tblu or Dholak.
 2 Waves and Acoustics

the surface of
|Transverse waves can be transmittedthrough solids, they can besctup on liquids. But they
into liquids and gascs. cannot be
transmittcd
Trough
C
Crest

Transverse-wave in a rod Transverse wave in a

Transverse wave on water
surface starting
of wave motion.
They arC
X.ongitudinal Particles of the mcdium oscillate in the direction
and rarcfactionswaves
and arc also known as pressure or compressional waves. (Waves in springs or soundpropagated as
waves in air compressions
are
of longitudinal wvaves. example
I travels in the form of compression and rarefaction.
LAcompression (C) is a region of the medium in which particles are compressed. VCR CRC R
" A rarefaction (R) is a region of the medium in which particles are rarefied.
Vibration of
" Sound waves travel through air in the form of longitudinal waves, vibration of air coumn in particle
organ pipes are longitudinal, vibration of air column above the surface of water in the tube of
resonance apparatus are longitudinal.
These waves can be transmitted through solids, liguids and gases because for these waves propagation, volume al..
necessary.|
Necessary properties of the medium for wave propagation:
Elasticity: Particles can return to their mean position, after having been disturbed.
Inertia: Particles can store energy and overshoot their mean position.
Minimum friction amongst the particles of the medium.
" Uniform density of the medium.
y Characteristics of wave motion:
It is a sort of disturbance which travels through a medium.
Ve Materialmedium is essential for the propagation of mechanical waves.
When a wave motion passes through a medium, particles of the medium only vibrate simple harmonically about their mean
position. They do leave their position and move with the disturbance.
/" There is a continuous phase difference amongst successive particles of the medium i.e., particle 2 starts vibrating slightly later
than particle 1 and so on.
" The velocity of the particle during their vibration is different at different position.
" The velocity of wave motion through a particular medium is constant. It depends only on the nature of medium not on the
frequency, wavclcngth or intensity.
" Energy is propagated along with the wavc motion without any net transport of the medium.

3. DESCRIPTION OF WAVES

Two kinds of graph may be drawn: displacement-distance and displacement-time.

Adisplacement-distance graph for a transverse mechanical wave shows the displacement y of the vibrating particies o u
transmitting medium at different distance x from the source at a certain instant i.e. it is 1ike a phofograph showing shape or une wa
at that particular instant.

The maximum displacementof cachparticle from its undisturbed posiion is the amplitude of the wave. In figure l, itiS OA
 Acoustics
3
Waves
and

The wavelength Aof a wave is generally takell an the distance beIWeen twO SUCcessive croete Or two successive trough. To be
more specific, it is the distance points on the wave which have same
belween two consccutive
Adisplacement-time graph may also be drawn for a wave motion, showing how be uISplacement phasec. of one particle at a particular
distance from the source varies
with time. If this is simple harmonic variation then the graph is asinc curve.

Displacemnt A
One wavelength

o
Distance x
B

Crest Trough Crest Trough

V3.1 Important Terms Regarding Wave Motion

3.1.1 Wavelength
Wavelength and frequency of wave: if the source of awave makesfvibrations per second, so too will particles of the Iransmiting
medium. That is, the frequency of the waves equals frequency of the source.
When the source makes one complete vibration,one wave is generated and the disturbance spreads out a distance 1o
source. If the source continues to vibrate with constant frequency f, then fwaves will be produced per second and the wave ddvat
a distance f in one second. If v is the wave speed then
v=f
This relationship holds for all wave motions.
" It is the length of one wave.
completes
" Wavelength is equal to the distance travelled by the wave during the time in which any one particle of the medium
one vibration about its mean position.
Wavelength is the distance between any two nearest particles of the medium, vibrating in the same phase.
" Distance travelled by the wave in one time period is known as wavelength.
In transverse wave motion:

A= Distance between the centres of two consecutive crests.

2= Distance between the centres of two consecutive troughs.
2= Distance in which one trough and one crest are contained.

In longitudinal wave motion:

compression. R R R |C
1= Distance between the centres of twoconsecutive
consecutive rarefaction.
A= Distance between the centres of two
one rarefaction contained,
2.= Distance in which one compression and

Time period
of vibration of particle is definedlas the timne taken by the particle to complete one vibration about its mean position.
C) Time period
distance equal to one wavelength.
wave to travel a
(ii) It is the time taken by the ’T= We
period: Time period = 1/Frequency
Relation between frequency and time wavelength: v =f2
Relation between velocity, frequency and
medium depends on the elastic and inertial
wave in a given property of the medium.
Velocity (v) of the
4. EQUATION OF WAVE MOTION
The common feature of all waves is the transmission of some sort of disturbance with a certain velocity. This disturbance may be
the displacement or velocity of the particle of the medium or the magnitude of the
fluctuating electric and magnetic fields.
y'=y
Suppose the disturbance is propagating along positive x-axis with a velocity v.
The disturbance which is a function of xand tcan be represented as: y=fx, t). V,
x
This function is called wave function. X

Consider an infinite long string and select a coordinate frame O with the length
of the string lying along *-axis. Suppose that asingle linearly polarised pulse travels
in the string in the direction of increasing value of x. ) X

Let ybe the transverse displacement of the string, then y=fx, ),is the wave
-X
function pulse, i.e. the displacement y is uniquely determined by two independent
variables propagation distance and time t.
 8 Weves end
Acoustics

velocity while
maintaining
its shape.
constant
case. the pulse travels along the string with axis with same
velocity at
which the pulse
In an ideal the
moving in the coordinate frame Oalong described by some
function
y=fW). moves along the
Let the observer is astationary pulse having a
shape
observer would see
string. This two frames
Aonding to relation between
=è+ny=y ’y=fx-v)
)
y'=fr)
frame will bey= wave) )
Consequently. the wave function in the O =x t v (phase of the
(r+ v),
moves in opposite direction then y=g
Ii pulse constant phase
The velocity of the wave which maintains a Pulse
Phase velocity at t, Pulse at
velocity.)
for the waveis caled phase right with velocity valong a tout
figure, which travels to
Apulse is shown in
and t,.
sring. Location of pulse is shown at time t, the peak
pulse peak is at coordinate x, and alater time I,.
At time t, the every instant 4 = y
iS at coordinate x To maintain the same phase at X1

oT.

coefficient of t
v=
From figure, , - = and t, -,=T, therefor coefficient of x

We have leant in the above section that a travelling wave in one-dinension

1s represented by a funefon
Illustration 3
[=fa) where x and t must appear in the combination x-vt or x+
vt, i.e., Y=frF V). Is the converse true? That is does a
functions for ycan possibly represent atravelline
funcion ofI- or+epresent a travelling wave? Examine if thefollowing
wZve?
(ii) -? 1
() log (r + vi) (iv) [NCERT]

Solurtion
everywhere and at all times, Only
An obvions requirement for an acceptable function for a travelling wave is that it should be finite
(ü) among the four functions given satisfies this requirement. The remaining functions cannot possibly represent a wave.
N¡te that thirdfunction e-) is finite everywhere at all times because (x- vt) is always positive and its maximum value
can be o ie. Minimum valne of e can be zero, which is finite.

Illustration 4 10
Atravelling wave pulse defined as y = In which direction and with what velocity is the pulse
5+(*+21)?
propagating?
Solution
pulse
Apulse can be expressed by the form given as y = .Bycomparing the above with the given pulse we find that the
b+(xFv)
is travelling along negative x-axis with velocity 2 m/s.
The given function is finite for all values ofx and t, because denominator i.e., (5 +( +20°) can never be equal to zero.
5. EQUATION OF ASIMPLE HARMONIC PLANE WAVE
In case of a harmonic wave, the displacement of successive particles of the medium is given by a sine function or cosine function
of position.
The displacement yat t=0 is given by
y=A sin kr ...i)
where A and k are constants.
Suppose this disturbance is propagating along positive x-direction. Then
y=A sin k(x-v) ...(i)
Since the waveform represented by equation () is based on sine function, it would repeat itself at regular distances. The first repetition
would take place when
2
k=2 or x=
k
This distance after which the repetition takes place is called the wavelength and is denoted by 2. Hence
2t 2T
or k=
k

This constant k is called propagation constant or angular wave number.

...(iüi)
Now, equation (ii) turns into y= Asin

At t=0,y=A sin 27, ...(iv)

Hence, the general equation of a plane progressive harmonic wave is given by

yx, t) = Asin (0t tkx+ 0) or, y (x, )=A cos (ot t kx + )
Here, y(x,) = displacement
A= amplitude (o ± kx +) =phase angle
0=angular frequency; t= time
10 We8sndAcOusties

trangular Wave numlber; x= position

ofthe particle
o= phasediflerence

Points to Remember

particle from origin

=position of progessive wave functio). wherc y = displacement
Various forms of A= amlitude
"'=Asin (or- ku)
2r Q= angular frequency
" y=A sin (o -

n=frequency
" '=Asin

27 k= propagation constant
" y=A sin (-*)

T=time period
l=wave length
v= wave velocity
t= instantaneous time
x= position of particlefrom origin
(a) If the sign between t and xterms is negative the wave is propagating along positive X-axis and if the sign is positive then
the wave moves in negative X-axis direction.
(b) The coefficient of sin or cos functions i.e. Argument of sin or cos function i.e. (ar -ke) =Phase.
2r
(c) The coefficient oft gives angular frequency @= 2rn= = vk.
T
2Tt
(d) The coefficient of xgives propagation constant or wave number k=

(e) The ratio of coefficient of t to that of x gives wave or phase velocity, i.e., v =
k
() When agiven wave passes from one medium to another its frequency does not change.
(g) Fromv=nå ’ vo« n= constant

Some terms related to progressive waves

Wave number (7 ): The number of waves present in unit length is defined as the wave 1
number (7)=7
Unit =metre; Dimension =(L].

Propagation constant (k): k= 2 Phase difference between particles

Distance between them

k== Angular velocity 2r

Wave velocity and k=
2
-=2n2

Illustration 6 The frequency of plane progressive wave is 100 Hz, After how much time the sameepoint will be 90 outof phase?
Solution
360° phase corresponds to one time period.
. 90° phase corresponds to one-fourth
time period = x = 2.5 x 1o-3
4 100
 AcoIsties
f1
Wave and

Ilustration 7 The equation of a Wave propagating along string a stretched is given

by
Y= 4sin 2r ((0.02)
Where yandr are in cm and tin s
-(100)eemine: (a) direction in which wave is npropagating, (h) amplitndes, (e) time period.
(d) frequency. (e) angular frequency, (D waveengin (e) propagation constant, (h) veleity of Wve, phase constant(ie..initial
phase ) and (j) maximum
particle velocity.
Solution
Comparing the given cquation with ggeneral wave equation given by
Y= Asin (
ka o) M -A sin |(o/7)-(/¦) + 0)
We find that:
(a) The wave is (b)
(c) Time period propagating along Amplitude A 4A em
(d) Frequency n =(1/) - 50
T-0.02 second Hz
(e) Angular frequency o= 2nT - 1007 S ( =100 cm
2r
(g) &= Cm (h) v= nÀ= 50 x 000 - 5000 cm/s
50
(i) =0
() max =A@= 400 r cms.

Illustration 8 A travelling harmonic wave on a string is described by

y (a)=7.5 sin (0.,.0050 x+ 12t+ 4)
(a) What are the displacement and velocity of oscillation of apoint at x =1cm, and = l s? Is this speedequal to thespeed of
wave propagation?
(6) 5s.
Locate the points of the string which have the same transverse displacements and velocity as the x= Icm point at r= Zs.
11 s. [NCERT]

Solution
We are given that
y=7.5 sin (0.0050 x +12r+ I ...i)
(a) At = lcm, and = 1s, displacement,
y=7.5 sin (0.0050 x1+ 12 x1+ 4)
or y=7.5 sin (12.7907 rad)
180°
y=7.5sin| 12.7904 x- =7.5 sin 732.83°

y=7.5 sin (720°+ 12.83°) = 7.5 sin 12.83°

y=7.5 x 0.2215 = 1.666 cm
dy
Speed of oscillation at a point, , =:d1
V, = 7.5 x 12x cos (0.0050 x + 12r + n4)
V,=90 cos (0.0050x + 12r + d4)
When X=Icm and =ls

V,= 90cos 12.83°= 90x 0.975l = 88.75 cm/s

The general equation of the ravelling harmonic wave (ravelling lowards let) is
y=A sin [w+ kx + J .(ü)
Comparing equations (i)and (ü), we get
A=7.5 cm, 0= l2 rad/s, and k = ).0050 rad/cm
 12
Speed of wave propagation, k 0.0050
=-24 m/s
(Negative sign has been taken as the wave lravels towards lef)

Thus, we find that , (particle specd) is not equal Ito v(wave-speed)

2r 27 2
(b) As
0.0050 =12.6 m
cm
the point x = l have the
All points located at distances, =n (where = +l, H2, E3,.) from same
velocity. displacement ana
(4.0r- -0.02x),
Illustration 9 Equation of a uansverse wave travelling in arope is given by y= 5sin where yand xare
in cm and tÉme in seconds. Calculate expresseA
(a) the amplitude, frequency, velocity and wavelength of the wave.
(b) the maximum transverse Speed and acceleration of a particle in the rope.

Solution

(a) Comparing this with the standard equation of wave motion y=A sin 27t 2
where A,fand 2 are amplitude, frequency and wavelength, respectively.
Thus, amplitude A=5cm 2gf= 4
4
’ Frequency, f= -=0.637 cycle/s
2
27r 2 = 100t cm
Again, -=0.02 or Wavelength (a) =
0.02
4 2
Velocity of the wave v= f= =200 cm/s
27 0.02

(b) Transverse velocity of the particle, u= dy

dt =5x4 cos(4.0t- 0.02x) =20 cos(4.0t 0.02x)
Maximum velocity of the particle = 20 cm/s

Particle acceleration, a = 8y-=-20x4 sin(4.0t -0.02x)

Ilustration 10 The figure below represents two snaps of a travelling wave on a

stretched string which is travelling along +ve
x-axis. The first snap is taken at t=0 and the second is taken at t =0.05 s. Determine
all DOSsible values of angular frequency of
the wave.

t=0s
10
-t= 0.05 s
5

(mm) 0 x(m)
-5

-10
Solution
The wave is travelling along the positive -axis

cquation) snap)

Theefore, we get m 2nn

A t 0.05, y=A sin (kr -Ox0.05) +0) (rom cquation) and y= Asin kr (Irom
Snap)
Thenefoe, we get +02mn )m 40 (0 -m)r +
3

10r 130r 250r

3

wavelength 40 cm and
llustration 11 Asinusoidal wave travelling in the positive x-direction has an amplitude of 15 cm,
fhoquency SHz. The vertical disrlacenent of the medium at r= 0and .r=0 is also 1S cm, as shown.
ycm)
-40

15

+ x(cm)

(a) Find the angular wave number, time period, angular frequency and speed of the wave.
(b) Determine the phase constant Ø, and write a general expression for the wave function.

Solution
2r 2t rad
(a) k= rad/cm
40cm 20

w= 2nf= 16rs v=fl= 320cm/s

(b) It is given that A = 15 cm and also y= 15 cm at x=0 and t = 0

then usingy = A sin (a kx + )

15 = 15 sin ¢ ’ sin =1 or Q=rad.

2
T rad
Therefore, the wave function is y=Asin (or -kr+)=(15
2
cm) sin (16rs 20 cm

6. THE LINEAR WAVE EQUATION

By using wave function y =A sin (0t- kx + ), we can describe the motion of any point on the string. Any point on the string moves
only vertically, and so its -coordinate remains constant. The transverse velocity V, of the point and its
are therefore
transverse acceleration ay
 14 Waves and Acoustics

dy .(1)
r= constant OA cos (or- kr +)

dy, y ...(2)
-oAsin (ot - kx+ )
dt Jr= constant dt

and hence v,,max = 04; a,max = o»A

The transverse velocity and transverse acceleration of any point on the string do not reach their maximum value simultaneously.
In fact,(the transverse velocity reaches its maximum value (aA) when the displacement y = 0, whereas the transverse acceleration

reaches its maximum magnitude (ÛA) when y= +A,further

dy =-kA cos (ot kx + 0) ..(3)
Jt= constant
dx

o'y =-kASin (ot -kx+ ) ..(4)

From (1) and (3) |dy ’ Vp=-V, Xslope

k dx
Wle., 1T the slope at any point is negative, particle velocity is positive and vice-versa, Tor a wave moving along positive xaxis
i.e., v,, is positive.
For example, consider two points Aand Bon they-x curve for a wave, as shown. The wave is moving along positive x-axis,.
Slope at Ais positive therefore at the given moment, its velocity is negative. That means it is coming downward. Reverse is the
situation for particle at point B.
Nowusing equations (2) and (4)
•y ² 'y o'y 1 y A

This is known as the linear wave equation or differential equation Condibon ,

representation of the travelling wave model. We have developed the
linear wave equation from a sinusoidal mechanical wave travelling
through a medium, but it is much more general. The linear wave
-f *
X X

equation successfully describes waves on strings, sound waves and also

electromagnetic waves.

Illustration 12 2
Verify that wave function y= is a solution to the linear wave equation. x and y are in cm.
(x-3t)' +1
Solution
By taking partial derivatives of this function w.r.t. x and t
a'y 12(x-31)-4 and
ay 108(r-3r)' -36
[(x-31)° +1j [(x-31) +1
y 1:
9 ar
Comparing with linear wave equation, we see that the wave function is a solution to the linear wave equation if the speed at which
the pulse moves is 3 cm/s. It is apparent from wave function therefore it is a solution to the linear wave equation.