PHYSICS

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Robin Marshall
 First published as an e-Book in 2012 by Champagne Cat
First published in paperback in 2017 by Champagne Cat

Copyright c Robin Marshall 2012 2017

The right of Robin Marshall to be identified as author

of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of the publisher or author,
nor be otherwise circulated in any form of binding or cover
other than that in which it is published and without
a similar condition including this condition
being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data.

A catalogue record for this book will become available from
The British Library.

ISBN 978-1-5206974-3-7

A C HAMPAGNE C AT P RODUCTION
 A LSO BY ROBIN M ARSHALL

Three Centuries of Manchester Physics

The Nobel Conspiracy
Physicists at War
They Gave Him a Sickle

A LSO PUBLISHED BY C HAMPAGNE C AT

Hard Luck (by James Maw)

Adam Ant: The New Testament (by James Maw)
All the Qur’an (by Amédée Turner)
Contents

Front Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

1: The Method of Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2: Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3: Relativity and Particle Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4: Quantum and Atomic Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5: Thermal Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6: Waves and Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7: Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8: Errors and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
9: Applied Nuclear Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
About the author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

i
ii
Front Matter

This is not a standard Introduction, nor an author’s Forward. As I typed up

the markup language, it came under the category ‘Front Matter’ and given
the nature of this book, that seemed a good name to give this section:
‘Front Matter’. More to the point, producing an electronic book myself, I
am not encumbered by an editor let alone a sub editor. I am responsible
for all sins within and to be honest, I am pleased by that. It is just like
being in the lecture theatre, without a pairing twin making a report on me.

This Front Matter will tell you about the origins of this book and some
of the philosophy concerning it. It is of passing interest only. Firstly, I
present the version history. I only deal in first hierarchy version numbers,
V1, V2, V3 etc. I am not out to derive income by making minor corrections
to a version where the minor corrections have been instigated by readers.
If you buy any version, you get all subsequent versions for free.

Origins

When I returned to university as a professor, some 25 years after leaving

as a postdoctoral research assistant, I soon realised that I had forgotten
most of the basic physics that I had not even understood at the time. I
also realised as I took on lecture courses, set examination questions and
more important, worked out the answers, that I had never really known
how to answer examination questions as a student. I had been taught
physics, but not how to approach examination questions. I resolved to
put this right. Most physics departments are segmented along the lines of
research: particle, nuclear, condensed matter, laser, theoretical, astronomy
etc. and there are a few physicists around who believe they are only
capable of lecturing on their own sub-subject of physics. I further resolved
that wherever and as far as possible, I would try to know more about a
colleague’s sub-field than he or she did about mine, with the possible
exception of theoretical particle physicists, to whom I defer.

There is no single prototype physics exam question setter: they all have
their own specialities and peculiarities. The ones to beware of are those
who prefix opaque derivations in their lecture course with the words ‘Thus,
trivially . . ’. But degree exam questions are vetted by a small committee
in most progressive universities and it is the purpose of the committee
to iron out any inconsistencies and idiosyncrasies. Any erratic behaviour
by maverick examiners in the marking stage is largely thwarted by cross
iii
checks on the marking scheme by independent colleagues, some of whom
are motivated by a desire to find that the ‘Prof’ has bungled. Anything
you read here is pretty well down the centre of the road except perhaps for
the section on Applied Nuclear Physics where some of the questions are
actually course assessments where I had independence, rather than exam
questions where strict control was imposed.

Purpose

What are the aims and objectives of this tomelet? I know some former
departmental colleagues who are implacably opposed to publishing things
like this because they fear that some students will use it as a crib sheet to
answer intra semester assignments. This argument would have impact if
assignment questions were cribbed from my crib sheet. I have reworded
most of these questions and re-cast them in fresh language, if only to avoid
copyright issues. Physics itself cannot be copyrighted and so all you have
to do is to present physics in your own words and there is no question
of intellectual property. To the best of my knowledge, Einstein did not
register a trademark for E D mc 2 .

In an ideal world, a student would take these questions one at a time,

try to solve them and only if they should find themselves in a state of
intellectual desperation, turn to the answer for help. After solving the
problem themselves, I hope they will take a look at my answer. There
may be a sentence of further enlightenment in my solution – I have tried
to include extra physics gossip where possible – or I might even be wrong,
in which I have provided my e-mail address and I would welcome a proud
joyful message telling me the truth.

My personal experience is that I learnt most physics by reading

and re-reading text books on the subject and also by working through
problems. This is one of the reasons why this collection of questions and
answers exists.

I was torn between the layout I used here and separating questions and
solutions into two halves of the book. This would put the solution out of
the eye-line and I invite comments on this.

iv
Version History

V1: 1995. The web had been around for 3 years and I decided to try and
use it to get my lecture material to students in the new way. But delivery
by web in 1995 was not immediately feasible because only a handful of
students had access to it during the vacations. So I provided backup to my
lecture course ‘Gases, Liquids and Solids’ in the form of an interactive
CD. From 1995 to 2000, I polled students in my class to check how many
had access to a PC or Mac during the vacations and I plotted the rise from
10% to quasi 100% in this time span. In an attempt to avoid a poor turnout
at my last lecture of the course during the penultimate week of December,
I pre-warned the class that during the lecture I would tell them what all
the exam questions would be and then at the end, hand out the CD of the
course. The CD contained questions and answers about the course and
was the embryo of this book.

I believe to this day that giving advance warning of what the questions
will be about, has no effect whatsoever on the outcome of a physics
examination. I even hired the son of a former Soviet physicist (now at
Lancaster University) who had decided on an IT career and was glad to
make my CD interactive and even help to write the disks. In the 1990s,
economic disk burning technology required about 10 minutes per CD
and the CD blanks themselves were not cheap. Six students begged and
pleaded with me that they could not attend my final lecture because Pater
and Mater had ordered them to go skiing in the Swiss Alps, on pain of
disinheritance. Therefore, could I please slip them an advance copy of the
CD so they would not be at a disadvantage. I feigned reluctance, but was
glad to oblige. And it saved my bacon.

The first that I knew that ‘Trouble was up’ was when the phone
call came in from Zermatt: ‘Your disk has a virus’. He was right.
Goodness knows what the former Soviet IT whizz kid is doing now, but
his master disk encapsulated the classic ‘Chernobyl’ virus, which was
a ticking nuclear time bomb, poised to wreck more than 200 students’ PCs.

Five further difficult phone calls later, with 200 expensive, freshly
burnt but useless disks binned and grovelling promises from me on the
telephone that I would DHL a replacement clean disk to Zermatt, the
Former Soviet’s son IT whizz Kid produced a clean master disk. It was a
natural safe extension to create a questions and answers file on a separate,
v
non-interactive and safe CD and here is the result. The first version was
typeset using a form of LATEX for the Mac, namely ‘Textures’, marketed by
an ambitious software firm in Oregon called ‘Blue Sky’. Making the TEX
font system work in conjunction with the early Mac OS was an heroic
effort, to which I contributed an extra burden by insisting on using the font
‘Times New Roman’ for text and equations instead of the original TEX
‘computer modern’ fonts which are unappealing to many including me.
The arrival of Mac OSX was the death knell for ‘Textures’.
V2: 1997. More subject topics added.
V3: 2000. Applied Nuclear questions added.
V4: 2005. Simple tidy up.
V5: 2008. Re-typeset using TEXShop, when it became clear that the
commercial ‘Textures’ would never make it to OSX.
V6: 2012. First edition prepared for electronic publication.
V7: 2017. In February, Amazon announced that they would provide a
‘Print on Demand’ service, hence this edition was quickly introduced.

Errors and Omissions

It is possible that there are physics text books that have no errors. I would
expect that those by my former tutor Franz Mandl might fall into this
category. But I am not Franz Mandl and I urge you to use these notes as
a general guidance on how to go about your exams. If I have made an
error, I apologise. It should not cost you a degree class unless you use
these notes in a way not intended, which is to memorise and copy. Surely
few of you can do this. Follow the main road but take your own sideways
diversions now and then.

The technology of this book

The writing and typesetting of scientific papers and books was

revolutionised over 30 years ago by the emergence, development
and proliferation of publication standard TEX and LATEX styles. They
removed a massively tediously and error prone manual procedure which
was in the hands of the printers and even worse, their accountants. TEX
and LATEX gave scientists the ability to produce and lay out their own work
vi
professionally and as they wanted. Everything progressed smoothly until
now, the age of the e-Book. Simply put, scientific formulae and equations
do not lend themselves to standard e-Book reader reflowing. Ideally this
book would be a pdf file which would retain the exact layout that I intend
and whose fonts would scale without aliasing if a page were magnified
on screen. Alas, neither Amazon’s Kindle nor Apple’s iBook readers will
handle pdf files without garbling them onto the screen. One can write
XHTML based reflowing text for the web that contains scientific symbols
and equations, but the mark up language is very restricted and only an
unacceptably small equivalent subset of TEX’s vast repertoire is possible.

Scientific typesetting for e-Books is therefore still in its infancy, being

tedious and labour intensive. This is reflected in the price of many such
books. After considerable experimentation and research, I decided that I
had to compromise in the medium term. The nearest existing equivalent
to what I wanted to do, turned out to be cartoon eBooks which also do
not reflow and have fixed pages, viewed as the author intended and with
fixed page numbers. There are balancing advantages and disadvantages
in this book’s format. The layout of the equations is maintained, just as I
originally typeset them. The equations are not garbled. The pages can be
magnified without pixellating. However, the text is not searchable; that is
a feature for the future. To combat this, I have provided an index which
points to the visible page number. I chose the font size and the number of
lines per page to match those of a typical book on Kindle. The file size is
also larger than a typical text-only e-Book, but still tiny by current storage
media standards. However, this incurs Amazon download charges which
add about £2 to the price of the e-Book. The ‘Print on Demand’ service
offers two advantages. Firstly, there is no VAT on printed books in the UK,
which saves 20% and the printing costs are almost the same as the e-Book
download costs. Therefore, this paper version book, despite consuming
material resources can be offered at essentially the same overall price as
the electronic version, when postage costs are taken into account.

Feedback

I welcome any feedback, positive or negative and will respond as soon as

I can to most polite comments and questions.

You can e-mail me at [email protected]

vii
viii
1: The Method of Dimensional Analysis

The notation I will use here, is to denote the dimension of a quantity by Œ .

The procedure to answer this type of question is firstly to write out the
various dimensional dependences in a generic fashion thus:

y D wa xb zc

Here y will be a physical observable (e.g. rate of flow of a liquid),

the crux of the specific question, which depends on possible other physical
observables w, x and z, which in turn have units that can be expressed in
terms of the basic units of mass, M , length L and time T . There can, of
course, be more than or less than three physical observables.

Then secondly, by equating the powers of M , L and T , this leads to a

set of simultaneous equations which can be solved for a, b and c.

It is a rather obvious statement that it is difficult to proceed if you do

not know the dimensions of any of the quantities y, w, x and z. However, it
is not necessarily a complete show-stopper. First try to make an intelligent
deduction. If that doesn’t get you far, then make an honest guess. You
may guess right and at least you will get credit for correctly working out
the dependence that follows from this wrong guess. You should (if I were
marking) get slightly more credit for stating honestly that you don’t know
but are making an intelligent guess, than if you try to bluster through with
yards of woffle.

N OTES

1
The Method of Dimensional Analysis: Question 1.

By means of dimensional analysis, show how the rate of flow of volume of

liquid through a long tube depends on the pressure gradient, the viscosity
of the liquid and the diameter of the tube. Any other dependences can be
ignored.

Solution: Question 1.

We want to find a, b and c in the following equation:

 
dV dP a b c
D  d
dt dx
dV
V is the volume, the volume flow,  is the viscosity, P is the pressure
dt
dP
and the pressure gradient.
dx
So
[volume flow] D ŒdV =dt  D L3 T 1
[pressure gradient] D ŒdP =dx D ML 2 T 2

[viscosity] D Œ D ML 1 T 1
[diameter] D Œd  D L

We start by setting up the dimensional equation:

a
b
c
L3 T 1 D M L 2 T 2 M L 1 T 1 L

M coefficient 0 D aCb (1)

L coefficient 3 D 2a b C c (2)
T coefficient 1 D 2a b (3)
.2/ .3/ c D 4
.1/ C .3/ a D 1
.1/ gives b D 1
And the final answer can be written out in full:
dV dP 1 4
D  d
dt dx
Perhaps the most difficult part of this question would be recalling the
dimensions of viscosity. Knowing an alternative equation containing 
would help and I leave it to the reader to find one, then it might stick.
2
The Method of Dimensional Analysis: Question 2.

Use dimensional arguments to show that the speed of waves on a deep

volume of liquid is independent of the liquid density if the waves are long
enough to be controlled by gravity, but not if they are short enough to be
controlled by surface tension.

Solution: Question 2.

This question uses deep water surface waves as a vehicle to test your skills
in dimensional analysis. It might help to answer the question if you know
the two types of surface wave:

 long wavelength: gravity waves, controlled by gravity

 short wavelength: capillary waves, controlled by surface tension

Case 1: Gravity waves: We want to determine the form of the

dispersion relation: ! D !.k/ where ! is (angular) frequency and k the
wave number. This equation then allows the speed to be obtained.

We might a priori expect ! to depend on the liquid density , the

acceleration due to gravity g and the wave number k. Taking a hint from
the question, let us leave out surface tension here, but after looking at the
second half of the question, you could go back and try this bit again with
surface tension in and see what happens.

So, setting up the dimension equalities:

1
Œ! D T D Œa Œgb Œkc
3
Œ D ML
2
Œg D LT
1
Œk D L

1
Substituting W Œ! D T D M aL 3aCb c
T 2b

And then W a D 0 (1)

b D 1/2 (2)
3a C b c D 0 (3)

3
 Equation (1) shows that there is no  dependence (i.e. !  0 ).

Also b D c D 1/2 . And althoughp

not asked for, it would not hurt to
write out, for completeness: ! D A gk, where A is a constant.

Case 2: Capillary waves: Proceed as for case 1) but now include the
extra dependent variable  , the surface tension. Now ! D !.; ; g; k/.
The extra dimension for this case, compared to case 1) is: Œ D M T 2 .

So:
1
Œ! D T D Œa Œgb Œkc Œd
D M aCd L 3aCb c
T 2b 2d

aCd D 0
3a C b C c D 0
b C d D 1/2

At first sight, it seems difficult if not impossible to proceed because

there are only 3 equations for 4 unknowns. The next question (Q3) and its
solution shows how to proceed in general when faced with this seemingly
insoluble problem. It is only a problem mathematically and physics can
overcome it. In this question we are not asked to perform a full dimensional
analysis, but rather to simply answer a specific question and show that
a ¤ 0 in this special case.

It just needs the application of a bit of logic:

Let us see what happens if we assume the contrary, i.e. assume that
a D 0. Then d must also D 0, because a C d D 0. But if d D 0 then
! does not depend on , whereas we are told that it does. Therefore the
assumption that a D 0 leads to a contradiction and hence a ¤ 0. Thus !
depends on  and we can even say: !  a .

This is often a useful ploy in physics. In order to prove that something

is true, assume that it isn’t true and show that such an assumption inevitably
leads to a contradiction.

4
The Method of Dimensional Analysis: Question 3.

The shape, but not the volume of a spherical drop of an incompressible

liquid is changed by squeezing it. On releasing the force of deformation,
the drop executes periodic vibrations. Use the method of dimensions to
obtain an expression for the frequency of these vibrations in terms of the
physical properties of the drop.

Solution: Question 3.

Reading the question carefully tells us that the liquid is incompressible so

there is no modulus or Hooke’s law constant to provide the restoring force.
Yet there must be a restoring force if there are to be vibrations. So what
could the frequency depend on? We can imagine the density , the drop
radius r, gravity g and the surface tension  . What else? Surface tension
is the key ingredient since unlike gravity, it provides the restoring force to
cause the vibrations.

As a general strategy, to be applied here and in general, it is not wise

to proceed with 4 variables because there will only be 3 equations to solve
for them. This issue was avoided in Q2 by a clever choice of words in the
question. Here it isn’t, so we encounter it head on. However, the question
would not be set if it could not be solved somehow. The key to finding a
solution in these cases is to look for one of the variables whose dimensions
can be constructed from the others.

Let us look at the various dimensions here.

3
Œ D ML
Œr D L
2
Œg D LT
2
Œ D M T

We can proceed in steps, firstly noticing that the dimension L drops out of
the ratio g=r:
hg i
DT 2
r
5
 hg i
and then:  D ML 3 T 2
hg i r
and so: r D Œgr 2  D M T 2 D Œ
3
r
If you encounter this in an exam, you can try all these possibilities,
writing on an adjacent page of the answer booklet and it should impress
the examiner. (S)he should be impressed when (s)he can see that you know
what you are doing. It changes her/his psychology towards you in a subtle
way.

We have now established that the quantity gr 2 has the dimensions
gr 2
of  and that the quantity is dimensionless. Therefore whatever

the final form of the function of the quantities that produce the correct
dimensions for !, this function can be multiplied by an arbitrary function
gr 2
of the quantity , f ./, where  D , and we can omit one of the four

variables, since only three are independent.

1
Œ! D T
D Œa Œrb Œ c
1
Œ! D T D M aCc L 3aCb
T 2c

aCc D 0 (1)
3a C b D 0 (2)
2c D 1 (3)

Equation (3) gives immediately c D 1/2 and substituting this in

equation (1) gives, a D 1/ and finally equation (2) yields b D
2
3/
2

Putting everything together:

r  
 gr 2
! D
f
r 3 

We ought to get an equivalent solution by omitting a different variable

instead of g in the step above.

6
The Method of Dimensional Analysis: Question 4.

A solid body oscillating at an angular frequency ! in a liquid of density 

and viscosity  propagates disturbances into the fluid, with characteristic
length ı. Show, by dimensional analysis, how ı depends on !,  and .

Solution: Question 4.

By now, the procedure is routine.

ı / ! a b c
) ŒL D ŒT 1 a ŒML 3 b ŒML 1 T 1 c

LW 1 D 3b c (1)
M W 0 D bCc (2)
T W 0 D a c (3)

The three simultaneous equations for the three unknowns could not be
simpler. b is obtained by adding equations (1) and (2) and dividing through
by 2. c is obtained by substituting the value of b into equation (2) and a
follows by substituting the value of c into equation (3).

) b D 1/
2 c D 1/2 a D 1/
2

This gives the required answer:

  1/2

ı /
!

N OTES

7
The Method of Dimensional Analysis: Question 5.

How does the speed of sound in a perfect gas depend on:

a) The temperature T
b) The pressure P
and
c) The molecular weight m?

Solution: Question 5.

Because we have a problem that deals with the properties of a gas, and
the temperature T is involved, we can invoke some plausible physics and
already insert kT instead of T , since k and T always go together in gases.

v / .kT /a P b mc
1
ŒLT  D ŒML2 T 2 a ŒML 1 T 2 b
 ŒM c
M W 0 D aCbCc (1)
LW 1 D 2a b (2)
T W 1 D 2a 2b (3)

Adding equations (2) + (3) gives: 0 D 3b; i.e. b D 0.

Then from equation (2), a D 1/2 .

Adding equation (3) 1/2 to equation (1) gives: D 1/ .

2

So finally:
 1/2
kT
v /
m

N OTES

8
The Method of Dimensional Analysis: Question 6.

The upthrust, F , on an aeroplane wing of fixed cross sectional profile

is proportional to the length of the wing, l. Use a simple dimensional
argument to show how it also depends upon the width of the wing, d , the
density of air,  and the velocity of the aeroplane v.

Solution: Question 6.

The dependence is summarised by:

F / l d a b v c

Equating dimensions:

2


3 b


1 c
MLT D L La ML LT

Equating exponents:

T W 2 D c H) c D 2 (1)
M W 1 D b H) b D 1 (2)
LW 1 D 1Ca 3b C c

Substituting equations (1) and (2) into (3) gives a D 1 and the final
dependence is:
F / l d  v2

N OTES

9
2: Mechanics

Mechanics: Question 1.

It is planned to fill the tender of a moving steam engine with coal which
drops vertically from a hopper. What is the extra tractive force that must
be applied to the tender to maintain constant velocity if it is to be loaded
with 10 tonnes of coal in 2 s whilst proceeding uniformly for 10 m during
his time? Neglect any frictional effects.

Solution: Question 1.

This is a common type of question, even though the subject matter used
here as a vehicle, is archaic. It is nothing more than a test of your
knowledge of Newton’s 2nd Law, that Force equals the Rate of Change
of Momentum.
The equation for momentum is simple enough:

p D mv
and so:
dp dv dm dm
F D D m Cv D v
dt dt dt dt
dv
The m drops out because v is constant.
dt
104
Inserting numbers: F D 5 m s 1  kg s 1
D 25  103 N.
2

N OTES

10
Mechanics: Question 2.

An escalator inclined at 45ı is moving up at a speed of 1 m s 1 . A

woman who weighs 48 kg walks up it at a speed relative to the escalator of
0.5 m s 1 . At what rate is she doing work?

Solution: Question 2.

A woman doing work by walking up an

escalator.

This is extension of the first question. It also has a trap for the few percent
of students who think that all numbers given in a question have to be used
explicitly. Usually it is unfair to give numbers that are not used, but here,
the inclusion of the numbers actually tests knowledge.

The gravitational force vertically downwards is: Force D 48  g N.

and the component of this force in the direction of the slope is thus: 48 
g  sin 45ı .

The rate of doing work is this force, multiplied by the distance it moves
per second, i.e. Force  velocity.

Therefore:

Work rate D 48  g  0:5  sin 45ı D 166:5 W

It is the speed of the escalator, 1 m s 1 , that is not needed in the question.
It is no more relevant than the tangential speed of the escalator due to the
rotation of the earth, nor the speed of rotation of the Earth around the Sun,
nor the speed of rotation of the solar system around the Galactic centre,
nor the speed of the Galaxy with respect to the frame of the Universe, if
such a thing exists. If the woman did not walk, she would do no work.
11
Mechanics: Question 3.

An athlete is capable of running 100 m in 10 s. Estimate the height the

athlete should be able to clear in a pole vault.

Solution: Question 3.

This question, or one like it, was set in an exam at Manchester and it
must be described as poor one. The question setter showed either poor
knowledge or scant regard for the basics of athletics. Nevertheless, it can
be used as an idealised test of conservation of energy, which is what the
physicist question setter intended. The reason why it is a poor question is
that any athletes answering the question, might concentrate on matters that
the question setter erroneously thought were irrelevant.

The strategy for answering the question is based simply on calculating

the kinetic energy of the runner and equating this to the potential energy at
the height reached by the athlete when (s)he jumps.

To start with, we have to make a shaky assumption that the speed at

the moment of take-off is the same as the average speed over 100 m. The
actual speed profile for an athlete running 100 m in 10 s depends on the
individual. Some athletes have shot their bolt by the time they hit the
100 m tape whereas Bolt can do another 100 just as fast.

A further assumption is that the pole does not bend.

We start by calculating the kinetic energy, KE, – school stuff:

1 2 1
KE D mv D  m  102 D 50 m J
2 2

Then equate the KE to the potential energy PE:

PE D mgh

Equate this to the potential energy.

12
 Then:

mgh D 50m
and canceling the m W m=gh D 50m=
50
h D D 5m
g

This is significantly less than the world record for the pole vault. The
only way to achieve a greater height according to these assumptions would
be to run faster. But this is not enough because 100 m in 10 s is within 6%
of the human limit. The extra height comes from the athlete flexing the
pole by muscle power, putting further energy into the pole that is released
when the pole returns to its original state.

Pole vaulting is therefore a test of the running power of an athlete, the

muscle strength to flex the pole and the combined skill of pole manufacturers
to make unsnappable poles with a high value of its bending modulus and
of an athlete’s ability to earn enough to afford one.

In mitigation, the question setter does say ‘estimate’ which allows a

degree of flexibility. But would (s)he have awarded extra marks if some of
the above qualifying points had been raised?

N OTES

13
Mechanics: Question 4.

A neutron star has a measured rotation period of 2 ms and a moment of

inertia of 1038 kg m2 . Furthermore, the rotation period is measured to be
increasing by 10 13 s s 1 . What is the rate of loss of kinetic energy?

Solution: Question 4.

From my knowledge of exam question setting and vetting committees,

if the question setter here were an expert astronomer, (s)he would have
wanted to state that the rate of increase in the period as 10 13 , (which is
correct for any time unit) and not 10 13 s s 1 . But the committee, common
sense and benevolence prevailed.

The rotational kinetic energy is:

1 2
E D I!
2
where
2
! D

substitute
2 2 I
E D
2
differentiate with respect to t:

dE 4 2 I d
D
dt  3 dt
4 2  1038 13 2
D  10 D  1034 J s 1
.2  103 /3 2

At this stage, I would assign  2 to be  10 and be done with it. But if

you insist on using a calculator, which experience has taught me can lead
to fumble errors, especially when the calculator is resting on a pencil, then
go ahead. I would just write:

ans  5  1034 J s 1

14
 And to assert confidence, I might even put a box round it. Boxes round
correct answers subliminally impress examiners by means of their implied
confidence.

ans  5  1034 J s 1

A double box might be construed as showing off

ans  5  1034 J s 1

I like to think of the physics implications of a question and answer

in a subject where I knew essentially nothing before doing the problem.
Although the circumstances of the situation might at first sight be
unfamiliar, the underlying physics is almost certainly not. In this particular
case, you would need to know absolutely nothing about the specific astro-
physics of neutron stars, but simply the fact that an object, with specified
rotational parameters, is rotating. However, when an answer comes out
with a number that is prodigiously enormous, it is worth looking back to
consider whether an error might have been made.

 This answer shows an astronomical amount of energy lost per

second. It is so big that I would wonder if I had made a mistake, except I
notice that the moment of inertia is given to be 1038 kg m2 , so big numbers
are present from the start.

 Next, I’d like to educate myself on how quickly the rotating star is
slowing down (grammar logic). It has a period of 2 milliseconds, so why
not calculate how long it will take to double the period to 4 milliseconds
(assuming linear)? Putting 10 13 s s 1  t D 10 3 s, I find that it would
take 1010 s to double the period. At this point, I throw in my forbidden
approximation, 1 year =   107 s, to find that t  314 years. We can be
sure that Napoleon did not order its period to be measured, and even if he
did, we would have to wait another century for the result.

 One can now nod in satisfaction: The amount of energy lost is so

huge that the radiation carrying it off could plausibly be detected at Earth
and also the time scale is short enough (just hundreds of years) that the
increase in the period could be easily measured. Everything fits.

15
Mechanics: Question 5.

Starting from a position of rest, a glass marble rolls down an inclined plane
inclined at 40ı to the horizontal. What is the speed of the marble after it
has traveled 1 m? (The moment of inertia of a uniform sphere of mass m
and radius R about its centre of mass is 2mR2 =5.)

Solution: Question 5.

To answer the question, it is necessary to assume that the marble rolls

without slipping. Then the inertial mass and the moment of inertia both
enter with equal weight. There is a sting in the tail here which annoys me.
If the marble doesn’t slip then there must be friction and if there is friction,
energy is lost as heat and the above equation is not correct. So we need
to assume that there is an infinitesimal amount of friction, enough to keep
the marble rolling, but so small we can ignore the energy loss - in order to
rescue the physics.

Conservation of energy is fundamental, as is the conservation of linear

and angular momentum and whenever energy and momentum crop up, it
is worth making a comment in the margin at the start “conservation”, just
in case you need it.

So here is the energy equation:

1 2 1 2
mgh D mv C I!
2 2
We are generously given:

2mR2
I D
5
Substituting for I ,

1 2 mR2 v 2
mgh D mv C
2 5 R2
7
D mv 2
10
10gh 10  9:8  sin 40ı
v2 D D D 8:999 units
7 7
16
 Giving the final answer for the speed after 1 m:
1
v D 3:00 m s

I deliberately used the word ‘units’ instead of m2 s 2 to draw attention

to the fact that you will always, ALWAYS lose marks if you don’t give
the units. A bare number is almost worthless. My fantastic bald physics
teacher at grammar school used to go even more hairless at the lack of
units. ‘Sixteen what, Boy?’ he would shriek, letting his Welshness seize
his tongue as he tweaked an ear-lobe. ‘Sixteen fur boots?’ To keep marks
already gained, you are urged to jot down the units at the end of your
numerical answer.

N OTES

17
Mechanics: Question 6.

Estimate the power required to keep a helicopter of mass 600 kg in the air,
if the helicopter blades are 4 m long, and it can be assumed that all the
air beneath the circle of the blades is moved uniformly downwards. The
density of air is 1:3 kg m 3 .

Solution: Question 6.

We are told that the air beneath the circle of the blades is moving uniformly
downwards, so let this velocity be v.

The mass of air pushed downwards per second is then

M D Av

 is the density of air and A is the area swept out by the blades.

The momentum given to the air causes a reaction to push the blades
upwards. Therefore the rate of change of this momentum, which equals
a force, must be the same as the gravitational force on the helicopter, to
balance it out.
So:

mg D M v D Av 2
mg 600  9:8
) v2 D D D 89:98
A 1:3    16
v D 9:486

18
 The power P , is the rate of giving energy to the air:
1 1
P D M v 2 D Av 3
2 2
1
D .1:3    16/  89:98 /2
3

2
D 2:8  104  30 kW
 40 horsepower

Accepting an invitation from Walter Lecroy, founder and President of

Lecroy Electronics, to travel from Boston to New York in his light aircraft,
I held tight as he veered over the Hudson to get a close look at a fleet
of US Navy mothballed warships. I asked him, belatedly in my youthful
inexperience, what was the horsepower of the airplane engine.

‘34 HP’ he shouted above the wind noise, ‘same engine as in my

Karmann Ghia that I drove us to the airfield in.’

I did not know at the time, that what seemed like a small amount of
power, could keep an aircraft and three people in the air. I expected to
hear hundreds of horsepower. On reflection, 34 horses should be enough
to keep you in the air.

N OTES

19
Mechanics: Question 7.

A ball of mass m1 with velocity v1 collides with a stationary ball of mass

m2 . What is the maximum velocity that the second ball could acquire?

Solution: Question 7.

The second ball has maximum velocity when the angle between the initial
velocity of the first ball and the final velocity of the second ball is zero.
Conservation of kinetic energy and momentum do the rest.

First, kinetic energy:

1 1 2 1
m1 v12 D m1 v 0 1 C m2 v 2
2 2 2
2
m1 v12 D m1 v 0 1 C m2 v 2 .1/
And then momentum:
mv1 D m1 v 0 1 C m2 v2 .2/
The aim is to express v2 in terms of v1 so the two equations above can
be used to eliminate v10 .

Multiply equation (1) by m1 :

2
m21 v12 D m21 v 0 1 C m1 m2 v22
Substitute for v10 using equation (2) and multiply out:
m21 v12 D .m1 v1 m2 v2 /2 C m1 m2 v22
m21 v12 D m21 v12 2m1 m2 v1 v2 C m22 v22 C m1 m2 v22
This equation is satisfied if v2 D 0, but in this case, ball 2 does not
move so this solution can be rejected.

Divide through by m2 v2 (since v2 ¤ 0):

0 D m2 v2 2m1 v1 C m1 v2
0 D v2 .m1 C m2 / 2m1 v1
2m1 v1
v2 D
.m1 C m2 /
and this is the required answer.
20
 You might just pick up a bonus if you note at the end: ‘if m1 D m2 ,
then v2 D v1 as expected.’ This would be a double whammy remark
because you not only make a perceptive remark about the answer, but you
confidently assert that you expected it. Of course, your answer must be
correct if you are going to make smart remarks. And some exam paper
markers in these days of rigid marking schemes and beady eyed marking
cross-checkers, might be reluctant to award bonus marks that are not within
the scope of the mark schedule. However, it can work in subtle ways. If
you have warmed the heart of the exam paper marker, and then (s)he comes
to a later answer where (s)he can hardly decide whether to award you a
mark or not, the warm heart might just tilt the balance.

N OTES

21
Mechanics: Question 8.

Estimate how long it would take, in principle, to travel to the other side of
Earth by free fall in an evacuated tube through the centre of the Earth. The
mean density of the Earth is  D 5515 kg m 3 .

Solution: Question 8.

At a point, a distance x from the centre

of the Earth, only the mass enclosed
within a radius x exerts a gravitational
force on the falling object (Gauss). The
4 3
mass enclosed within x D x ,
3
therefore, the force on the falling body,
mass m, at point x is given by:

  
G 4 3 4Gm
F D x  m D kx with k D
x2 3 3
This is the equation for simple harmonic motion with angular frequency:
r  1
k 4G 2
! D D
m 3
 1
4  6:673  10 11  5515 2
D
3

1
D 1:5418  10 6 2 D 1:2417  10 3 s 1

The time taken to get to the other side of Earth is half this period:

D D 2:53  103 s D 42:2 min: The time taken to return to the point of
!
release, which is equal to the oscillation period D 84:4 min, is also exactly
the orbital period for a low orbit satellite. There are some interesting
physics consequences of this answer. The time period does not depend
on the radius or mass of the Earth, just the density.

The time period of oscillations of a torsion balance at the surface of

the earth also depends on the Earth’s density and not its mass. This did
not prevent John Henry Poynting, lecturer at Owens College Manchester,
22
the precursor to the University, from presenting himself as ‘The Man who
weighed the Earth’. Poynting, after whom the electromagnetic power
vector is named was an exceedingly careful experimenter and obtained
a precise value for the density of the Earth and even corrected Henry
Cavendish’s 1798 value.

A hand written letter

from J H Poynting in
the Physical Laboratories
in Manchester, ordering
some mirrors for the
torsion balance that he
used to weigh the Earth.

Poynting’s Manchester experiments have been missed by a large

number of science historians, but here is a letter from him in Manchester,
purchasing part of the equipment needed for his work from instrument
makers Elliott Brothers in 1877. Balfour Stewart was the head of the
department in Manchester at the time and was in fact, Poynting’s mentor.

This letter was written about 5 years before the physics department
bought its first typewriter. Before the typewriter, copies of letters were
made in a device like a flower press, the letter with still damp ink being
squeezed against tissue paper to transfer some of the ink, thus making a
copy that could be read from the other side of the paper. The meticulous
Poynting made the best copies in the whole Letter Book.

23
Mechanics: Question 9.

Estimate the orbital period for a satellite in a low Earth orbit.

Solution: Question 9.

‘Low earth orbit’ together with the word ‘estimate’ means that we can
equate the radii of the orbit and the Earth. Let the Earth’s radius be R, the
mass of the Earth be M , the mass of the satellite be m and its velocity v.

Equating the gravitational force to the centripetal force:

GM m mv 2
D
R2 R
2R
But v D , where T is the required orbital period.
T
So:
GM m m4 2 R2
D
R2 RT 2
4 2 R3 3
T2 D D
GM G
r s
R3 3
T D 2 or
GM G
r
.6:371  106 /3
D 2 11  5:9736  1024
p 6:673  10
D 2 64:87  104
D 2  805:4
D 5060:7 s
D 84:35 min
This is the value obtained using the standard quoted mass and radius of
Earth in any good table of physical constants. The same answer should be
obtained using the density, provided a consistent set of values is used, viz:
mass = 5:97361024 kg, radius = 6:371106 m and density = 5515 kg m 3 .

The final number is not exactly the same as the one obtained in the free
fall question. Possibly the oblateness of Earth defies a set of consistent
numbers.
24
Mechanics: Question 10.

A communications satellite is launched in an equatorial orbit such that it

stays above the same point of the Earth’s surface. Find the radius of this
orbit.

Solution: Question 10.

This is one of two common questions about satellite orbits. Either you are
asked to calculate something (e.g. the radius) about the geostationary orbit
(as here) or the period of the low Earth orbit (where the orbit radius can
be taken to be the radius of the Earth). One could imagine variations like
the lunarstationary or low lunar orbits. This question tests that you realise
that a geostationary orbit has a period of 24 hrs; that the gravitational force
GmmE mv 2
is: and that gravity provides the centripetal force of and that
r2 r
these two forces are equal.

Then setting v to be such that the satellite orbits the earth in 24 hours,
i.e. staying above the same point:

2 r GmE .24  3600/2

v D therefore: r3 D
.24  60  60/ .2/2
It is a curious fact, though not likely to be of much use in an exam, that
the product GmE is known to much greater precision than either G or mE
alone (398600:4418 km3 s 2 ) and if I insert this value here:

r D 4:2241  107 m D 42241 km

This answer is slightly wrong because I said that there are 24  60 

60 D 86400 seconds in a day whereas I should have used a sidereal day
which is 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.091 seconds or 86164.09054 seconds.

The true answer is 42164 km but anything around 42000 would get the
marks in an examination.

25
Mechanics: Question 11.

A long weighted cylindrical tube is sealed at both ends and placed in water
so that it floats vertically with 16 cm submerged. The tube is depressed
slightly and allowed to oscillate about its equilibrium position. Estimate
the period of small vertical oscillations, assuming that frictional forces are
negligible.

Solution: Question 11.

Let the length of cylinder submerged be ls . When the cylinder is oscillating,

the amount submerged is ls C z where z is the displacement from
equilibrium. The downward force of the cylinder due to gravity is mg.
The equilibrium condition is:
mg D  r 2 ls g
where r is the radius of the cylinder and  is density of water.

When oscillating: d2 z
Ftot D  r 2 zg D m
dt 2
2
Substitute m D . r ls / from equation (1) into (2).
d2 z
 r 2 zg D  r 2 ls 
dt 2
Thus: d2 z g
D z
dt 2 ls
This is a standard eigen equation (c.f. the Schrödinger equation where
one has an operator (here the operator is the second derivative w.r.t. z)
acting on a function z and the result is a constant .g= ls / multiplied by the
function z.

And this has a solution:

r
g
z D A cos !t; with ! D
ls
Thus: s
2 ls
 D D 2 D 2:54 s
! g

26
Mechanics: Question 12.

Describe qualitatively how ocean tides are formed on Earth and explain
why lunar tides are greater than solar tides, despite the fact that the Sun’s
gravitational field at the Earth is much greater than that of the Moon.

Solution: Question 12.

In the absence of any solar or lunar gravity, the Earth’s water would
distribute itself uniformly round the earth as in figure a).

A sketch showing how the oceans

are affected by the gravitational
pull of the Sun and Moon. The
effect of course is exaggerated, in
order to demonstrate the effect.

The Sun and Moon exert a gravitational force of the Earth and the key
point is that the gravitational force at the surface of the Earth nearest the
Sun or Moon is greater than the force on the far side of Earth (due to the
.1=r 2 / dependence. So there is a net tension on the water shell and the
water is pulled into an ellipsoidal shape. The Earth sits more or less in
the middle. When the Sun and Moon line up, the total force is greatest.
(See figure b). When the Sun and Moon are orthogonal, (See figure c) it
all depends on which effect is greater, the Sun’s or Moon’s. It isn’t the
absolute strength of the force that counts, in which case the Sun would win
of course, but rather the difference between the force at front and back of
the Earth.

The difference is given by (for REarth which is small compared to

distances to Moon or Sun):

@F
 2Rearth
@r
27
 so it is the field gradient that matters, not the magnitude of the field
itself.
@F GMMearth
D 2
@r r3
where M is either the Sun or Moon mass. The deciding factor is M=r 3
and putting in numbers, this is 2  1030 =.1:5  1011 /3 D 0:59  10 3 for
the Sun and 7:35  1022 =.0:384  109 /3 D 1:3  10 2 for the Moon. So the
field gradient at Earth is much greater for the Moon than for the Sun and the
Moon has a greater effect on tides. Therefore, in the orthogonal case, the
effect of the Moon wins. Note also that if the Moon had oceans, the tidal
force due to the Earth would be huge and with a smaller gravity holding
the water onto the Moon, the tides would be enormous and possibly lead to
any lunar oceans being thrown into space. Please calculate this and let me
know. Thus I leave it for you to calculate @F =@r  2RMoon and compare it
with tidal forces on Earth.

N OTES

28
Mechanics: Question 13.

A grandfather pendulum clock has been adjusted to keep perfect time at

ground level. Approximately how many seconds a week would it gain or
lose, if the owner moved it to a new location 100 m above this level.

Solution: Question 13.

This can’t be more complicated than school level physics, but you need
to know that the period of a pendulum depends on its length and on the
acceleration due to gravity g. If you have forgotten that since school, you
can’t do the question. s
L
T D 2
g
This is at ground level. In addition you will need to know how to
change the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth to a
position above the surface.

At 100 m above ground level:

GMe
g100 D
.re C 100/2
6:673  10 11  5:97  1024
D D 9:7868
.6:4  106 C 100/2

Now T is proportional to g /2 (basic equation above), thus:

1

  1/2
T0 g100
D Dk where T0 D 1 s
T100 g0
In 1 week, there are 3600  24  7 s D 604800 s.

So in 1 week, the clock would lose:

 
9:7868
604800.1 k/ D 604800 1  6:4 s
9:8066
.
By modern standards, this is a serious error and if this were the only
clock that the owner had, (s)he would soon become very late for
appointments.
29
Mechanics: Question 14.

A glass U-tube, with a uniform bore, contains a mercury column 31.9 cm

long. The tube is held with its two arms vertical so that the two mercury
surfaces are level with each other. The surface in one arm is depressed and
then released. Find the period of the subsequent oscillations of the column
in the tube.

Solution: Question 14.

Let the mass per unit length be

Ml . The length of column is
l D 31:9 cm. Let the surface in
arm 1 of the U-tube do down by
a distance x from the equilibrium
position. The surface in arm-2 of
the tube will therefore go up by
x. The restoring force on both
columns is therefore D 2xMl g.

Therefore the acceleration is:

2x
a D Ml g
lMl
If the motion is simple harmonic, then:
2gx
a D ! 2x i:e: a D
L
r
2g 2g
!2 D and so ! D
L L
Therefore:
r
! 1 2g
f D D D 1:24 Hz
2 2 31:9
And the period of oscillation is:

T D 0:8 s

30
Mechanics: Question 15.

A bungee jumper leaps into a gorge, tied to the jump-off point by an elastic
rope. After reaching the lowest point of descent the jumper then rises 50 m
before momentarily coming to rest again. Make a rough estimate of the
time taken for this upwards motion, stating clearly any assumptions you
have made.

Solution: Question 15.

Apart from getting you to think about the assumptions you need to make,
this question tests whether or not you recognise that the motion is simple
harmonic, and that you remember the equation for the period of oscillation
in terms of the spring constant k, i.e. that the angular period of the
k
oscillation is given by ! 2 D .
m
Assume that on the upward motion, the rope stays under tension (in
real life the jumper rises faster than the rope can contract). So assuming
simple harmonic motion, the ascent time will be equal to the descent time.

Put the mass of bungee jumper = m

For convenience, take g D 10 m s 2 .
r
k
The angular frequency of the oscillation will be ! D , where k D
m
the spring constant of the bungee rope.

The equilibrium position of the s.h.m. is midway between the two

points of zero velocity, i.e. when the rope is extended by 25 m (call this
x=2.

So, using
F D kx=2 D mg
then:
2m  10 1
k D D 20m=50 N m
x
And substituting:
r
20 p 1
! D D 0:8 radian sec
50
31
 2 2
Therefore ! D ; and T D  7 s.
T !
This is the time taken for one period of oscillation.

The time taken for the upward motion is therefore half of this:

D T =2  3:5 s

N OTES

32
Mechanics: Question 16.

The pickup cartridge of a gramophone turntable has a mass of 0.01 kg

and a vertical stiffness (spring constant) of 36 N m 1 . Find the natural
frequency of vertical vibration, and the Q-value if its amplitude decreases
from a0 to a0 e 1 in 1 sec.

Solution: Question 16.

It is doubtful if this question would be asked now, since gramophone

turntables exist only within a small circle of devotees. But as the whole
music world becomes digital, it is possible that exam questions might cling
on to this kind of history.1 I would be tempted to offer a bonus mark to
those students who can offer an extant alternative to a turntable cartridge
on which to base this type of question.

If the pickup is vibrating naturally and starts off with amplitude a0 at

time t D 0, then the vibrations are described by:
a D a0 exp . t =2/
where a is the position of the damped pickup at time t.

The undamped natural frequency of vibration is given by:

r
k
!0 D D 60 rad s 1
m
 1
2 2
2
The damped frequency of vibration is then ! D !0
2
1
We are told: a.t D 1 s/ D a0 e
1 =2
Therefore: a0 e D a0 e
1
from which: D 2 rad s
1
So: ! D .602 12 / 2 D 59:99 Hz
!0
and: Q D D 30

1
The revitalisation of vinyl suggests that this question should not be forgotten.
33
Mechanics: Question 17.

A uniform solid cylinder, with its axis horizontal, rolls down a slope
inclined at 30ı to the horizontal. Calculate how long the cylinder will
take to travel 100 m down the slope, assuming that it starts from rest.

The moment of inertia of a cylinder, with radius R about its axis =

MR2 =2.)

Solution: Question 17.

This question asks us to find the time, t , to travel a distance s D 100 m,

starting with an initial velocity u D 0. High school stuff essentially. The
required equation is:
1
s D ut C at 2
2
and since u D 0,
1
s D at 2
2
The radius of the cylinder is R and the moment of inertia is given:
I D MR2 =2.

The component of force acting down the slope is:

Fx D M g sin 30ı f D Macm .1/
where acm is the acceleration of the centre of mass down the slope and f
is the frictional force.

There is also an angular acceleration ˛ due to the rotation and the

torque  is given by:
 
MR2
 D I˛ D ˛
2
The linear and angular accelerations are related by:
acm D R˛ (radius  angular acceleration)
Substituting:
MR2 acm MRacm
 D  D
2 R 2
34
 The torque is due to the frictional force:  D fR.

We can write:
1
f R D MRacm .2/
2
Combining equations (1) and (2):
Mg M acm
D Macm
2 2
This leads to:
acm D 1/3 g
using s D 1/2 acm t 2 , then 100 D 1/6 gt 2 from which t can be
Finally, p
found: t D 600=g, giving the final answer:

t D 7:8 s

N OTES

35
Mechanics: Question 18.

What would be the effective mass of a piece of lead of mass 1:1 kg when
it is submerged in water? Such a mass is attached to a thin plastic bag
containing 2 litres of air at atmospheric pressure. When this device is
dropped into a lake, it floats. However, if it is dragged to the bottom of the
lake and then released, it stays at the bottom. What is the minimum depth
of the lake consistent with this observation? Assume standard atmospheric
pressure, isothermal conditions and that the ratio of the densities of lead
and water is 11.0.

Solution: Question 18.

The lead displaces a volume of water that has a mass of one eleventh that
of the lead.

The effective mass of the lead is thus:

1:1
Meff D 1:1 D 1:1 0:1 D 1:0 kg
11
The air bag would displace 2 kg of water and so the piece of lead is
held up and floats.

When the air bag becomes compressed so that it displaces 1 kg of

water, the bag and lead will neither float nor sink. So when the water
pressure is enough to compress the volume from 2 litres to 1 litre, this
corresponds to the minimum depth.

Therefore:
gh D 1 atmosphere D 105 Pa
105 105
h D   10 m
g 103 10
N OTES

36
Mechanics: Question 19.

An artillery shell explodes prematurely into two pieces at the top of its
trajectory, a distance L measured horizontally from its launch point. The
two resulting fragments have masses 1/4 and 3/4 of the original mass and
emerge horizontally from the explosion with the small fragment landing
back at the original launch point. How far from the original launch point
does the larger fragment land?

Solution: Question 19.

All objects fall with the same acceleration g and so the smaller and larger
pieces both land together. They also take the same time to fall from the
highest point as the original projectile took to get there. Since the smaller
piece lands back at the starting point, it has the same velocity as the original
projectile. Call this velocity V .

Let the projectile have mass m.

Working in the projectile centre of mass, let the small piece have velocity
vs and the large piece have velocity vl .

So as observed on the ground, the velocities will be V vs and V C vl .

From conservation of momentum in the centre of mass:
mvs 3ml
D
4 4
Therefore:
vs
vl D
3
But the observed velocity of the small piece has the same magnitude
but opposite direction as the projectile, so
V vs D V
37
 Thus:
vs D 2V
And then:
1 2
vl D vs D V
3 3
5
So the observed velocity of the large piece is V C vl D V
3
5 8
And the large object lands at a distance LC L D L from the original
3 3
launch point.

N OTES

38
Mechanics: Question 20.

A fragment of space debris, initially at rest, falls radially towards the

Moon. It is initially at twice the Moon’s radius from the centre of the
Moon. Estimate the velocity of the piece of debris when it strikes the
Moon’s surface.

The mass and radius of the Moon are M D 7:4  1022 kg and R D
1:74  106 m respectively.

Solution: Question 20.

The simplest way to answer this is via energy conservation:– the kinetic
energy at the surface of the Moon must be equal to the change in potential
energy in falling from 2R to R.

Thus:
 
1 2 GM m GM m GM m
mv D D
2 2R R 2R

Therefore:

GM
v2 D
rR
GM
v D
r R
6:673  10 11  7:4  1022
D
1:74  106
D 1:68 km s 1

I also thought it would be satisfying to get the same answer by solving

the equation of motion.

The acceleration is given by gravitational force divided by the mass,

m, of the debris. We define the x direction to be radially away from the
39
centre of the Moon with the origin at the Moon’s centre:
dv dv dx dv GM
xR D D  D v D
dt dx dt dx x2
dx
v dv D GM 2
Z Zx
dx
v dv D GM
x2
1 2 GM
v D C C
2 x
GM
v D 0 at x D 2R W C D
2R
1 2 GM GM GM
so at x D R: v D D
2 R 2R 2R
GM
v2 D
R
which is the same result as before.

Doing the problem by conservation of energy is, however, simpler.

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40
3: Relativity and Particle Physics

Relativity and Particle Physics: Question 1.

A rocket is launched from Earth into space at a speed of 0:5c. After one
year, measured by a timing mechanism in the rocket, a signal is sent back
to Earth. How long after the launch is the signal received on Earth?

Solution: Question 1.

The best unit of distance to use is a light year. The rocket goes out at
velocity 0:5c and the light comes back at velocity c. But the time of one
year is clocked on the rocket where the clock runs slower than ours. The
rocket travels half a light year in one of our years, but in that time, the
clock on the rocket has been running slower by a factor so after one of
our years, they are not ready to release the signal. One year on the rocket,
however, corresponds to years on earth where:
p p
D 1= .1 0:52 / D 2= 3
p
This is 2= 3 years. By this time, the rocket is 0:5 light years away
so the light will take 0:5 years to get back. The total time is thus:
3 3 2 p
C 0:5 D D p years D 3 years
2 2 3

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41
Relativity and Particle Physics: Question 2.

A beam of K mesons is aimed at a target 10 m away. If the kaons have a

momentum of 5 GeV=c, calculate the fraction of them that will reach the
target without decaying.

8
Kaon mean lifetime = 1:2  10 s;
Kaon rest mass = 500 MeV=c 2 .

Solution: Question 2.

Because the kaons are moving at relativistic speeds, the lifetime in the
laboratory frame will be longer by a factor .

A quick way to calculate is from:

p
E .p 2 c 2 C m20 c 4 /
D D
m0 c 2 m0 c 2
p p
.52 C 0:52 / 25:25 5:025
D D D D 10:05
0:5 0:5 0:5

We also need the time taken to travel 10 m which is given by 10=v D

10=ˇc. Here ˇ D pK =EK D 5=5:025, so the time to travel 10 m is given
by:
.10  5:025/
D 3:35  10 8 s
.3  108  5/

The kaons travel for this time and their lifetime measured in the lab
frame is  1:2  10 8 s.

So the fraction reaching the target is:

3:35=.10:051:2/
e D 0:76

42
Relativity and Particle Physics: Question 3.

A radioactive source with a half-life of 1 year is measured to emit 106

particles per second. It is then sent by a rocket at a speed of 0:6c on a
round trip to a manned space station, arriving back exactly one year later.
What activity will be measured when it arrives back?

Solution: Question 3.

From the given velocity ˇ D v=c D 0:6, we first calculate and then scale
down the elapsed time by , which will be a time (t) of less than 1 year
and then run the activity down by the exponential exp .t  ln 2=1/ where
t has units of years. The factor ln 2 converts the half-life to mean life.
1 1 1 1
Dp Dp Dp D
.1 ˇ2/ .1 0:62 / .0:64/ 0:8

1
The elapsed time on the rocket D year D 0:8 year.
Therefore the activity is the original activity of 106 run down by 0.8 yr.
This is 106  exp .ln 2  0:8/ D 5:7  105 per second.

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43
Relativity and Particle Physics: Question 4.

A proton has a speed of 0:8c. Calculate the additional energy in MeV

which must be provided in order to increase its velocity to 0:9c.

Solution: Question 4.

Firstly, we use the equation relating velocity to momentum and energy:

v pc
ˇ D D
c E
This equation is well worth memorising.

And so
v2 p2c 2 E 2 m2 c 4
ˇ2 D D D
c2 E2 E2
Substitute the two values for ˇ to get two equations:

E12 m2 c 4
D 0:82 (1)
E12
E22 m2 c 4
D 0:92 (2)
E22

From equation (1): m2 c 4 D .1 0:82 /E12 D 0:36E12 .

From equation (2): m2 c 4 D .1 0:92 /E22 D 0:19E22 .

And these can be re-arranged to give the extra energy, E2 E1 , as

follows:
 
1 1
E2 E1 D p p mc 2 D 589 MeV
0:19 0:36

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44
Relativity and Particle Physics: Question 5.

Two protons, each with a kinetic energy of 1 GeV are made to collide
head-on. Calculate their relative velocity before collision.

Solution: Question 5.

The relative velocity of the two is ‘twice’ the value of their individual
velocities. The term ‘twice’ means added relativistically!

i.e. the relative velocity is given by:

2v
vrel D
1 C v2

The individual velocities v are given by

p
v E 2 m2 c 4
D where E D 1:0 C mc 2 D 1:9383 GeV
c E

Therefore:
p p
1:93832 0:93832 2:8766
v D c D c D 0:8750c
1:9383 1:9383

I hope you noticed here that you could exploit the difference of two
squares instead of reaching for your calculator:

1:93832 0:93832 D .1:9383 0:9382/.1:9383 C 0:9383/ D 1  2:8766

So the relative velocity is:

2  0:8750
vrel D c D 0:991c
1 C 0:87502

45
Relativity and Particle Physics: Question 6.

A neutral  0 meson (rest mass 135 MeV=c 2 is observed to decay in flight

into two photons, each of which has an energy of 80 MeV. Calculate the
angle between the emitted photons.

Solution: Question 6.

In the rest frame of the  0 , the two s will share the total centre of mass
energy which is given by m c 2 D 135 MeV.

So they each have half of this -: E D 67:5 MeV. Because E D pc

for s, they both have momentum 67:5 MeV=c. If they both have the
same momentum, 80 MeV=c, in the lab, they must have been emitted
perpendicular to the  0 line of flight. Otherwise they would have had
differing longitudinal momenta in both the  0 rest frame and the laboratory
frame. The total momentum is therefore the quadratic sum of the transverse
.pT D 67:5 MeV=c/ and longitudinal .pL / momentum.

Therefore:
67:52 C pL2 D 802

from which:
p p
pL D 802 67:52 D 12:7  147:4 D 42:94 MeV=c:
46
 The angle of each to the  0 direction is  D tan 1 .67:5=42:94/, and
the angle between the two s is twice this.

Thus:
2 D 2 tan 1 .67:5=42:94/ D 115ı
In a slightly different, but equally good route to the solution, the total
 momentum could be calculated from:
p
p D 1602 1352 D 85:9 GeV=c

and then:
2 D 2 cos 1 .42:94=80/ D 115ı

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47
Relativity and Particle Physics: Question 7.

A stationary †C particle decays into a proton and a ray of energy

224 MeV. Calculate the recoil kinetic energy of the proton and the rest
mass of the †C particle.

Solution: Question 7.

Use momentum and energy conservation, calculated in the †C rest

frame.

The -ray has energy 224 MeV and since it is massless, E 2 D p 2 c 2 C

m2 c 4 becomes E D pc, so the has momentum 224 MeV=c.

From momentum conservation, the proton will also have 224 MeV=c
momentum. This looks big enough for relativistic effects to be important,
but let’s take the opportunity to check it out.

Non-relativistically, the proton KE is given by p 2 =2m D 2242 =.2 

938:3/ D 26:74 MeV.

Relativistically, we use:
p p
E D p 2 c 2 C m2 c 4 D 2242 C 938:32 D 964:67 MeV
Then the kinetic energy is given by:
KE D E m D 964:67 938:3 D 26:37 MeV
which is not that much different from the non-relativistic calculation.

48
 To get the †C rest mass, we note that this is just the centre of mass
energy Ecm divided by c 2 , i.e. Ecm D m† c 2

Thus:
Ecm D 964:67 C 224 MeV D 1188:67 MeV
and:
m† D 1188:67 MeV=c 2
.

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49
Relativity and Particle Physics: Question 8.

Calculate the maximum kinetic energy that can be transferred to an electron

at rest by a photon of energy 0:511 MeV in a scattering process.

Solution: Question 8.

This is just Compton scattering, so it is advisable to remember the Compton

equation for the scattered photon energy; it will definitely come in useful:
E
E0 D  
E
1C .1 cos /
me c 2
The struck electron energy is then:
E
Ee D E  
E
1C .1 cos /
me c 2
The curious choice of 0:511 MeV for the energy of the -ray is now
apparent. It is a kind act by the question setter to make the calculation
easier. Indeed, once again the calculation is so easy that calculators are not
needed. Some will be, and errors will thereby creep in.

The energy transferred to the electron is a maximum when the scattered

photon energy is a minimum and this occurs for  D 180ı or cos  D 1.
So substitute E D me c 2 and cos  D 1 to get the required answer:

me c 2 2me c 2
Ee D me c 2 D D 0:34 MeV
1C2 3

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50
Relativity and Particle Physics: Question 9.

A neutral –meson ( 0 ), whose rest mass is 135 MeV=c 2 , decays

symmetrically into two photons while moving at high speed. The energy
of each photon in the laboratory is 100 MeV.

Find the speed of the meson (in terms of c) and the angle  in the
laboratory system between the momentum of each photon and the initial
line of motion of the  0 –meson.

Solution: Question 9.

Questions on particle physics involving relativistic equations are often easier

if you can remember two simple equations for ˇ and :
v p E
ˇ D D D
c E m
2 2 2 2 4
You will also need to remember E D p c C m c .

From conservation of energy, the  0 energy must be 200 MeV.

q
So: E D 200 MeV D p2 C m2
q
And: p D 2002 m2 D 147:6 MeV

v p
Then: ˇ D D
c E
147:6
ˇ D D 0:738
200
Therefore the speed of the neutral -meson before decay was v D 0:738c.

Let the two photons each make an angle  with the line of flight of the
 0 . Then using conservation of momentum, the original  0 momentum is
equal to the sum of the longitudinal components of photon momentum:
147:6 D 2  100 cos 
147:6
cos  D
200
 D 42:4ı

51
Relativity and Particle Physics: Question 10.

A secondary beam of positively charged  mesons ( C ) with kinetic energy

1 GeV is produced by bombarding a target with a beam of high energy
protons. What fraction of the pions will reach a second target 100 m
downstream from the first, assuming they travel through an evacuated pipe?
 C mesons have a rest energy of 139.6 MeV and a lifetime of 2:5510 8 s.

Solution: Question 10.

The question neatly avoids the fact that such a beam of pions is not produced
in a straightforward manner by bombarding a target with protons. A large
amount of beam optics is needed. Apart from that, let us proceed.

The kinetic energy, T , is given by:

T D. 1/m0 c 2
And:
109
1D so; D 8:16
139:6  106
The length of beam pipe, l D 100 m, is contracted to l 0 as seen by the
 meson:
l 0 D l= and so l 0 D 12:25 m
The velocity of the  mesons is given by:
1
Dp
1 ˇ2
from which if follows:
s
1
ˇD 1 2
D 0:992

So the time taken for the  C to reach the second target is:
l0
t0 D D 4:12  10 8
s
ˇc
The lifetime is  D 2:55  10 8 s and therefore the fraction remaining
is given by:
t
f D exp D 0:19 or 19%

52
 E
Here is an alternative solution. First calculate using D where
m
E is the total energy and m the rest mass.
1:0 C 0:14
This gives D D 8:16. The lifetime in the lab frame is
0:14
then the given lifetime multiplied by .
pc
We also need the velocity ˇ. Use ˇ D
where p is the momentum,
E
2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2
then from E D p pc Cm c ,p c D E m2 c 4 D 1:142 0:142 D
1  1:28 and ˇ D .1:28/=1:14 D 0:992.

The time taken to travel 100 m is then given by:

100=ˇc D 100=.0:992  3108 / D 3:36  10 7

s

Thus the fraction of  C surviving the 100 m journey is given by

 
N 3:36  10 7
D exp D 0:19 or 19%
N0 2:55  10 8

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53
Relativity and Particle Physics: Question 11.

In one mode of operation, a synchrotron radiation source essentially

consists of a single compact bunch of highly relativistic electrons confined
to a circular orbit by the action of suitably placed magnets. For an electron
energy of 2 GeV and a magnetic field of 1.2 T estimate the radius of the
electron orbit.

The current in the synchrotron source is typically 300 mA. Make an

estimate the number of electrons in a bunch. State any assumptions that
you make.

Solution: Question 11.

The force on an electron in a magnetic field B is:

f D ev  B  fB D Bev (since v is perpendicular to B/:
The centripetal force is:
mv 2
Fc D
r
where r is the radius of the orbit.
mv 2 mv
fB D fc therefore D Bev; rD
r Be
The electron is highly relativistic , i.e. m D me , therefore E D m2e .
So D E=me D 3914.

Thus: s
1
v D ˇc D c 1  c

And then:
me c
rD D 5:56 m
eB
The length of the orbit is then l D 2 r ' 35 m.

The number of electrons Ne in the loop of length l with current I ,

assuming that all of the current is from the electrons moving at c:
Il
Ne D D 6  1011
ec

54
Relativity and Particle Physics: Question 12.

Calculate the radius of the orbit of a 20 MeV proton in a magnetic field of

1 T.

Mass of the proton = 938 MeV/c 2 .

Solution: Question 12.

This question tests whether you know that the force, F , on a particle with
charge, q, moving with velocity, v, in a magnetic field, B, is given by
F D Bqv. Strictly, B and v are both vectors and the force is given by the
cross product of the two vectors times q. But usually, the magnetic field
is arranged to be perpendicular. Thereafter, the question becomes a test of
units.

To convert energy in eV to Joules, you need to multiply by 1:602 

10 19 . This is a conversion factor that you should memorise; it crops up
all over the place. So to convert momentum in eV/c to kg m s 1 you need
to multiply by 1:602  10 19 /cD 1:602  10 19 =.3  108 / and to convert
mass in eV/c2 , the conversion factor is D .1:602  10 19 /=.3  108 /2 .

mv 2
Bqv D
r

And this equation can be re-arranged thus:

mv
rD
Bq

We can assume that the situation is non-relativistic (the kinetic energy

is only T D 20 MeV compared to the proton mass of 938 MeV/c 2 .

Then using:
p2
T D
2m
it then follows:
p p
p D 2mT D 2  938  20 D 193:7 MeV=c D mv
55
 And finally:
mv
r D
Bq
193:7  106  1:602  10 19
D
1  1:602  10 19  3  108
D 0:646 m

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56
Relativity and Particle Physics: Question 13.

Show that the classic equation (i.e. for v  c) for the kinetic energy of
a particle of rest mass m0 and velocity v is consistent with the relativistic
relationship for the energy of the same particle.

Use the Lorentz transformations to derive the velocity transformations

in Cartesian coordinates between two frames in uniform relative motion.

Two protons each with a kinetic energy of 1 GeV(109 eV) are made
to collide head-on. Use the velocity transformations to calculate their
velocities relative to each other before collision (assume that the proton
rest mass D 1 GeV=c 2 ).

Solution: Question 13.

The relativistic kinetic energy is Trel D . 1/m0 c 2 where:

1
Dr
v2
1C 2
c
Expanding in powers of v 2 =c 2 :

1 v2 1 1 3 v4 1 1 3 5 v6
D1
2 C

C






2 c 2Š 2 2 c 4 3Š 2 2 2 c 6

Since v  c, we can ignore all the higher terms beyond v 2 =c 2 and

then T becomes:

1 v2 1
T ' 2
m0 c 2 ' m0 v 2
2c 2
For a particle moving with velocity u parallel to the x axis:
ux
x0 D .x ut/ and t 0 D .t /
c2
And taking the differential:

u dx
dx 0 D . dx u dt/ and dt 0 D . dt /
c2
57
 Now divide through by dt:
dx
dx 0 u
D dt
dt 0 u dx
1
c 2 dt
Define the velocities in terms of the derivatives:
dx dx 0
D v and D v0
dt dt 0
Then:
v u
v0 D uv
1
c2
To find the proton velocity:

T D . 1/m0 c 2

Substitute the numbers given:

109 D . 1/109

This gives a numerical value for which can be related to ˇ:

1
D 2 D 1
.1 ˇ2/ 2
The physics is almost over. Anyone with a calculator can finish this
story off. p
ˇ D 1 1= 2 D 0:866
The velocities of the two protons, v and u are equal and opposite:

v D u D ˇc

And finally, adding the two velocities relativistically:

2ˇc
v0 D D 0:9897c
1 C ˇ2

58
Relativity and Particle Physics: Question 14.

Particles with a rest mass of 10 eV=c 2 are produced simultaneously with

photons in a galaxy 160,000 light years away from Earth. The energy of
both particles is 10 MeV. Estimate the difference in arrival time at Earth
between the two particles.

Solution: Question 14.

Although it is not needed to answer the question, a nod of satisfaction and

confidence is permitted if you say to yourself ‘Aha, the Large Magellanic
Cloud 1987’ whilst jotting it down in the margin of your answer sheet.

First, there is no mention of supernovae, which is a likely cradle for

these particles. These days, it is thought unfair to burden any student
taking an exam with information that is not only not needed but might be
frightening to those who did not take the astronomy option. The time for
learning is held by some to be suspended during an examination. I do not
subscribe to that view. So neither neutrinos nor the supernova SN1987a
are mentioned in the question, which I did not set.

The reference time is given by the photon, which, ignoring any

scattering or refractive medium, arrives as quickly as physically possible.

L
t D
c
D 160; 000 yrs D 1:6  105  3:156  107 D 5:05  1012 s

Let us call the particle a neutrino. I know of no other that might have
such a small mass.
L
t D
v

To find v D ˇc, remember:

1= 2   21
pc E2 m2 c 4 m2 c 4
ˇ D D D 1
E E E2
59
 Therefore:
L L 1
t D D D t
v ˇc ˇ
  1  
m2 c 4 2 m2 c 4
D t 1 ' t 1C
E2 2E 2
This is bigger (longer) than t so the time difference,
t , is given by:
 
m2 c 4

t D t t D t 1 C t
2E 2
 2 4
m c
D t
2E 2
 
12 102
D 5:05  10 
2  102  1012
D 2:52 s
E
This question could equally well be solved using D and then
mc 2
obtaining ˇ from .

The subject matter of this question re-acquired relevance in 2011 when

measurements in the Gran Sasso experimental station appeared to indicate
that neutrinos could beat photons in a race from the international particle
physics accelerator CERN in Geneva to Gran Sasso. In this experiment,
the race was run over 730 km and the neutrinos were declared winners
by 20 m, almost the length of a cricket pitch. Translating the winning
margin of 60 ns over 730 km to the distance from the LMC to us, any
neutrinos travelling at the same alleged speed as those seen at Gran Sasso,
but coming from the SN1987a, would have arrived more than 3 years
earlier than the optical signal. They didn’t.

I have often wondered what our Galaxy looked like to one of those
wide-eyed 1987a neutrinos as it set off from the Large Magellanic Cloud.
Finally, with the help of Galactic maps and then exploiting and inverting
the view of the LMC from our Galaxy, and using an image of a Galaxy
known to resemble ours, rotating it, tilting it and changing a few stars, I
came up with this picture of the night sky from an Earth-like planet with a
Moon-like moon near the supernova that exploded to send off the neutrinos
in all directions, many of which reached us.

60
 Earth does not enjoy a monopoly of a wondrous night sky.

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61
4: Quantum and Atomic Physics

Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 1.

A transition from an atomic state has an emission line of wavelength 6 

10 7 m and a natural width of 10 13 m. Estimate its lifetime.

Solution: Question 1.

The lifetime  and the width € are related by Heisenberg’s uncertainty

principle.

t 
E D   €  „ (1)

The energy, E and momentum p of a light quantum are related by

E D pc

And then it follows easily:

hc
E D

dE hc

E 
 D . / 2
 (2)
d 
Substituting equation (2) back into equation (1):

„
 

E
h 2 2
D D
2 hc
 2c

1 .6  10 7 /2 9
D D 2  10 s
2 3  108  10 13

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62
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 2.

Use the uncertainty principle to make an estimate of the kinetic energy of

an electron if it were bound within the nucleus.

Solution: Question 2.

By confining the electron to be within the nucleus, the uncertainty in its

position is of the order of the size of the nucleus. The question says
‘estimate’ so we don’t need to worry about things like the fuzzy edge of
the nuclear radius nor three dimensional things like oblateness. Let’s work
in x.

x
p  „
This equation allows the uncertainty in x, of the order of the size of
the nucleus, to be converted into a momentum uncertainty. But we need to
find the momentum p, and not just
p if we are to work out the kinetic
energy. The standard statistical equation for the variance of a quantity (=
square of the standard deviation) is all that is required:

p 2 D p 2 p2

But p D 0, because +ve and –ve momenta are equally likely. So

„
p 
p D .

x
Therefore:

E 2 D p 2 C m2 c 4
„2 c 2
D C m2 c 4

x 2
„c 2  10 13 MeV m
So: E  pc D D D 200 MeV

x 10 15 m
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63
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 3.

A muon is an electron-like particle with mass of 105:6 MeV=c 2 , which

can form muonic atoms with positively charged nuclei. A muonium atom
is such a bound state formed from of a muon and a proton. Calculate the
binding energy of the ground state of muonium.

Solution: Question 3.

The appropriate equation is that for the Rydberg energy R1 .

1 2
R1 D ˛ me c 2 D 13:6 eV (1)
2

Here ˛ D 1=137:036 is the dimensionless fine-structure constant.

This equation is, of course, an approximation to the real world. The

electron mass me , should really be the reduced mass mr , since the proton
rest frame is not quite the same as the laboratory frame.
me mp
mr D
me C mp
But because me << mp , it is easy to see that mr  me to much better
than 1%. (Work it out and convince yourself.)

For a muonic hydrogen-like atom, we need to replace me with m .

Thus:
m mp 105:6  938:3
mr D D D 94:9 MeV=c 2 ;
m C mp 105:6 C 938:3
which is significantly different from 105.6 MeV/c2 .

Then the binding energy is given by:

1 2 mr
BE D ˛ mr c 2 D R1 D 2:53 keV
2 me
Although not asked for in the question, think about transitions to the
ground state from the first excited state. X-rays?

64
 A comment on the dimensions of units might be appropriate here. The
unit of energy, eV and its associates, keV, MeV etc. are usually familiar
but sometimes there is near panic at MeV/c2 and similar, which is a unit
of mass.

A simple example shows how it works. Let us re-write equation (1)

thus:
.2=˛ 2 /  13:6 eV 511 keV
me D 2
D
c c2
We could insert the value of c 2 and work in mass units of keV s2 m 2 ,
but this would be a hybrid mess, so we choose to do nothing about the c 2
but just to leave it part of the unit, which is redefined: keV/c2 . It makes
calculations and comparisons so much easier.

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65
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 4.

A target of lead (atomic number Z D 82) is bombarded by an electron

beam in order to produce X-rays. Estimate the minimum electron kinetic
energy required to eject an electron from the innermost shell.

Solution: Question 4.

The minimum kinetic energy required is when the beam electron gives all
its kinetic energy to the inner shell electron, which is just ejected from the
atom. Therefore an amount equal to the binding energy of the inner shell
electrons is needed.

The innermost shell is closer to the nucleus than all the others so as a
first approximation we could say that the innermost electron sees the whole
charge of the nucleus with no screening.

The Rydberg energy for single electron atoms with a nucleus of charge
Ze is given by:
1
BE D R1 .Z/ D .Z˛/2 me c 2 D Z 2  13:6 eV
2
D 822  13:6 eV
This isn’t quite the end of the story and there is still scope for some
additional expert input. The innermost electron we have been considering
is not alone. There are two of them in the innermost shell and this shell is
an s-wave state which means that the wave function peaks at the nucleus.
There is more wave function inside the Bohr radius than outside. So
one could argue that the companion electron will have some of its wave
function nearer the nucleus than the one we are considering. This will
cause some screening. The consequence of this is that the effective Z is
somewhere between 81 and 82, even without considering the wave
functions of higher levels. An acceptable guess would be 81.5. If you
really want to put yourself among the gods, you could integrate the
normalised ground state wave function from r D 0 out to the Bohr radius
r D a0 . But there may not be enough time for that in an examination.

To complete our answer:

BE D 81:52  13:6 eV D 90:3 keV

66
 If you look up the ‘ionisation energy’ of lead, you will find that it is
much less than shown in this figure. To ionise lead, you only need to brush
off a single electron in the outermost populated shell which is in an n D 6
primary quantum number state. The ionisation energies are very messy to
calculate.

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67
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 5.

A particle of mass m moves in one dimension between two parallel walls

which are a distance l apart. Calculate the force that is exerted by the
particle on the wall when it is in its lowest quantum state.

Solution: Question 5.

There are several ways to do this. My natural response would be to

consider the change in momentum at the wall and multiply this by how
often the particle strikes the wall. This equates to the rate of change of
momentum, which is the force needed. Another way was suggested by a
theory colleague who claims that his method is best. You choose. The
claimed ‘best’ method imagines that the force of the particle pushes the
wall back a distance dl.

The work done by the force = loss of internal energy.

F dl D dE

Now we need to find E.

In the ground state,  D 2l

Therefore
h
p D jpj D
2l2
And p2 h
E D D
2m 8ml 2
Therefore
dE h2 2
F D D  3
dl 8m l
2 2 2
h  „
D 3
D
4ml ml 3
The experimentalist in me objects to this method slightly. Firstly we
are told nothing about the walls. They may correspond to an infinite
potential well, in which case they won’t move. Situations like this, in
an examination, are best dealt with by making a statement like: ‘Let us
assume that the particle is not in an infinite well and therefore the walls
can move slightly.’ Then of course you get into further difficulties because
68
in the absence of a restoring force, the walls will continue moving apart as
they are struck.
My method avoids these considerations. But I don’t claim it to be the
best! I take the momentum:
h
p D jpj D
and double it to get: 2l
h
2p D
l
which gives the momentum change at each collision with the wall.
The velocity of the particle is:

p h
v D D
m 2ml
and the time between collisions at one of the walls is the time taken to
travel to the other wall and back again:

2l 4ml 2
D
v h
h
The rate of collisions is just the inverse of this, which is: and the
4ml 2
rate of change of momentum is therefore 2p times this, i.e.

h h h2  2 „2
F D  D D
l 4ml 2 4ml 3 ml 3
which is the same answer.

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69
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 6.

A particle is confined within a one-dimensional finite square-well potential

V .x/ D V0 a<x<a
D 0 otherwise
Sketch the wave functions both inside and outside the well for the three
lowest energy levels, assuming they are bound states.

Solution: Question 6.

The sketches are straightforward although it is possible that the command

‘Sketch!’ induces a feeling of unwell-being among the non-artists.

The three lowest energy

levels in a finite square well.

Sketching is a part of being a physicist. I deliberately scruffed this

sketch and I can tell you that I have awarded full marks for drawings far
worse than this. Follow the rules and label the axes with either the variable
or the values at the boundaries.

Musicians who know the standing waves in soft organ pipes will
recognise these curves and know what they sound like. Fourier analysed,
they do not sound like pure frequencies and their harmonics.
70
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 7.

The normalised wave function for a ground state (1s) electron in the
hydrogen atom is:
1
D p 3 e r=a0
a0/2

What is the mean value of .1=r 2 / in terms of the Bohr radius a0 ?

Solution: Question 7.

We use the standard expression for obtaining mean values:

Z
2  1
h1=r i D d .r/ .r/
r2

1
where  is the volume element and 2 is the appropriate operator. The
r
volume element  is an infinitesimally thin spherical shell, extending from
r to r C dr. It has surface area 4 r 2 and so the volume of the shell is
4 r 2 dr.

So it follows:
Z
2 1
h1=r i D 4 r 2 dr  .r/ 2 .r/
Z r
1
D 4 r 2 dr 2 j .r/j2
Z r
D 4 drj .r/j2
Z 1
4
D dre 2r=a0
a03 0

Integrate by substitution:

2r 2 dr
x D dx D
a0 a0
71
 Therefore:
Z
2 4 a0 1 x
h1=r i D dxe
a03 2 0
Z
2 1
D dxe x
a02 0
2 h x
i1
D e
a02 0
2 h i1
D 0 1
a02 0
2
D
a02

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72
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 8.

An electron confined within a box is described by the wave function

D A sin.2x=L/;

where L D 3  10 8 m. What value would be obtained by measuring

the electron’s x-component of momentum?

Solution: Question 8.

The wave function, which represents a standing wave, can be written:

.x/ D A sin kx
A i kx ikx
D .e e /
2i
2
where k D
L
The standing wave, mathematically, is the superposition of two waves
travelling in opposite directions. The momentum of these waves is ˙„k
and a measurement will give either of these with equal probability.


2 2 1:97  10 13 MeV m
„k D „c D
Lc 3  10 8 mc
D 4:13  10 5 MeV=c D 41:3 eV=c

The numerical value of „c and its units are two things that every self
respecting physicist should carry around in her or his head, especially into
examination rooms. They are „c D 197:32 MeV fm or 197:32 eV nm or
1:9732  10 7 eV m. For many purposes, 200 MeV fm or 2  10 7 eV m is
good enough.

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73
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 9.

A particle is in its ground state confined in a one-dimensional square-well

potential of width a, where the potential is given by:

V .x/ D 0; 0<x<a
D 1 elsewhere

A small perturbation V D V0 x=a is now applied. Calculate to first

order in perturbation theory that the energy change in the ground state is
V0 =2.

The normalised wave functions of the infinite square well potential are
r  nx 
2
n .x/ D sin
a a

Solution: Question 9.

A question involving a potential well is always very likely. So is one about

perturbation theory.

First order perturbation theory gives us:

Z


E D .x/
V .x/ .x/ dx

V .x/ is the potential perturbation, V0 x=a.

Thus: Z  
2 V0 a 2 x

E D x sin dx
a a 0 a
x at a
t D ; x D ; dx D dt
a  
Z
2V0 a2 

E D 2 2 t sin2 t dt
a  0
Z
2V0 
D x sin2 x dx
2 0
74
 To proceed, you need to remember the trigonometric function:

1 1
cos 2x D 1 2 sin2 x ! sin2 x D cos 2x
2 2
Then:
Z  Z  
V0

E D 2 x dx x cos 2x dx
 0 0
 Z  
V0  2
D 2 x cos 2x dx
 2 0
Z
V0 V0 
D x cos 2x dx
2 2 0
Integrate the second term by parts:
Z    Z 
sin 2x 
x cos 2x dx D x sin 2x dx
0 2 0 0
 
cos 2x 
D 0 D 0
2 0

So:
V0

E D
2
A little lesson to be learned from this question is that you must know
the trigonometric functions.

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75
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 10.

State what is meant by a spin singlet and a spin triplet state of two electrons.
Why is the first excited state of helium a spin triplet and not a spin singlet.

Solution: Question 10.

Electrons have spin = 1/2 . The spins of two electrons can combine to form
S D 0 or S D 1. The possible Sz states are 0 for S D 0 (singlet) and „; 0
and „ for S D 1 (triplet).

The (un-normalised) spin part of the wave functions can be represented

as follows:

S D1 .""/
."#/ C .#"/
.##/
S D0 ."#/ .#"/

The three S D 1 states are the symmetric spin wave functions whereas
the S D 0 singlet state is the anti-symmetric spin wave function.

For S D 1, the spatial part of the wave function, ˆ, must be anti-

symmetric (so that the spin wave function multiplied by the spatial wave-
functions will be anti-symmetric).

ˆ D a .x1 /b .x2 / a .x2 /b .x1 /

For the first excited state of helium, one electron, a , is a 1s state and
the b is a 2s state.

Note that for S D 1, the spatial wave function, ˆ ! 0 for x1 D x2 , i.e.

the electrons tend not to be close together and so the Coulomb potential is
relatively lower than if they were close together.
76
 For S D 0, the spatial part of the wave function, ˆ, must be symmetric
(so that the spin wave function multiplied by the spatial wave function will
be anti-symmetric).

ˆ D a .x1 /b .x2 / C a .x2 /b .x1 /

In this case, ˆ !
= 0 for x1 D x2 , so the electrons can be close together.

Therefore, the electrons in the S D 1 configuration tend to be further

apart than those in the S D 0 singlet state and hence the S D 1 triplet state
has a lower energy.

Quantum mechanic gourmets might want to argue about the implicit

assumption made here that first order perturbation theory will adequately
describe the situation for these electron-electron interactions. But that is
beyond the scope of this answer for which the above arguments suffice.

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77
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 11.

Give a brief explanation of the origin of the splitting of the sodium D lines.

Solution: Question 11.

Questions like this should be banned. I include it only to be scathing. There

is no definition of brief and because no one is at ease in an exam, the word
‘brief’ has no meaning. I recall one lecturer setting such a question and yet
he had also set his own standards of brevity, never finishing a lecture within
the canonical micro-century (work it out) and often passing the hour mark
in oblivious drone-mode until snapped out his dream world by the next
lecturer2 rapping on the lecture theatre bench and pointing to the waiting
gathered throng of 250 students.

Physicists like this also tend to exceed their allotted quota of time when
speaking at conferences, consumed by solipsism, giving über-superfluous
details of their boring experiments and greedily eating up not only the
whole of the next speaker’s allotted time, but also most of the coffee break.
I could name a few but this isn’t the right place. The thing that amazes me
is they don’t even know they are doing it. I confronted a Jodrell Banker
after one such episode of gross indulgence, unconstrained by the chairman
he had sent to sleep and he simply remarked ‘But my stuff was important.’
‘If that is true,’ I retorted, ‘then how is it you are the first man on Earth to
send Sir Bernard Lovell to sleep with a talk on radio astronomy.’

I shall leave you to look this topic up in a book or on wikipedia or some

similar such source and make suitable notes.

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2
Perhaps me.
78
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 12.
 
A beam of silver atoms in their ground state 2 S 1/2 is prepared and passed
through an inhomogeneous magnetic field in a Stern-Gerlach experiment.

The beam is observed to separate into two components. Explain what

happens when one of the two beams is passed through a second, identical,
Stern-Gerlach apparatus orientated at right angles to the first.

Solution: Question 12.

An intimate knowledge of the Stern-Gerlach experiment is a sine qua non

for any self respecting physicist. So if you have reached this far in my
booklet and are not sure if you know what the Stern-Gerlach experiment
did and what it showed about Quantum Mechanics, then go away, read
about it and come back when you know and understand.

Before getting to grips with the answer, let me revise the topic of spin
orientation in a magnetic field. A beam of silver
atoms, reputed to have
total atomic spin S D 1/2 , (that is what 2 S1=2 means) will have these
spin vectors pointing in all possible directions. But if a magnetic field is
79
applied in the z direction, then the spin vectors will orientate themselves
in such a way that the projection of the spin vector onto the z axis is a mix
of Sz D C 1/2 „ and Sz D p1/2 „ (see a) in p the figure below.)pThe actual
length of the spin vector is S.S C 1/ D 1/2 . 1/2 C 1/ D 3=2, from
which you can work out, in an idle moment, the angle between the spin
vector and the z axis, whatever that means quantum mechanically.

Why does the beam split into two? If you are still reading this, you
either did not feel the need to revise Stern-Gerlach or you went off and
read about it. So you can answer this question. The silver atoms have spin
(a kind of angular momentum) and because they carry electric charge, they
will have a magnetic moment  which is given by the spin multiplied by
the gyromagnetic ratio (g). The presence of the magnetic field orientates
the spins into Sz D ˙ 1/2 „ and so we have two values for the projection of
the magnetic moment vector onto the z axis, namely z D ˙g 1/2 „. Now
for the clever bit. If the magnetic field has a gradient (inhomogeneous)
then there will be a force on the particle carrying the magnetic moment
given by:
F D r.
B/

We don’t need to work this out, but just be aware that the presence
of the field orientated the magnetic moments of all the silver atoms to
be parallel or anti-parallel to the magnetic field direction. (To be strict,
not parallel and anti-parallel but with components z D ˙g 1/2 „ in the
magnetic field direction.

The magnetic field gradient now tugs the silver atoms with magnetic
moment component in the direction of the field in the field direction and
tugs those with component opposite to the field direction in the opposite
direction. So the silver beam is split into two components.

Now here is the scoop: each beam contains a pure quantum mechanical
spin projection state. This was an experiment of majestic beauty in
1921–22. Germany was in social and economic ruin and yet in Berlin,
Einstein was usurping Newton, whilst in Frankfurt, theorist Otto Stern and
experimentalist Walther Gerlach were setting up pure quantum states. As a
physicist myself, I find it easy to imagine the sleepless nights in Frankfurt
as the two physicists, one theoretical and one experimental, pondered and
finally became convinced of what they had wreaked. Otto Stern rightly
got a Nobel prize in 1943 for the quantum coup, but Walther Gerlach was
80
cruelly punished with non recognition because, as a straight German with
nowhere to flee to, he did not flee his native land. The criteria for awarding
the prize do not contain the reasons why someone might not receive it.

We can answer the question posed more easily if we first consider what
would happen if one of the beams were to be extinguished and the other
passed into an identical Stern-Gerlach apparatus in the same orientation.
Let us call this orientation the z direction. The apparatus has the transfer
function that it physically and spatially separates a single beam into two
beams with different spin projection states. But if we let only one beam
progress, this is already in a defined spin projection state and so the beam
will pass through unscathed and unsplit. It will experience a force due to
the inhomogeneous magnetic field and will suffer a further lateral
displacement. But only one beam will emerge. Figure b) above shows
what happens.

Now, eventually, to answer the question. One of the two beams is

then allowed to enter a second Stern-Gerlach system which is orientated at
right angles to the first. Let us call this direction x. We could equally well
call it y, without penalty: it’s just a name. The beam we have prepared,
polarised in the z direction, has no x selection or polarisation, so it is
an equal mixture of two Sx D ˙ 1/2 „ states. This second Stern-Gerlach
apparatus will therefore split the beam into a Sx D C 1/2 „ beam and a
Sx D 1/2 „ beam.

Figure c) above shows how this all happens.

I leave it to you to select the brief answer. I have written too much
because this is superb physics, with a dash of politics.

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81
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 13.

A television tube operates with an accelerating voltage of 20 kV and the

electron beam, which lights up the phosphor screen, passes through an
aperture of 0.3 mm diameter before reaching the phosphor screen which is
situated 0.5 m away. Estimate the uncertainty in the position of the point
where the electrons strike the screen.

Solution: Question 13.

A question on the uncertainty principle in one form or other is a safe bet.

But questions about cathode ray tubes will soon become extinct when
students and perhaps even question setters never knew one. It is a pity
because they provide a nice demonstration that the uncertainty principle
can be applied to a household device, although as we shall see, there is no
need to worry about the result.

There is a Heisenberg inequality relating the uncertainty in position to

the uncertainty in momentum:
h

x
px 
2
and also one relating the energy uncertainty to the uncertainty in time:
h

t
E 
2
It is worth appreciating that these relations essentially arise because
momentum and position are conjugate variables in the sense that the wave
function for position is the Fourier transform of the conjugate wave
function for momentum, and vice versa. Similarly for the energy and time
functions. If the wave functions are Gaussians, then the equation has an
equals sign and not an inequality. Usually they are not Gaussians and so
the product of the uncertainties is always greater. For answering questions
like this, use an equals and then say it is an estimate (e.g. lower limit).

Use the uncertainty principle:

h

x
px 
2

82
 The electron passes through an aperture of 0.3 mm diameter and so
its position is uncertain to ˙0:15 mm. This implies an uncertainty in
transverse momentum (pz / of:

h 6:63  10 34
4
D
2  1:5  10 2  1:5  10 4
D 0:7035  10 30 kg m s 1

The longitudinal momentum of the electron can be got from its energy,
which after being accelerated through 20 kV is 20 keV D 20  103 
1:603  10 19 J = p 2 =2m.

So:
p
pD 2mKE
p
31 1
D 2  9:11  10  2  104  1:603  10 19 kg m s

The uncertainty in position on the screen .
xs / is then just the

uncertainty in angle coming out of the slit .
pz =p/ multiplied by the
distance to the screen.

i.e.
0:7035  10 30

xs D  0:5 m
7:64  10 23
D 4:6  10 9 m D 4:6 nm

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83
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 14.

A particle of mass m is confined within a one dimensional, infinitely deep

square well potential of width a. A perturbative modification V 0 is added
given by:
1 1
V 0 D V0 ; b<x< b .b < a/
2 2
D 0 elsewhere
The ground state wave function of the unperturbed potential is
r
2 x
.x/ D cos
a a
Use first order perturbation theory to calculate the change in the ground
state energy.

Solution: Question 14.

A question involving a potential well is always very likely. So is one

about perturbation theory. So you must LEARN and memorise the form
of the wavefunction inside an infinite well (cosine) and inside a finite well
(decaying exponential).

The unperturbed ground state wavefunction and its derivatives are:

r  x 
2
0 .x/ D cos
ra 
a
d 0 .x/ 2 x 
D sin
dx r aa a
2
d 0 .x/ 2 2  x 
D cos
dx 2 a a2 a
The time independent Schrödinger equation is:
„2 d2 0 .x/
C V .x/ .x/ D E .x/
2m dx 2
Inserting V .x/ D 0 gives the ground state energy of the unperturbed
potential:
„ 2   2
E0 D
2m a

84
 The change in the ground state energy is going to be:
Z
O0
ıE D 0 H 0 dx

where now the Hamiltonian of the system will be:

O0 C H
O D H
H O0

Z 1 r  x  r 2  x 
2b 2
So W
E D cos V0 cos dx
1
2b
a a a a
Z 1  x 
2V0 2 b
D cos 2 dx
a 1
2 b a
Z 12 b   
2V0 1 2x
D 1 C cos dx
a 1
2b
2 a
    
V0 b b 2a b
D C C sin
a 2 2 2 a
  
V0 a b
i:e:
E D b C sin
a  a
and finally the energy of the perturbed state will be:

E00 D E0 C
E

where E0 and
E have been derived above.

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85
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 15.

A parallel beam of electrons with momentum p passes through a slit of

width a. Derive an expression for the angular width of the beam as a result
of diffraction and compare it with that given by the uncertainty principle.

Solution: Question 15.

See also, the earlier questions on the uncertainty principle. Here we need
the standard equation for the position of the first minimum in the diffraction
pattern.
n
sin  D
a
Hence, sin 1 D =a gives the position of the 1st minimum. Using the
small angle approximation, sin    , then 1 D =a.

The uncertainty principle is
p
x  h. For single slit diffraction,

x  a (The uncertainty is the slit width). So
p  h=a. This is the
uncertainty in the transverse component of momentum. So
 = angular
beam width =
p=p  h=.ap/:

p D hk D h=
h h
)
 D D
ap ah

therefore
 D =a, i.e the angular width due to diffraction is the same
as that given by the uncertainty principle.

This is not surprising, since the uncertainty principle can be derived

from the product of the widths of the distributions of two mutual Fourier
transform variables. And the transform from slit width to angular beam is
given by a Fourier transform.

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86
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 16.

Estimate the energy required to remove all the electrons from an atom of
sodium (atomic number = 11) stating your assumptions. The energy of the
ground state of the hydrogen atom is 13:6 eV.

Solution: Question 16.

The equation to learn is the energy of a state in terms of atomic number Z

and principle quantum number n:
Z
En D  13:6 eV
n2
Since you are given the atomic number of sodium, Z D 11, it should be
part of your normal repertoire to then write down the electron configuration
of sodium as 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 .

You could assume that the electrons do not interact with each other (no
shielding etc) and if you state that and proceed accordingly, then full credit
is achieved. You could also, correctly, take an arbitrary shielding factor of
0.5 and work from that. But to get some credit, you should respond to the
invitation to state your assumptions.

To a first approximation, just add up energy for removing each electron

individually. Also, assume that the degeneracies of sodium are the same
as for the hydrogen atom. The nuclear electrostatic attractive force is 11
times stronger than in the H atom (Z).

Therefore to remove an electron from the 1s-level needs 11  13:6 eV.

The 2p and 2s-level will be at 11  13:6=n2 where n D 2. i.e. it will
need 1/4 of the energy required for an 1s-level electron. Similarly, for the
3s level, the energy needed will be 1/9 th for the 1s-level.

Thus the total energy needed will be:

 
1 1
2 C 8 C 1 .11  13:6/ eV  615 eV
4 9

87
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 17.

The n = 2 to n = 1 transition in hydrogen has a wavelength of 121.568 nm.

What is the corresponding wavelength in a tritium atom?

Solution: Question 17.

The transition energy is given by:

 
me 4 2 1 1 hc

E D Z D
802 h2 m2 n2 

where m and n are integers.

1
Therefore  / . where M is the reduced mass. For tritium, A D
M Z2
3, Z D 1 and so:
me mnucl 31
Mtrit D D 9:1094  10 kg
me C mnucl
31
whereas MH D 9:1044  10 .

The terms Mtrit and MH mean the electron reduced mass in tritium and
hydrogen respectively (not the masses of tritium and hydrogen).

And now:
H Mtrit
D D 1:000548
trit MH

Giving the answer:

trit D 121:501 nm

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88
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 18.

How does the concept of zero point energy help to explain the occurrence
of solids containing free electrons (metals)?

Solution: Question 18.

The concept of zero point energy comes from a quantum mechanical

treatment, and is dependent on the uncertainty principle, which states that
an electron cannot have zero momentum (and hence kinetic energy) unless
there is complete uncertainty about its position.

Metals do not have separate conduction and valence bands, but they
have one band containing many more possible states than there are
electrons to fill them. These are the ‘free’ electrons that can move
independently of the atom to which they nominally belong.

At the zero point (! 0ı K) these electrons must have a certain kinetic

energy, and are hence are ‘free’. They cannot occupy lower states which
are already full (due to the Pauli principle) and hence, if there is a known
limit on
x, they must have a corresponding
p, making them free.

How much you write here will depend on whether this was posed as
a short or long question. If this were one of three making up a 90 minute
exam, the text above is not enough.

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89
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 19.

Explain why the ground and first excited states of helium .Z D 2/ have
configurations and spectroscopic states which are denoted by (1s)2 1 S0 and
(1s,2s) 3 S1 respectively.

Solution: Question 19.

A better form of text for the question would have been: ‘Explain the
spectroscopic notation . . .’.

Helium has .Z D 2/.

Its ground state is (1s)2 1 S0 and 1st excited state is (1s,2s) 3 S1

The first part of the notation (in brackets) says that the two electrons
are in the 1s shell for the ground state and in the excited state one electron
is in the 1s shell and the second (excited) electron is in the 2s shell.

The second part of the notation, 1 S0 and 3 S1 denotes how the spins and
orbital angular momenta of the two electrons have combined.

The notation is 2SC1 LJ , where J D L C S . J is the total angular

momentum, L the total orbital angular momentum and S the total spin.

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90
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 20.

An electron is confined to a three dimensional well with sides of 1.0 nm.

Determine the energies in eV, with respect to the bottom of the well, of the
lowest two states.

Solution: Question 20.

The energy levels in an infinite well are the same as a vibrating string fixed
between rigid walls:
h2
En D n2
8mL2
h2
The lowest state is for n D 1, whence En D .
8mL2
The next state has n D 2 and this energy is 4 times larger than the
ground state.

First calculate the energy of the n D 1 state.

.6:626  10 34 /2
E1 D J
8  9:109  10 31  .1:0  10 9 /2
19
To convert to eV, divide by 1:602  10 . (I told you earlier to
memorise this factor.)

Thus:
.6:626  10 34 /2
E1 D
8  9:109  10 31  .1:0  10 9 /2  1:602  10 19

D 0:376 eV

And:
E2 D 4E1 D 1:504 eV

91
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 21.

The ground state of the electron in the hydrogen atoms is at 13:6 eV.
Calculate the wavelength of the radiation needed to excite an electron from
the n D 3 to the n D 4 orbit of hydrogen.

What region of the electromagnetic spectrum does this correspond to?

Solution: Question 21.

The n dependence of the energy levels of hydrogen is given by:

R1
En D
n2
where R1 D 13:6 eV is the Rydberg energy.

Just for information, and not strictly needed in the answer, transitions
involving the n D 3 level are called the Paschen series; the most energetic
of the lines falling in the infra-red.

The energy difference between the n D 3 and n D 4 levels is thus:

 
1 1
E D E4 E3 D R1 C 2
42 3
 
7
D R1
144
D 0:66 eV D 1:06  10 19 J

The wavelength is obtained via:

E D h D hc=

whence  D hc=E.

i.e.
13
hc 2  1:973  10  106
 D D m
E 0:66
D 1:88  10 6 m
D 1:88 m

92
 If you are going to be a physicist, it doesn’t hurt to know things like
the electromagnetic spectrum. You can be sure that an F1 driver knows the
range of his gears blindfold, because he is a professional and doesn’t have
time to look them up during a race. You have more time in the exam and
the more equations and facts that you commit to memory, the more time
you will have to think about your answer.

If I were the question setter and marker, I would award the marks for
the simple statement: ‘Infra Red’. But I would keep a bonus up my sleeve
for anyone who wrote ‘Near Infra Red’. I’d be tempted to award an extra
bonus for anyone who said ‘Just inside the Near Infra Red’ or ‘About
double the wavelength of Visible Red’. And in case anyone thinks this
is learning physics by rote, then I reply that physics like any subject is
best handled by having some things learned by rote, but also keeping the
brain open to make deductive steps. One of the reasons for the Chernobyl
disaster was because after someone made a mistake, two even, and things
started to go wrong, seriously wrong even, no one could remember what to
do and by the time they found the right page in the manual, it was too late.

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93
Quantum and Atomic Physics: Question 22.

The magnitude
p of the total angular momentum of a particle is given by
jLj D 12„.

What are the allowed values that could be obtained by measuring the
z component of L?

Solution: Question 22.

p
The relation jLj D 12„ means that l.l C 1/ D 12. Since l must be
an integer, it doesn’t take long to establish that l D 3. Or, if meeting a
problem with a less obvious solution, one can solve the quadratic:

l.l C 1/ D 12
2
l C l 12 D 0
.l C 4/.l 3/ D 0
) l D 4 or l D 3

l must be positive, so the solution l D 3 is the only one.

Since l D 3, the possible values of the z-component are:

ml D 3; 2; 1; 0; C1; C2; and C 3

The eigenvalues of Lz are ml „.

Therefore the possible measurements of Lz are:

Lz D 3„; 2„; „; 0; „; 2„ and 3„;

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94
5: Thermal Physics

Thermal Physics: Question 1.

Calculate the change in entropy of 0.5 kg of ice at 0ı C when it is heated

to steam at 100ı C.

The latent heat of fusion of ice is 3:4  105 J kg 1 .

The heat capacity of water is 4:2  103 J kg 1 .
The latent heat of vaporisation of steam is 2:26  106 J kg 1 .

Solution: Question 1.

This is a good question because it brings in how to calculate entropy

changes at constant temperature, where there is no integral and also entropy
changes where the temperature is not constant, where there is an integral.
If you do not understand how to calculate entropy changes after doing this
question, you might never.

The change in entropy can be split into three parts, corresponding to

melting (
S1 ), heating water from 0ı C to 100ı C (
S2 ) and boiling the
water (
S3 ).

The melting takes place at constant temperature Tm D 273:16ı K and

so:

Q1 0:5  3:4  105

S1 D D D 622:3 J K 1
Tm 273:16
Heating from melting to boiling point needs an integral, albeit a simple
one:
Z 373 Z 373
dQ dT

S2 D D ms
273 T T
 273 
373:16
D 0:5  4200  ln D 655:1 J K 1
273:16
where m is the mass of water involved and s its specific heat.

Boiling takes place at constant temperature Tb D 373:16ı K:

Q2 0:5  2:26  106 1

S3 D D D 3028:2 J K
Tm 373:16
95
The total entropy change is thus:
1

S D 622:3 C 655:1 C 3028:2 D 4305:6 J K

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96
Thermal Physics: Question 2.

Estimate the factor by which the number of accessible quantum states

is increased when 1 J of heat is added to a macroscopic system at room
temperature.

Solution: Question 2.

The formula to use is the one engraved on Boltzmann’s tombstone:

S D k ln 

Before the heat is added, let the entropy be:

S1 D k ln 1

where 1 is the number of accessible quantum states.

After the heat is added:

S2 D k ln 2

and the difference in entropy is just the change induced by the added heat,
which is:

Q 1 2

S D S2 S1 D D D k ln
T 300 1

So now:

2 1 1
ln D D 23
1 300k 300  1:381  10
1
 D 2:5  1020
4  10 21

Convert to base 10:

2 2
log D 0:693 ln D 1:73  1020
1 1

97
 And finally:
2 20 20
D 101:7310  1010
1
which is the required factor.

Boltzmann worried a lot about his formula, fearing it might not be

correct. Yet to me, it is a more beautiful equation than E D mc 2 . It
even says that the rate of change of entropy, with respect to the number of
states  could not be simpler: it declines like 1=, and the constant of
proportionality is named after its deriver.

Boltzmann visited the Manchester Physics Department (the cradle of

this slim volume) just once, in 1903. He was photographed along with
various luminaries and the photographic shard here shows him sitting on
the front row with his walking stick.

He finally succeeded in committing suicide three years later and to be

accurate, his tombstone says S D k ln W , where W D Wahrscheinlichkeit
(= probability), is the frequency of occurrence of a macrostate. In this
photograph, his hat is on the floor, all other hats on the front row being
accounted for. The person on Boltzmann’s right is physicist Éleuthère Élie
98
Nicolas Mascart. Mascart’s grandson was Léon Nicolas Brillouin, who
invented his zones, the primitive cells in the reciprocal lattice.

The tallest gentleman in the back row is Frederick Soddy. Second

from left in the back row is Joseph Larmor (see questions 14 and 15 in
the Applied Nuclear Physics section on the Larmor precession frequency).
On the extreme left in the back row is Charles Herbert Lees, (Lees’ disk)
who was a lecturer at Manchester at the time and also Assistant Director
of the Physical Laboratories. The Director of the Physical Laboratories in
Manchester at the time was Arthur Schuster and he is standing in the centre
of the back row.

I have identified everyone in this photograph except for the person who
is second left on the front row. If anyone can tell me, I will acknowledge
them at this point in the text in future editions. The resemblance to King
George V is misleading since George, Prince of Wales, was 38 when this
picture was taken. My friend James, an expert on British royalty insisted
that George V could not have been the Prince of Wales before he became
King because he was not the eldest son (of Edward VII). For once I usurped
James. It is true that George V was not the eldest son of Edward VII, that
privilege being held by Viktor, who would have become King Viktor of
England and the rest, had he lived. But Viktor died whilst his father held
the anticipatory title of Prince of Wales, before he eventually became King
Edward VII. George V was appointed to the post of Prince of Wales, a
rare promotion. Of course, Viktor, had he lived, did not have to assume to
title King Viktor; he could have chosen any name he felt like taking. The
record suggests that he was ‘The Man who would not be King’, and had
the promotion become imminent, might have pre-empted Edward VIII. He
would in any case, never have been King Victor I, because the regal number
of I is never used at the time the holder is on the throne.

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99
Thermal Physics: Question 3.

A perfectly reversible heat pump heats a building at 20ı C by taking heat

from the atmosphere at 5ı C. If the heat pump is run by an electric motor
whose efficiency is 80%, what is the cost of 1 kW hr of heat supplied?

1 kW hr of electricity costs £0.12.

Solution: Question 3.

This is a typical question on heat pumps and engines. The two key factors
that you need to remember and apply to these kind of questions are:

 that heat pumps and engines are isentropic

 and of course, energy conservation, which enters via the first law of
thermodynamics.

So the two equations we need here are:

Q1 Q2
the isentropic condition: D (1)
T1 T2
and from the 1st law: Q2 D Q1 C W (2)

To identify with the parameters in the question, T2 D 20ı C, T1 D 5ı C

and the energy Q1 costs £0.12 per kW hr.

We wish to determine the “Coefficient of Performance (COP)” for this

pump which operates at 80% an efficiency  D 80%.

100
 Q2
The COP for a perfect Carnot cycle is COP D .
W
from equation (2): W D Q2 Q1
 
Q1
D Q2 1
Q2
Q1 T1
from equation (1): D
Q2 T2
T2
therefore: COP D
T1 T2
T2
putting in an efficiency for a real pump: COP D 
T2 T1
Substituting the values given:
 
293
COP D 0:8  D 15:63
15

This gives a unit cost of 12=15:63 D 0:77p which seems highly

desirable. However, the question has been put in rather unrealistic terms.
To heat a building to 20ı C practically needs radiators with a hot water
circuit running at far more than 20ı C. Underfloor heating at 20ı C would
probably lead to cooler rooms, so a higher temperature would still be
needed, and the floor ripping up. A heat pump system running central
heating and hot water will probably have a COP of about 3. Even so,
reducing power consumption for heating and hot water by a factor of 3 is
an economical incentive, provided the cost of the plant can be recovered
from power cost saving during the lifetime of the pump. This is more likely
as raw fuel costs rise, provided the cost of such pumps does not rise in line
with energy.

A heat pump is a far more realistic proposition to reduce carbon

footprints compared to, say, a modern wind farm which typically produces
more CO2 during its manufacture and maintenance than it will ever save in
its lifetime.

101
Thermal Physics: Question 4.

Two identical bodies of constant specific heat are held at temperatures of

0ı C and 100ı C. What is the lowest temperature to which both bodies can
be brought together in equilibrium by transferring heat from the hotter to
the colder body by means of a reversible heat engine?

Solution: Question 4.

Because the heat engine is reversible, there is no net change in entropy.

Therefore a strategy to find the lowest temperature TL is to calculate the
change in entropy of the body that starts at T1 D 0ı C D 273 K and
equate this to minus the change in entropy of the body that starts at T2 D
100ı C D 373 K.
Z TL
ms
First the cooler body:
S1 D dT
T1 T
 T TL
D ms ln T TL1 D ms ln
T1
Z TL
ms
Then the hotter body:
S2 D dT
T2 T
 T TL
D ms ln T TL2 D ms ln
T2
TL TL
Equating the entropy changes: 6 m6 s ln D 6 m6 s ln
T1 T2
TL T2
Exponentiate: D
T1 TL
2
Therefore: TL D T1 T2 D 273  373
) TL D ˙319 K

The rubric to find the lowest temperature seems a curious choice since
the mathematical lowest is unphysical. Thus the lowest temperature is also
the highest.

102
Thermal Physics: Question 5.

Estimate the steady-state cost per week of running a domestic refrigerator.

Assume that the room temperature is 20ı C and the internal temperature is
4ı C. The walls of the refrigerator are 15 mm thick, having a total surface
area of 8 m2 and a thermal conductivity of 2  10 2 W m 1 K 1 .

The cost of electricity is 12p per kW hr.

Solution: Question 5.

This is almost the same as Question 3 in this section, with a few extra frills.

The procedure here is to calculate (in Joules per hour) how much heat
energy is flowing from the room at 20ı C, into the fridge at 4ı C. This
energy has to be pumped out into the room by the fridge heat pump which
will be operating at some typical efficiency of a Carnot cycle, which we
will have to guess. 50% is reasonable.

The amount of heat flowing through 1 m2 of fridge wall per second (in
W) is given by:

1
Heat flux/ m2 : D 2  102   .20 4/ D 21:33 W
0:015
Therefore for 8 m2 : D 170:67 W

The two obligatory equations are:

Q1 Q2
from the isentropic condition: D (1)
T1 T2
and from the 2nd law: Q2 D Q1 C W (2)

To identify with the parameters in the question, T2 D 20ı C, T1 D 4ı C

and the energy used to drive the pump, Q1 , costs £0.12 per kW hr.

Following the same procedure as last time, the COP for a perfect Carnot
Q2
cycle is: COP D where Q2 is the energy leakage through the
W
walls, i.e. 170:67 W
103
 from equation (2): W D Q2 Q1
 
Q1
D Q2 1
Q2
Q1 T1
from equation (1): D
Q2 T2
T2
therefore: COP D
T2
T1
T2
putting in  D 0:5 for a real pump: COP D 
T2 T1

Substituting the values given or assumed:

 
293
COP D 0:5  D 9:15
16

This result claims that the fridge consumes less than 20 W.

The cost to run this fridge in this idealised situation is then:

0:17067
 12 D 0:2238 p per hour
9:15

In a week of 7  24 D 168 hrs, this would be 37.6p per week.

I have two identical fridges, one for food and one for drinks (separated
functions) and their surface area is 4.8 m2 each. They are each held at
4ı C, (see figure on next page) and the label on the inside declares that
they consume 84 W each when the motor is running. This costs me 9c
per kW hr in France (cheap nuclear electricity) and so both fridges would
cost me 2.50A C a week if they ran all the time (which they don’t). Until I
measure what fraction of the day and night they are running, I am unable to
reconcile the practicalities of my fridges with the answer to this question.
I invite suggestions.

I have resolved to randomly monitor my fridges (ear pressed against

door) in order to measure the duty cycle. This means I shall have to get up
the night.
104
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105
Thermal Physics: Question 6.

Van der Waals equation provides a good description of most real gases.
RT a
P D
.V b/ V 2
Show that:  
@E a
D 2
@V T V
where E is the internal energy, and a and b are constants.

You may assume the identity:

   
@S @P
D
@V T @T V

Solution: Question 6.

This is just mathematics, with little physics content.

Differentiate the equation for P with respect to T at constant V :

 
@P R
D
@T .V b/
   V
@S @P R
) D D
@V T @T V .V b/
But:
dE D T dS P dV
And so:
dE dS
D T P
dV dV
If T is constant, then:
   
@E @S
D T P
@V T @V T
RT
D P
.V b/
 
RT RT a
D
.V b/ .V b/ V 2
a
D 2
V
106
Thermal Physics: Question 7.

A system with two levels has an energy splitting of  between the upper
and lower state. Show that, at high temperatures, the heat capacity of the
system varies as 1=T 2 .

Solution: Question 7.

I suppose that when you read through the wording of this question, the
phrase ‘Schottky anomalies’ sprang to mind. It did, didn’t it?

In my experience, the people who set these kind of questions like

answers which contain a high concentration of equations and very few
words. You would probably make this examiner very happy if you knocked
off the answer in the following style:

Z D 1 C exp .=kT /
 exp .=kT / 
U D D
1 C exp .=kT / exp .=kT / C 1
   exp .=kT /
@U 2 2
C D D  k T
@T  .exp .=kT / C 1/2

At high temperatures when we are supposed to assume that  << kT ,

the two exponentials both equal unity and the heat capacity becomes:

2
C D
4k 2 T 2
I leave you to fill in a few words.

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107
Thermal Physics: Question 8.

Sketch the entropy, S , of a real (i.e. weakly interacting) spin 1/2

paramagnetic salt as a function of temperature, T , both in a zero field and
in an applied magnetic field.

Solution: Question 8.

This is standard bookwork. It’s a graph and therefore marks will be earned
if you follow the basic rules for graphs.

Draw two straight axes and label them with S and T and do not forget
the units. That is already worth a mark, maybe even two. So get the axes
drawn, even if you haven’t a clue what the curves look like.

Curves of
magnetic entropy
as a function of
temperature for
a paramagnetic
salt.

Putting some values on the axes is more than useful. The critical ones
here are R ln 2 for the plateau of the entropy. The presence of the R in this
value maps on to the units ‘per mole’. It’s a low temperature phenomenon
so in my graph, I have run the curve up to 1ı K and to impress the examiner,
I have used milli-Kelvin. Every little helps.

I see no way to be able to draw these curves except by remembering

their shapes. I have searched for the analytic form and here it is. You would
not be expected to remember an equation like this in an undergraduate
exam:
108
     
B B B B B B
S D R ln 2 cosh tanh
kT kT kT

If you wish to add some comments to the sketch, then an arrow pointing
to the flat portion could usefully carry the legend ‘magnetic energy levels
equally likely ! constant entropy’. Another arrow could point to the curve
approaching zero with a comment ‘zero entropy when all atoms in lowest
state’.

The shift of the curve to the right when a magnetic field is applied
happens because the energy splitting of the two states increases as B is
increased and so it is more likely, at a given temperature, that atoms will
be in the lowest state, and this means lower entropy.

Paramagnetic salts such as cerium magnesium nitrate were the standard

way to achieve magnetic cooling. Dilution refrigerators have supplanted
them. I leave it to you to study the curves and to work out how to exploit
them to achieve cooling. It is nice physics.

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109
Thermal Physics: Question 9.

Estimate the density of neutrinos for which the Fermi temperature would
be 3ı K. Assume that these neutrinos have a rest mass of 10 eV=c2 .

Solution: Question 9.

Unless you are that rare person who can instantly derive the equation for
the Fermi energy during an examination, the existence of this question
tells you that you might need to remember the formula. The equation can
be written in several (equivalent) forms, depending on whether h or „ is
used etc.

I shall use the form:

 2/3
„2 3 2 N
EF D
2m V
The question setter has provided all necessary information for insertion
into this equation in order to derive the density of neutrinos, which in this
N
formulation is given by .
V
Let us do the necessary re-arrangement at the start:
  3
N 1 2m /2 3/2
D EF
V 3 2 „2
All that remains is to get the units right and of course to realise that a
temperature can be converted into (kinetic) energy units by multiplying by
the Boltzmann constant.

We therefore need (from the table of constants provided in any exam):

„ D 6:582  10 16 eV
k D 1:381  10 23 J K 1
1 eV D 1:602  10 19 J

Step by step, firstly, the neutrino Fermi energy, EF D kT is expressed

in eV which is D 3.1:38110 23 /=.1:60210 19 / D 2:586110 4 eV.

110
 Now substitute this and the rest:
   3/2
N 1 2  10
.2:5861  10 4 / /2
3
D
V 3 2 .6:582  10 /16 2
  3
1 2  10 /2
.2:5861/ /2  1042
3
D 2 2
3 6:582
  3
1 2  10  2:5861 /2
D  1042
3 2 6:5822
D 4:4  1040 m 3

It looks a big number, but it would not be out of place in a supernova

collapse.

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111
Thermal Physics: Question 10.

The filament of a 100 W incandescent lamp has a radius of 12 m and is

0.3 m long. Estimate its working temperature.

Solution: Question 10.

You will encounter a question on black bodies sooner or later, probably

sooner, where you need Stefan’s law (also known as the Stefan-Boltzmann
law). So learn this by heart and understand what the ingredients mean.

I D T 4 .Black body/

Stefan’s constant will be provided in the table of constants supplied

with the exam paper, and so you are not required to remember it, although
it always saves time if you can. The units are important because you will
need to work in them.

Stefan’s law says that the radiated power of a black body per unit area
of its surface is proportional to the 4th power of the absolute temperature.
That is the end of the physics, the rest is geometry and arithmetic, although,
it is often a big help if you have a good idea what the answer should be
beforehand. The Sun has a surface temperature of 5750ı K and artificial
tungsten light is yellower (and hence a cooler black body) than sunlight.
I would be expecting something like 3000ı K to emerge. Anyone with a
photographic connexion should be careful because photographers say that
tungsten lighting is a warm color and they call sunlight cool.

The radiating part of the filament is a cylinder of radius r D 12 m and

length l D 0:3 m. Thus the surface area is 2 rl D 2  12  10 6  0:3 D
2:262  10 5 m2 .

All we have to do now is to equate I D 100=.2:262  10 5 / to T 4

where  D 5:67  10 8 J s 1 m 2 K 4 to get T . The lamp is radiating
100 W which is 100 J s 1 .

112
 100 1
T4 D

.2:262  10 5 / .5:67  10 8 /
D 7:797  1013
) T D 2971:5ı K

And this is an excellent match to the expectation. Obtaining an answer

that matches the initial expectation provokes a feeling of well-being which
is a good thing in an examination.

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113
Thermal Physics: Question 11.

Estimate the temperature of a tumbling asteroid at a distance of 350 million

km from the Sun. Assume that the surface temperature of the Sun is 6000 K
and that the asteroid is a black body.

Solution: Question 11.

The surface temperature of the Sun is a quantity that any self-respecting

physicist should know. But is it given (approximately) in this question.
This question appears in several guises, sometimes asking for the
temperature of a satellite orbiting Earth.

The principle to answer is always the same:

– Calculate the total power radiated from the Sun using Stefan’s law,
integrated over the solar surface.

– Spread this power over the surface of a sphere whose radius is the
distance of the object from the Sun.

– Calculate the power absorbed by the object. There is a minor trick

here, because usually the object presents a disk to the radiation for
absorption. One then has to rely on thermal conductivity to distribute the
heat. But here the asteroid is tumbling and it can be assumed that there
are no thermal gradients (because the rotation is fast) and this absorbed
power will be radiated uniformly by the whole spherical surface area of
the object.

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114
Thermal Physics: Question 12.

A star may be assumed to radiate as a black body. If such a star, with a

surface temperature of 5000 Kı , radiates such that the flux reaching Earth
is 1  10 8 W m2 and the star is 4  1017 m away, determine the radius of
the star.

Solution: Question 12.

The total power radiated is given by:

4 r 2  1  10 8
D 2  1028 W

Stefan’s equation gives the power radiated per unit area of the star:
8
I D 5:6  10  .5  103 /4 D 3:5  107 m 2

Therefore, the area of the star is given by:

2  1028
AD 7
D 5:74  1020 m2
3:5  10
And from this, the radius of the star can be found:
p
r D A=4  6:8  109 m

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115
Thermal Physics: Question 13.

A gas container is divided into two equal parts by a removeable partition.

One part contains 1 mole of argon and the other 1 mole of nitrogen, both
at 300 K. Determine the change in entropy that occurs when the two gases
are fully mixed after the partition has been suddenly removed. You may
assume that both gases are ideal.

Solution: Question 13.

What you need to remember here is that the change in entropy
S is given
by:
Z f
dQ

S D
i T
where i and f mean the initial and final states respectively.

It is worth remembering that the change in entropy just depends on

the initial and final states and not on the path between them so you can
CHOOSE a convenient path. If you can choose an isothermal path, then T
is constant and all you have to do is work out the heat energy change
Q
and divide by T to get the entropy. If the path is not isothermal, then you
will probably have to do the integral. This will usually involve substituting
for T using P V D RT and integrating from V1 to V2 .

The key thing here is that the gases can be assumed to be ideal which
means that the atoms occupy zero volume and there are no interatomic
(van der Waals) forces. Therefore the atoms don’t interact as they move
into the larger volume and the argon doesn’t know anything about the
nitrogen, and vice versa the argon atoms don’t know about each other and
the nitrogen atoms don’t know about each other either. So we can treat
each gas separately and then just double the answer.

Entropy is a function of state and not how the state was reached. So
the change in entropy can be calculated using any convenient path which
allows the calculation to be done. An awkward path and a messy
calculation will give the same result as an easy path and a simple
calculation - with less chance of an error. Even more to the point, the
path chosen for the calculation may be a reversible path even though the
116
actual expansion goes via a path that is irreversible. To emphasise: it is the
position of the start and end points that matter, not the nature of the route
between them. This is a bit like the centre of mass energy of a collection
of particles. It can be calculated in any frame because it is an invariant
quantity, so choose the frame that gives the simplest calculation.

For the expansion of one of the gases from volume V into volume
2V, let’s use an isothermal path. Such a path would be reversible and the
entropy change would be given by:
Z 2V
dQ

S D
V T

and since the path is an isothermal, T is constant and then the total
change in entropy is S D Q=T . All we have to do is to calculate the heat
change, which is equal to the work done during the expansion.

For 1 mole, P V D RT and so:

Z 2V
Work done D W D Q D P dV
V
Z 2V
dV 2V
D RT D RT ln D RT ln 2
V V V
And so S D Q=T D R ln 2

This is for one of the gases and there is an equal contribution for the
other gas, making the total entropy change: S D 2R ln 2.

117
 This answer does not explicitly need anything about argon or nitrogen,
except that they are different, nor the temperature 300 K except that it is
constant.

Any answer in an exam wouldn’t need to be as wordy as this. I’m just

giving you a full explanation.

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118
Thermal Physics: Question 14.

A log of mass 1 tonne is dropped from a height of 100 m into a large lake.
Calculate the change of entropy of the Universe after the log has come rest.
Where is this entropy change located?

Solution: Question 14.

See also, the earlier question on entropy. Here there is effectively no

temperature change so you don’t need to do an integral. Let us first discuss
the energy flow. The log starts off with potential energy with respect to
the surface of the lake. The log falls and just before hitting the surface of
the water, the potential energy has been converted to kinetic. The log then
hits the water, makes a big splash and a lot of waves. The log starts to sink
but is subject to an upward force which is greater than the downward force
of gravity (upthrust plus friction). The kinetic energy of the log goes to
heat up the water which is dispersed through the whole lake. We can then
assume that the temperature rise of the lake is exceedingly small.

The change in entropy is given by:

Q

S D
T
Where:

Q D mgh D 1000  10  100 D 106 J
and T is the ambient temperature of the lake which we take to be
283 ı K.

Then:
106

S D D 3534 J K 1
283
The lake is big, let us assume something like Windermere with a
volume of water 10; 000  1; 000  1; 000 D 1010 m3 with a mass of
1010 tonne. So one part in 1010 of the heat produced (and hence the entropy
change) goes into the log and the rest of the heat produced (1010 1 parts
in 1010 ) goes into the lake.

119
Thermal Physics: Question 15.

The single-particle partition function of an ideal gas, of volume V; at a

temperature T and consisting of N indistinguishable particles is:

Z1 D bV T 3

where b is a constant. Write down the Helmholtz free energy of the gas,
assuming that N is sufficiently large, so that Stirling’s approximation:

ln N Š D N ln N N can be used.

Solution: Question 15.

The partition function of the system is:

.Z1 /N
Z D
NŠ
) F D kT ln Z
D N kT ln Z1 C kT ln N Š
D N kT Œln b C ln V C 3 ln T  C kT .N ln N N/
D N kT Œln b C ln V C 3 ln T ln N C 1

There isn’t much physics in this question, but all the same, it does test
essential skills.

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120
Thermal Physics: Question 16.

Calculate the molar heat capacity of a monatomic perfect gas at constant

pressure. Comment on any differences between your estimate and the
measured value of 21:13 J K 1 for argon at room temperature and pressure.

Solution: Question 16.

The kinetic energy of a single atom, considering only the translational

motion, is given by: KE D 1/2 kT per degree of freedom, which leads to
total energy Q D 3/2 N kT D 3/2 RT for three degrees of freedom for a
mole of gas.

The specific heat at constant volume, CV is then given by:

dQ
CV D D 3/2 R
dT
But CP D CV C R D 5/2 R.

1
Then: CP D 5/2  8:315 J K D 20:79 J K 1 .

It is not enough to comment that the two numbers are not the same! We
can all see that. It is also not enough to comment that argon is not quite an
ideal gas. We know that as well.

Since we have calculated the specific heat at constant pressure, the

gas must expand on heating (or contract on cooling). Even with a noble
gas, argon, there are small Van der Waals (dipole) forces of attraction.
Therefore, in order to raise the temperature of the gas, work (heat energy)
must also be provided to overcome these dipole forces as the gas expands.
The difference between the two values, 20.79 and 21.13, can be regarded
as a measure of the strength of the Van der Waals forces.

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121
Thermal Physics: Question 17.

A piston-cylinder system slowly compresses a volume of gas from 0.4 m2

to 0.25 m2 at a constant pressure of 1 atmosphere. It is found that the
internal energy decreases by 25 kJ during the process. Calculate the
amount of heat transferred to or from the gas during the compression.

Solution: Question 17.

The word ‘slowly’ means heat is allowed to transfer isothermally between

the gas and its surroundings.

The work done on the gas during compression is given by:

Z V2
P dV D P .V2 V1 / D 1:013  105  0:15 D 15:2 kJ
V1

The first law of thermodynamics is:

E D Q C W
Q D
E W

where Q is the heat added to the gas.

So:
Q D 25:0 15:2 D 40:2 kJ
The minus sign shows that the heat energy is transferred out of the gas.

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122
6: Waves and Light

Waves and Light: Question 1.

An empty room with perfectly sound-reflecting walls has a volume of

50 m3 . Estimate the number of (resonant) acoustic modes with frequencies
between 440 Hz and 880 Hz. You may assume that the speed of sound in
air is 330 m s 1 .

Solution: Question 1.

The number density of vibrational energy states in a box of volume V with

wave number k is given by3 :

V k2
n.k/ D
2 2
So the number between k and k C dk (dk infinitesimal) is:

V k2
n.k/dk D dk
2 2
i.e. the height of the density distribution n.k/ multiplied by the width
of the interval dk. The interval 440 to 880 is as large as the lower limit
so we have to integrate to get N the number of states between 440 and
880 Hz. Z k2 Z k2
V k2
N.k1 ; k2 / D n.k/dk D 2
dk
k1 k1 2

2 2 2d
kD D and dk D
 c c
So:

Z  
k2
V 4 2  2 2 8V  3 880
N.1 ; 2 / D d D
k1 2 2 c 2 c 3c 3 440
8  50

D 3
8803 4403 D 3475
3  330

3
This is an equation you need to learn.
123
Waves and Light: Question 2.

Distinguish between the phase and group velocities of a wave. Indicate

under what circumstances they differ and in what context each is relevant.

Solution: Question 2.

This is just a case of you remembering the dispersion relation for a wave
! D !.k/, giving functional form to the dependence of frequency on wave
!
number and that the phase velocity is: vp D and the group velocity is
k
@!
vg D . This is a common question.4
@k
!
The phase velocity is defined by: vp D and represents the speed at
k
which the frequency component of a wave travels.

@!
The group velocity is defined by: vg D and represents the speed of
@k
energy or information transport in a wave. The group and phase velocities
differ whenever the dispersion relation differs from: ! D ck, i.e. when it
is not linear.

To add more to the learning from doing this question, consider deep
water waves of long wavelength, where ! D Ak /2 .
1

Then:
!
D Ak /2
1
vp D
k
And:
@! A 1
vg D D k /2
@k 2
Therefore:
vg D 1/2 vp

4
You should learn these two simple equations
124
Waves and Light: Question 3.

The phase velocity of surface waves with small wavelength  on a deep

liquid is given by:
2
v2 D

where  is the surface tension and  is the density. Determine the ratio
of the group and phase velocities.

Solution: Question 3.

Consider the dispersion relation ! D !.k/ linking frequency to wave

!
number. The phase velocity is given by vp D and the group velocity is
k
@!
given by vg D .
@k
So then: s s
! 2 k
D vp D D
k  
Multiply through by k:
s
k3
! D


Differentiate:
s
@! 3 k 3
D vg D D vp
@k 2  2

And the ratio of the two velocities is:

vg 3
D
vp 2

125
Waves and Light: Question 4.

The group velocity of waves in a medium is twice the phase velocity. Find
the relation between the angular frequency ! and the wave number k in
the medium.

Solution: Question 4.
@!
The group velocity, vg , is given by: vg D
@k
!
The phase velocity, vp , is given by: vg D
k
We are told that the group velocity is twice the phase velocity and so:

vg D 2vp
@! !
D 2
dk k
@! @k
D 2
! k
ln ! D 2 ln k C const
D ln k 2 C const
D ln Ak 2
i:e: ! D Ak 2

where A is a constant.

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126
Waves and Light: Question 5.

A lens system is fabricated out of 4 separated glass components, each

having a refractive index of 1.52. If the amplitude reflection coefficient for
normal incidence at an interface between air and a medium of refractive
index n is .n 1/=.n C 1/, calculate the intensity transmission of this
system when used at normal incidence. How, using thin films, may the
transmission be increased and what thin film conditions need to be
satisfied?

Solution: Question 5.

You need to remember that the intensity is the square of the amplitude.
Here you are given the formula for the amplitude.

After passing through one glass component, the intensity is given by:
  !
n 1 2
I1 D I0 1
nC1

After passing through the second glass component, the intensity is now:
  !   !2
n 1 2 n 1 2
I2 D I1 1 D I0 1
nC1 nC1
So after passing through all four, the intensity transmission .I4 =I0 / is:
  !4
I4 n 1 2
D 1
I0 nC1
  !4
0:52 2
D 1
2:52
D .1 0:04258/4 D 0:840

127
 The reflection at each surface can be made to be zero for a particular
wavelength (and minimised for the rest of the optical region) by coating the
glass with a thin film. The thickness of the film is 1/4 of a wavelength so
that the reflected wave from the front of the film is 180ı out of phase with
the wave reflected from the glass. The destructive interference destroys the
reflection at that wavelength.

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128
Waves and Light: Question 6.

A photographic negative is placed in an enlarger at a distance of 45 cm

from a white screen. It is desired to form an image of this negative at
a magnification of 2 on the screen, using a simple lens in the enlarger.
What should be the focal length of the lens and where should it be placed?

Solution: Question 6.

All you need here are the simple optics equations, probably first learnt at
school. The general lens equation is:
1 1 1
C D
u v f

and the magnification m is given by v=u. If v are measured in opposite

directions (as here) then m D v=u. LEARN these equations.
The image required has magnification m D 2 (! Twice as big and
inverted).
Then:
v
m D D 2 ! v D 2u
u
Also u C v D 45, which gives u D 15 and v D 30.
Hence:
1 1 1
C D
15 30 f
2 1 1
C D
30 30 f
! f D 10

The focal length of the lens should be 10 cm and it should be 15 cm

from the negative.

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129
Waves and Light: Question 7.

A celebrity chef looks directly down into a metal pan in which there lies a
thin film of cooking oil. He observes an intense red colour ( D 650 nm).
The refractive index of the oil at this wavelength is 1.5. Determine the film
thickness.

Solution: Question 7.

The condition for constructive interference relates the thickness of the film
t and the wavelength  and the refractive index n:
 
2t 1
D mC 
n 2
 
1
t D 0:75 m C  650 nm
2
Putting m D 1:
t D 243:75 nm
This is the smallest possible value for the oil film. Other thicker films
are allowed as a solution, using m D 2; 3; 4 etc.

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130
Waves and Light: Question 8.

An argon laser is pointed at the Moon and emits light of wavelength

514:5 nm through a circular aperture of diameter 5 cm. What is the linear
diameter of the beam, between points of zero intensity, at the surface of the
Moon?
The Earth-Moon distance is 400,000 km.

Solution: Question 8.

The diffraction pattern (Airy disk) has minima at angle  given by:

1:22
 D ˙
D
2:44
and so has a width of
 D between minima.
D
Propagated a distance L, this angular spread turns into a distance
spread of L
 .
9
2:44  514:5  10
L
 D 4  108  D 10043 m  10 km
5  10 2

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131
Waves and Light: Question 9.

A standard 35 mm colour slide has a picture dimension of 24 mm36 mm.

What focal length should a projection lens have in order to project a
2:4 m  3:6 m image of the slide onto a seminar room screen 10 m from
the lens?

Solution: Question 9.

This question dates from before the days of Keynote and Powerpoint
presentations. Moreover, it is school stuff, or at least it used to be.

The magnification m D v=u is 100 (24 mm to 2.4 m).

Therefore u D v=100 where v D 10 m and u D 0:1 m.

Using the lens equation:

1 1 1
C D
u v f
uv
f D
uCv
10  0:1 1
D D D 0:099 m D 99 mm
10 C 0:1 10:1

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132
7: Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism: Question 1.

An electron beam passes through a volume where there is an electric field

of 103 Vm 1 and also an orthogonal magnetic field of 10 3 Tesla. It is
found that the electrons are not deflected. When the electric field is absent,
the electrons move in a circle of radius 5:7 mm. Calculate the velocity of
the electrons and their charge to mass ratio.

Solution: Question 1.

We can calculate the velocity by equating the two forces due to the electric
and magnetic fields.
!
Let the charge on the electron be e, the magnetic field B , the electric
field E and the velocity be !
v.

Then:
!
e!
v  B D Ee

!
Since the fields are orthogonal, B and !
v must also be orthogonal.

Therefore:

evB D Ee
E
v D
B
103
D D 106 ms 1
10 3

The value of e=m can be obtained by equating the magnetic force to

the centripetalforce:
133
 mv 2
evB D
r
e v2 v
D D
m Bvr Br
106 1
D D 1:754 C kg
10 3  5:7  10 3

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134
Electromagnetism: Question 2.

A sulphur sphere of radius 10 cm and relative permittivity 3.4 is charged

uniformly throughout its volume to a charge density of 10 5 C m 3 . What
is the electric field at a point 5 cm from the centre?

Solution: Question 2.

Gauss’ law says that for any charge at a point greater than 0:05 m from
the centre does not contribute to the electric field within a sphere of radius
0:05 m. Since the charge is uniformly distributed, the field is the same as
if the charge were concentrated at the centre.
Or using the actual law:
I
4
""0 E dA D  .0:05/3 . D charge density/
I 3
dA D 4.0:05/2
5
10 0:05 5  10 7
E D D 12
30 3  3:4  8:85  10
3 1
D 5:54  10 V m

The numerical value of the radius of the sphere, (10 cm) is not used
explicitly in the problem except as an indicator that the point 5 cm from
the centre is inside the sphere.
To understand
I the solution and hence the problem, you need to know
the meaning of .

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135
Electromagnetism: Question 3.

Find the smallest radius of curvature that can be used for the corners of a
conductor charged to 6  105 V, if breakdown is to be avoided when the
dielectric strength of the air is 3  106 V m 1 .

Solution: Question 3.

This question tests your knowledge of the relation between electric field
and electric potential. We are told that the potential of the curved conductor
is 6  105 V and all we have to do is calculate the radius of curvature that
makes this potential produce an electric field of 3  106 V m 1 .

The relevant equations, where Q is the charge on the surface and r is

the radius of curvature of the surface, are:
Q
Electric field D E D
40 r 2
Q
Electric potential D V D
40 r
V
From which W E D
r
6 6  105
) 3  10 D
rcrit
5
6  10
Giving W rcrit D 6
D 2  10 1 m D 20 cm
3  10
This is a plausible size for a conductor (e.g. a Van de Graaff terminal)
carrying 600 kV.

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136
Electromagnetism: Question 4.

An infinite metal plane is maintained at zero potential. A charge X of

128 C is positioned above the plate and another charge Y of 9 C is held
half-way between X and the plate. Show that X is in equilibrium.

Solution: Question 4.

The charge X is in equilibrium if all forces cancel.

The grounded plane cause images of opposite charge to be produced.

X (at 2x from the plane) feels a repulsive force due to Y (a distance x

away) and attractive forces due to the images Y 0 , a distance 3x away and
X 0 , a distance of 4x away.

The total force on X , FX , is given by:

 
1 128  9 128  9 128  128
FX D
40 x2 9x 2 16x 2
 
1 128  9 128 128  8
D
40 x2 x2 x2
D 0

So X is in equilibrium.

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137
Electromagnetism: Question 5.

A round straight copper wire of radius 1 mm carries a steady current of 1 A.

Calculate and sketch the resulting magnetic field both inside and outside
the wire as a function of distance r from the centre of the wire.

Solution: Question 5.

Ampere’s loop integral relates the magnetic field to the electric current, I,
enclosed by the loop: I
B
dl D I

We may safely assume that the current is uniformly distributed across

the transverse area of the wire. Therefore, inside the wire where r < 1 mm,
the amount of current enclosed by the loop is proportional to the cross
sectional area of the wire enclosed, i.e.
 
r2
Ienclosed D I
.R D 1 mm/2

Therefore:
I I  
r2
B
dl D B dl D B  .2 r/ D 0 I
R2
0 I r
) B D
2R2
The 0 makes the units right.

So the magnetic field increases linearly to reach its maximum value at

r D R D 1 mm and then falls like 1=r outside the wire. We are given
values for the current and radius of the wire so we need to insert them to
get the maximum value.

0 I 4  10 7  1 4
B D D D 2  10 T
2R 2  10 3
In old money, this is a field of 2 Gauss.

Outside the wire, the current enclosed does not change with radius,
staying at the maximum value of 1 A. But the loop integral of circular
138
length increases in proportion to the radius r.> R/.

So now:
I I
B
dl D B dl D B  .2 r/ D 0 I
0 I
) B D
2 r
And not forgetting the sketch (easily done):

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139
Electromagnetism: Question 6.

A ferromagnetic bar of length 0.75 m with relative permeability of 1000

is bent into a C shape leaving a 2 mm parallel gap between the bar ends.
A coil with 2500 turns is wound on the bar and carries a current of 0.2 A.
What is the magnetic field in the gap?

Solution: Question 6.

The reluctances of the bent ferromagnetic bar (RF ), of the air gap (RA )
and of the total circuit (RT ) are respectively:
LF
RF D
0 A
LA
RA D
0 A
LF LA LF = C LA
RT D C D
0 A 0 A 0 A
The total magnetic flux is given by the Amp-turns divided by the total
reluctance and the magnetic field B is the flux per unit area:
2500  0:2  0 A
Flux D
LF = C LA
Flux 2500  0:2  0
B D D
A LF = C LA
500  4  10 7
D
0:75  10 3 C 2  10 3

500  4  10 4
D
2:75
D 0:228 T

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140
Electromagnetism: Question 7.

A small paramagnetic particle of volume 1 mm3 is situated within a

magnetic field of 2 T, with a field gradient of 500 T m 1 in the direction
of the field. If the susceptibility .0 M=B/ is 2:5  10 4 , estimate the
magnetic force on the particle.

Solution: Question 7.

This question is a simple test of whether you remember the relevant

equation and can correctly substitute the given numbers and multiply them
together.

The relevant equation is:

Force = (susceptibility)(volume)(gradient (H  H /2))

Let us say that the field is in the x-direction, then:

 
0 M @.H 2 =2/
Fx D V 
B @x
 
0 M @H
D V H
B @x
4 9
D 2:5  10  10  2  500
10
D 2  10 N

One might wonder why the word ‘estimate’ was used in the question
instead of calculate. The field gradient is very large and the diameter of
the particle is 1.24 mm. Therefore the field changes by 0.6 T from one
edge of the particle to the other and an accurate calculation would require
an integral. By taking the central values, an estimate is obtained.

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141
Electromagnetism: Question 8.

A black box has three terminals A, B and C on the outside. Resistance

measurements between pairs of terminals AB, BC and CA give readings
of 100, 200 and 200  respectively. Sketch one possible resistor network
consistent with these observations, giving numerical values of the resistors.

Solution: Question 8.

Although I present it here, I am not happy with this question, which I

didn’t set, because it overly rewards students whose brains are wired in
one way and severely penalises those whose brains are wired differently,
and where neither wirings indicate the quality of the physicist. Answering
the question does not have a lot to do with physics, whereas luck does. I
am including this to show that life can be unfair. If you paid your fees and
were set a question like this, I would ask for some of my money back, if I
were you.

The diagram here shows two possible wirings that I could think of. The
values of the unknown resistors are ˛, ˇ and  in case 1, and a, b and
c  in case 2.
142
 Firstly, I write down the equations for case 1 and solve them).

aCb D 100 D AB (1)

bCc D 200 D BC (2)
aCc D 200 D AC (3)
From AC BC a b D 0
From AB C AC BC 2a D 100
) a D 50
From AC a c D 150
From BC c b D 50

Now the equations for case 2).

1 1
C D 100 D AB
˛ ˇC
1 1
C D 200 D BC
ˇ ˛C
1 1
C D 200 D AC
˛Cˇ

I won’t bother solving this set.

But I would like to think that whoever set this kind of question would
award full marks for case 1 as presented here. But I have a suspicion that
there is more lurking beneath the surface. The two configurations I have
drawn here represent two classic cases of network equivalence. With the
right choice of resistor values, namely those which are the solutions to the
above equations, there is no means to distinguish by external
measurements, which of the two circuits is inside the box. In network
analysis, they are called the star or Y network and the Delta network. The
names are obvious. There exists a transformation between the two sets of
values a; b; c and ˛; ˇ; . The transformation is not linear, i.e. there is no
matrix of transformation nor its inverse.
143
 I will just quote one of the transformation equations, from which the
other two can easily be deduced:

ab C bc C ca
˛ D D 116:6P 
c
So for completeness, ˇ D D 350 .

It is customary these days in Manchester physics exams and probably

elsewhere, to indicate how the marks are distributed throughout the parts
of the question, so it would be difficult for a network addict examiner to
get it past the committee and to give significant reward to someone who
showed (s)he was a fellow addict as opposed to a student who just correctly
identified and solved the Y network, as asked by the question.

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144
Electromagnetism: Question 9.

A 10 F capacitor is charged up to a voltage V and then discharged through

a 5 cm length of constantan wire of diameter 0.05 mm. What is the
maximum value of V that will not cause the wire to fuse?

Assume that the electrical time constant is so short that heat losses may
safely be neglected.
1 1
Specific heat of constantan = 420 J kg K
Density of constantan = 8880 kg m 3
Melting point of constantan = 1560 K

Solution: Question 9.

We first calculate how much heat energy, H; is needed to bring the

constantan wire from room temperature to its melting point. Room
temperature isn’t mentioned in the question but there is no harm in
subtracting 20ı C D 293ı K from the required temperature interval. The
examiner will probably expect you to do so and knock a mark off if you
don’t.
H D msT
D   0:0000252  0:05  8880  420  1267
D 0:4639 J
1
Then this energy is equated to C V 2 from which V can be calculated.
2
1
C V 2 D 0:4639
2
2  0:4639
V2 D D 112780
10  10 6
) V D 305 V
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145
Electromagnetism: Question 10.

A coil is fabricated into a toroid by winding a length of wire uniformly

round a non-magnetic insulating thin ring. A 10 F capacitor charged to
400 V is discharged through the coil. Find the peak value of the magnetic
field, given that the volume enclosed by the coil is 100 cm3 . Assume that
the resistance of the coil is negligible.

Solution: Question 10.

I deliberately edited this question which originally said that ‘the coil is
made’ to read ‘the coil is fabricated’. The simple reason is that all the
electro-magnet engineers I ever met, even the ones who fabricated our 5 m
diameter, 5 m long superconducting coil for the H1 project, referred to
their actions as ‘fabricate’. They never, ever ‘made’ anything.

When the capacitor is connected to the coil, the stored energy in the
capacitor starts to flow into the coil. Current flows. Since there is no
resistance, there is no energy dissipation and the whole energy oscillates
back and forth between the coil and capacitor with frequency !, where
1
!D p . The maximum magnetic field occurs when all the energy is
LC
in the coil. So to solve this problem numerically, we need to work out the
energy in the capacitor, equate this to the energy in the coil which itself
can be expressed in terms of B. Then we can calculate B.
1
The energy in the capacitor is given by U D CV 2
2
1 .vol/B 2
The energy in the coil is given by U D .
2 0
So:
1 .vol/B 2 1
D CV 2
2 0 2
2 0 C V 2
B D
.vol/
p 
p
7 5
0 C V 4  10  10  400
B D p D p
.vol/ 0:1
D 0:045 T

146
Electromagnetism: Question 11.

A long solenoid is wound with 10,000 turns per metre and then bent to
form a toroidal coil, enclosing an air volume of 50 cm3 .

What is its self-inductance?

Solution: Question 11.

The self-inductance is given by:

N ˚B
L D
i
where here N D 10; 000  2 r and r is the radius at the centre of the
coil. The magnetic flux ˚B is in turn given by:
0 N iA
˚B D BA D
2 r
Where now, A D .50=2 r/ cm2 and i is the current in the coil.

Thus:
0 N 2 A
L D
2 r
7
4  10 .10; 000  2 r/2  50  10 6
D
2 r  2 r
D 4  10  10  50  10 6
7 8

D 6:286 mH

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147
Electromagnetism: Question 12.

In the circuit shown here, the three ammeters show the same values for the
rms current.

Calculate the values of L and C if the supply frequency is 50 Hz.

Solution: Question 12.

This is an elementary question to test if you know how the impedance of

reactive components depends on frequency.

First we need to calculate the (rms) current through the resistor:

V D IR
I D V =R D V =1000

And this can be equated to the rms current through the capacitor:
ˇ 1 ˇ
ˇ ˇ
V D IZC D I ˇ ˇ
j!C
V
I D V !C D
1000
1 1
C D D
1000! 1000  2  50
D 0:32 F

148
 There is an analogous calculation for the inductance:
ˇ ˇ
V D IZL D I ˇj!Lˇ
V V
I D D
!L 1000
1000 1000
L D D
! 2  50
D 3:18 H

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149
Electromagnetism: Question 13.

A 75 W non-inductive light bulb is designed to run from an AC supply of

120 V rms at 50 Hz. The only power supply available has 240 V rms, but
the bulb can be run at the correct power by placing either a resistance R, or
a capacitor C in series with it. Find the values of R and C and the power
drawn from the 240 V supply in each case.

Solution: Question 13.

It is probable that full marks can be obtained on this question by giving

brief snappy answers, provided the assumptions are clearly stated, such as
- no power dissipation in capacitors - but I shall give the full story here,
as an additional learning aid. Whenever capacitors (and inductances) are
involved in electric circuit with an AC power supply, you are likely to need
complex arithmetic sooner or later. Here is a good chance to show that you
have it at your fingertips.

The three situations are sketched in the figures a), b) and c) below. The
three currents in the three circuits are Ia ; Ib and Ic respectively. In the first
two resistive circuits, Ia and Ib are real, whereas Ic is complex. RL is the
resistance of the lamp. R and C are the added resistor and capacitor whose
values we wish to calculate.

150
 First let us find the relevant parameters for circuit a):
V2
D 75 W
RL
1202
D 75
RL
1202
RL D D 192 ˝
75
V 120
) Ia D D D 0:625 A
RL 192

Now for case b):

In order to get the same power dissipation in the lamp, the current
through it must be Ib D Ia D 0:625 A.

V D Ib .R C 192/ D 0:625.R C 192/

V
) R D 192
0:625
240
D 192 D 384 192 D 192 ˝
0:625
The value of the required resistor is the same as the resistance of the
lamp. Therefore the power dissipation in the additional resistor is the same
as the power of the lamp, i.e. 75 W and thus the total power of the system
is 150 W.

Finally, case c):

In this circuit only the real part of the complex current will dissipate
power and all of this power is shed in the resistor. The current through the
capacitor is 90ı out of phase with the applied voltage and so the energy in
the capacitor oscillates back and forth between the capacitor and the power
source.

We can therefore deduce that the total power dissipation of this circuit
is 75 W. In addition, we can declare that the real part of the complex
current must be 0.625 A.

151
 1
The impedance of the circuit is: Z D C 192 ˝
j!C
And the complex current is thus: IZ D 0:625 C jIC where IC is the
modulus of the imaginary part of the current.

Thus:

V D IZ Z
 
1
i:e: 240 D .0:625 C jIC / C 192
j!C
0:625 IC
240 D 0:625  192 C C C jIC  192
j!C !C
Equating real and imaginary parts W
IC
240 D 120 C (1)
250C
0:625
0 D 192IC (2)
250C
From equation .2/ W
0:625
IC D
250C  192
Substituting back in equation.1/ W
0:625
240 120 D 120 D
.250/2  C 2  192

And it is easily found from this:

1
C2 D
.250/2  1922
!
C D 16:6 F

The first time I encountered a question of this nature, albeit presented

differently with different input parameters, I failed to get the answer given
by the question setter, even after trying three different ways. Eventually,
I could understand the given (wrong) answer if I reluctantly entered the
falsehood 1=j 2 D 1. Theorists can sometimes disappoint.

At the end of World War II, a large number of 120V radios, left behind
in Europe by US servicemen, found their way onto the 2nd hand market.
152
They were sold with a ‘dropper lead’, which allowed them to be operated
from a 240V supply. The lead became warm in operation, for reasons that
this question provides an answer. A capacitative lead would not have got
warm, although large electrolytic device would have been prone to failure,
for reasons I leave the reader to find out.

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153
Electromagnetism: Question 14.

An alternating electric field is applied across a conducting medium with

relative permittivity 5. If the magnitude of the conduction current and
the displacement current are measured to be equal at 109 Hz, what is the
conductivity of the medium?

Solution: Question 14.

Usually, questions about the displacement current involve capacitors, but

here it is a conducting medium. The equations to learn are:

d˚ d A dV
iD D  D  EA D 
dt dt L dt
In the case of a capacitor, you would use Q D V C whereas here, for a
conductor, you use V D IR.

Let the conducting medium have resistance R, length L, cross sectional

area A, resistivity  and conductivity  .

Then the displacement current is given by:

d˚ d A dV
iD D  D  EA D 
dt dt L dt
The conduction current is simply:

V
iC D
R
L 1L A
But, R D  D , so iC becomes iC D V .
A A L
dV
If we put V D V0 sin !t , then D V0 ! cos !t .
dt
A A
So the magnitude of iD is  V0 ! and the magnitude of iC is V0 .
L L
These are equal so we have:

A A
V0 D  V0 !
L L
154
 Hence:

 D !
12
D 5  8:854  10  2  109
1 1
D 0:278  m

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155
Electromagnetism: Question 15.

An air-spaced parallel plate capacitor with a plate separation of 20 m and

a capacitance of 45 pF has a mica film . D 5/ placed between the plates.
If the capacitance increases to 50 pF when the mica film is inserted, what
is the thickness of the film?

Solution: Question 15.

This is a simple question and it just tests your ability to recognise that
the capacitor with the dielectric inserted is equivalent to two capacitors in
series and then that you know how to combine capacitors in series:
1 1 1
D C
C C1 C2
It doesn’t matter where the mica film is placed, so for ease of
calculation, let’s put it against one of the plates and then there are just
two capacitors to combine and not three. The resulting new capacitor can
be regarded as two capacitors in series, one with an air gap of thickness
.20 d / m and capacitance Cair and one with a mica gap of thickness
d m and capacitance Cmica .

The combined capacitance C is given by:

1 1 1
D C
C Cair Cmica
The simplest way is just to scale the capacitances from the original air
gap capacitance of 45 pF which is proportional to 1/gap and .

156
 So now:
.45  20/
Cair D pF
.20 d /
.  45  20/ .5  45  20/
Cmica D pF D pF
d d
Then:
1 1 20 d d
D D C
C 50 45  20 5  45  20
100 5d d 100 4d
D C D
5  45  20 5  45  20 5  45  20

Solving for d :
5000 200d D 4500
200d D 500 m
d D 2:5 m
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157
Electromagnetism: Question 16.

Define the term ‘electric dipole moment’. Calculate the electric dipole
moment for a neutral hydrogen atom of diameter 0.15 nm in an electric
field of 1 V m 1 , by considering the electron cloud as a uniform sphere of
negative charge, and the nucleus to be displaced relative to the centre of
this sphere by the action of the field.

Solution: Question 16.

A dipole is a system of two equal and opposite charges separated by a

distance. The product of the magnitude of the charge and the distance
between the two is known as the electric dipole moment. It is a vector and
points in the direction from the negative charge to the positive charge. We
don’t need to worry about the direction here.

A hydrogen atom in its ground state does not normally have an electric
dipole moment because the electron wave function is spherically
symmetric and hence there is no effective separation between the electron
and the proton charge. Actually, at any one instant, the point electron is
somewhere and there is a small dipole moment. In an electric field, the
two opposite charges of the electron and proton are pulled apart.

If the electron cloud is considered as a sphere of uniform charge, or

even as a uniform sphere of charge, then it can be considered equivalent to
the same charge acting as a point charge at the centre of that sphere.

The field of 1 V m 1 acting across the diameter of the hydrogen atom

gives an increase of energy of ıV D 1  r D r eV, where r is the
radius of the hydrogen atom (Bohr radius a0 ). This increase in potential
energy comes from an increased separation of the electron and proton by a
distance ır. The potential of the ground state is given by:

1 e2 19
V D D 13:6  1:6  10 J
40 r

Differentiating:

dV 1 e2 13:6  1:6  10 19
D 2
D
dr 40 r r
158
 Then:
19
dV 13:6  1:6  10
ıV D ır D ır
dr r
Substituting for ıV :

r2
ır D 19
13:6  1:6  10
And so the electric dipole moment is:

er 2
p D e  ır D 19
13:6  1:6  10
Inserting the values:

1:6  10 19  0:152  10 18
20
p D D 1:4  10 Cm
13:6  1:6  10 19

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159
Electromagnetism: Question 17.

Droplets of water of diameter 2 mm fall from a nozzle into a hollow metal

electrically insulated sphere of radius 6 cm slowly filling it up. When the
sphere is full of water it has a potential of 30 kV. What is the potential of
the nozzle?

Solution: Question 17.

The equation needed here is the capacity of a sphere of radius R which is

given by:
C D 40 R

plus of course the simple formula for the charge on a capacitor Q D V C .

Without these simple equations, this question, or others like it, cannot be
answered.

The number of droplets needed to fill the sphere is given by:

 3  3
rsphere 6:0
nD D D 216000
rdrop 0:1

Now:

Qsphere
V D 30  103 D
40 R

Therefore:

Qsphere D 3  104  40 R .D 0:2  10 6 /

So the charge on a single droplet is:

Qsphere
qdrop D
216000
3  104  40 R 3  40 R
D D
216000 21:6
13
.D 9:272  10 C/

160
 and assuming that the potential of the drops is the same as the potential
of the nozzle, then:
qdrop
Vnozzle D
40  10 3
3  40 R
D
40  10 3  21:6
3  103  40 R
D
40  21:6
3  103  6  10 2
D
21:6
D 8:33 V

During the working, I put an interim value inside brackets because it

was not really needed as such. Some of you will like to work things out,
inserting numbers as you go along and it isn’t obvious to all of us at the
start, that the 40 was going to cancel before the end.

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161
Electromagnetism: Question 18.

A voltage divider consists of resistors R1 and R2, input terminals AC and

output terminals BC.

a) What resistance would the circuit present to a voltage generator

connected across AC?

b) What source resistance would the divider circuit present to another

circuit connected across BC, when the divider circuit is used to drive the
second circuit?

Solution: Question 18.

a) If the generator, with zero source resistance, has output voltage e, the
current flowing will be:

e
I D
R1 C R2
So W
Zin D e=I D R1 C R2

162
 b) Because the voltage across AC is fixed, then to a circuit connected
across BC, the point A is effectively a ground. Therefore, R1 and R2 will
appear to be in parallel.

Then:
V
I D   1
1 1
C
R1 R2
And:
  1
1 1
Zout D C
R1 R2

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163
Electromagnetism: Question 19.

A long bar magnet is bent into the shape of a closed circular loop. If the
intensity of magnetisation in M, find the magnetic field H and the induction
B:

a) inside the material of the magnet, and

b) just outside.

You may ignore any end effects at the join.

Solution: Question 19.

In general, integrating around a loop enclosing a current I:

I
H
dl D I

There are no currents here, so:

I
H
dl D 0

It does not matter from where the integral is started, therefore by

rotational symmetry, H D 0 everywhere.

Inside the magnet, B D 0 .H C M/ D 0 M.

Outside the magnet, where there is no magnetisation, B D 0.

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164
8: Errors and Statistics

Errors and Statistics: Question 1.

A surveyor measures the angle of the elevation of a mountain top from

the horizontal to be 22:2 ˙ 0:1ı and the direct distance to the top of the
mountain to be 1536 ˙ 3 m. Calculate the vertical height of the mountain
above the surveyor, and the error in that height.

Solution: Question 1.

Let the vertical height be v.

v
D sin 22:2ı
1536
v D 1536  sin 22:2ı
D x1 x2

Propagating the errors5 :

" 2  2 #
@v @v

v 2 D
x1 C
x2
@x1 @x2
D x22
x12 C x12
x22

x2 D sin  , so
x2 D cos 


 2
2 2 2 0:1  
2 2 ı

v D sin 22:2  3 C 1536  cos 22:2 
180
D 7:48
)
v D 2:73 m

N OTES

5
You must learn this equation
165
Errors and Statistics: Question 2.

Two students each independently measure the electronic charge to mass

ratio to be .1:757˙0:004/1011 C kg 1 and .1:760˙0:004/1011 C g 1
whilst a third student measures the electronic charge to be .1:603˙0:002/
10 19 C. Use these data to obtain the best estimate for the value of the mass
of the electron and the standard deviation.

Solution: Question 2.

To keep track, call the first measurement of e=m, x1 , the second one x2
and the measurement of e, x3 . The measurement of e can be divided by
the two measurements of e=m to obtain two estimates of m.

The electronic mass is then given by the straight average of the two
estimates. The errors on the two e=m measurements are the same, so no
weighted average is needed:
 
1 x3 x3
m D C
2 x1 x2
 
1 1:603 1:603
D C  10 30 kg
2 1:757 1:760
D 0:91157  10 30 kg
(until we get the size of the actual error, we keep an extra significant
figure.)

The error is propagated in the usual way:

" 2  2  2 #
@m @m @m

m2 D
x1 C
x2 C
x3
@x1 @x2 @x3
" 2  2   2 #
x3 x3 1 1
D
x1 C
x2 C C
x3
2x12 2x22 2x1 2x2
Putting numbers in:

m
D
10 30
" 2  2   2 # 1/2
10 3 1:603 1:603 1 1
4 C 4 C C 2
2 1:7572 1:7602 1:757 1:760

166
 There is no short cut, although just looking at it and making some
approximations, I could guess that the error in m will be about:
p
. 4  10 3 /  10 30 kg D 0:002  10 30 kg

You might wish to ponder how I guessed that. If you can reliably guess
your answer to within a factor of, say, 2, then say so early on. Most same
examiners will give you almost full credit if make a good guess but fumble
your calculator and make an error of 30 orders of magnitude.

Let us nevertheless now use the calculator:

p
13:77  10 3

m D  10 30 kg D 0:001855  10 30
kg
2
Giving the final answer:
30
m D .0:9116 ˙ 0:0019/  10 kg

In conclusion, this sort of question looks easy but needs care with
differentiation and with the calculator. The guess of the error was
remarkably good – to an accuracy of about 5% and gave supreme
confidence that the final answer is correct.

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167
Errors and Statistics: Question 3.

A statistics lecturer is prepared to wager that at least one pair of the students
in her class have birthdays on the same day of the year. What is the
minimum number of students in her class for which she is likely to win
more often than she loses? You may assume the Poisson formula:
en
pm D n m
mŠ
for the probability of m pairs having their birthday on the same day, where
n is the mean number of such pairs.

Solution: Question 3.

For her to win more often than lose, we need the probability that there are
no pairs having their birthday on the same day to be less than 50%. So we
need to evaluate the value of m for which p0 D 0:5.

The second hurdle is relating the mean number of pairs m to the class
size N .

Birthdays happen only once a year unless you are the Queen, therefore
everybody in the class has one birthday in a year (except those born on the
29th February, who are deemed to have one.)

The number of birthday pairs with a birthday in a whole year is then

just the number of pairs in a class of size N . This is given by:

N.N 1/
n365 D
2
It ought to be obvious why this is the right formula, and even why there
is a factor of 2 in the denominator.

If n365 is the mean number of pairs in a year, then the mean number
per day is just 1=365 of this.

1 N.N 1/
n1  n D
365 2
So now:
e n
p0 D n 0 D e n
D 0:5
0Š
168
 Therefore:
1 .N.N 1/
n D 0:693 D
365 2
N.N 1/ D 506
2
N N 506 D 0
.N C 22/.N 23/ D 0
N D 22 or N D 23

The class size must be positive so N D 23 is the answer.

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169
Errors and Statistics: Question 4.

Very low intensity pulses of light have a mean number of photons/pulse

of 10. So they follow the Poisson distribution. They are detected using
photomultipliers which have a photoelectric efficiency of 25%. What is the
probability of detecting one pulse of light if the photomultiplier is sensitive
to single photo-electrons?

You may assume that the Poisson formula for the probability of m
photons, when the mean is n is

e n
pm D n m
mŠ

Solution: Question 4.

There are, on average, 10 photons, so this means 2.5 photo-electrons.

The probability of not detecting (m D 0) is p0 and so the probability
of detecting one or more is 1 p0 .
2:5
e
Thus p0 D .2:5/0
0Š
2:5
De D 0:082

Therefore, .1 p0 / D 1 0:082 D 0:92 or 92%.

Although the wording of the question might appear daunting at first

sight, especially to a theorist, the evaluation of the answer is rather short.

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170
Errors and Statistics: Question 5.

The strength of a -source needs to be measured with a detector whose

efficiency is 10 4 . Over a 10 minute period, 10000 counts are observed
with the source in place. With the source removed, 4000 background
counts are measured over the same period. Determine the source strength
and the error in Becquerels (disintegrations/sec), assuming that each
disintegration involves the emission of one -ray.

Solution: Question 5.

The strength is determined by correcting the measured count rate, firstly

for background and, secondly, for the efficiency of the detector.

So:
10; 000 4; 000
S D D 105 Bq
600  10 4
If N1 is the number of measured counts, and N2 the number of
background counts, then the error on N where N D N1 N2 is given
by:

 2  2
2 @N @N

N D 
N1 C 
N2 D N1 C N2 D 14; 000
@N1 @N2
.
And then:

N D 118
So the final answer is:

S D .1:00 ˙ 0:02/  105 Bq

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171
Errors and Statistics: Question 6.

A class of physics students contains 69 males and 31 females. One course

is given by a lecturer who admirably involves the students during the lecture
by selecting individuals to answer questions. After he had asked 10 such
questions, it was observed that he had selected 10 males and 0 females.
Calculate the probability that this was the result of random choices.6

Solution: Question 6.
In the case where several successive and independent decisions are made,
each of which has two possible outcomes, the binomial probability
distribution is the appropriate one to use. This question tests your ability
to remember and use it.

If p is the probability of one outcome (e.g. selecting a male), and

q D .1 p/ is the probability of the second outcome (e.g. selecting a
female), then the probability of selecting k males after n decisions is given
by:
P .k/ D n Ck p k .q/.n k/
nŠ
The term n Ck D deals with the number of possible
kŠ.n k/Š
combinations, since in this question, the ordering does not matter. Note
that this formula can be used for considering 2 out of more than 2
outcomes, in which case p C q ¤ 1. Here they do.
We can use the class size and male-female split to obtain best estimates
of p and q i.e. p D 69=100 D 0:69 and q D 31=100 D 0:31. In this
example both n D 10 and k D 10.
Thus:
10
P .X D 10/ D C10  0:6910  0:310 D 0:6910  1 D 0:024

There is a 2.4% chance that the choices were random and independent.
i.e. if 100 lecturers carried out the same exercise, only 2 or 3 would be
expected to experience this extreme case. Put another way, one would
expect a female to be chosen by 97.6 lecturers.

6
This question was provoked by a gentle enquiry from a puzzled female physics
student at Durham University. Using her figures, I devised the question and suggested
that she gave it to the Head of Department, to see if he could come up with the solution.
172
 To gain better experience in using the binomial distribution, it would be
instructive to recalculate for the case that 7 males were chosen as a result
of the 10 decisions, 7 being the expected average number:

P .X D 7/ D 10 C7  0:697  0:313
D 120  0:074464  0:029791 D 0:266

If this were a ‘physics with social science’ option course, a second

half could be added to the question: ‘What steps could the lecturer take to
ensure that he does not become a victim of pure adverse chance?’

The point is that the lecturer has the gift of being able to benignly
influence the outcome, taming statistical fluctuations, which should not be
a test of the binomial theorem but more a demonstration of best teaching
practices. If he ensured that 3 females were chosen after 10 decisions, and
24 after 1000, etc. then no one would notice, or if they did, they might be
pleased with him or even satisfied that the most probable binomial outcome
actually happened. An astute lecturer would not make himself a hostage to
the capricious vicissitudes of the binomial distribution, even if he preferred
to ask only males.7

N OTES

7
I have also realised that my question and answer are hopelessly out of date and should
be expanded to cope with the full numerical span of all gender identifications.
173
9: Applied Nuclear Physics

I gave a course on Applied Nuclear Physics for five years in the physics
department in Manchester. I am not a nuclear physicist, nor a radiologist,
but it was good to learn the subject and I did the best I could in constructing
a course. I am, after all a physicist and nuclear, particle, thermal, atomic
and the rest of the subsections of physics are just that – subsections of
physics. I felt disappointed once, when a geophysicist member of a Royal
Society panel I was the chairman of, declined to assess a fellowship
application with atmospheric physics as the research topic. She said she
was more ‘Earth core’ orientated. I did it myself, being ‘physics’
orientated. I presented this course on Applied Nuclear Physics eventually
with the significant help of those who had delivered the course before me,
namely nuclear physicist John Lilley and particle physicist George Lafferty
to whom I defer with admiration.

I found the subject matter exciting and absorbing and among those
attending my course, I met a lot of interesting and stimulating students,
standard and mature. I will never forget the charming ‘M’, the Director of
a nuclear reactor laboratory in Central America who had been sent to learn
some nuclear physics. He designed an impressive reactor for his course
assignment. We live on a radioactive planet and radiation is a fact of life.
Provided you don’t go looking for it and throwing yourself at it, humans
have a knack of surviving it. Radiation causes genetic mutations and one
can be sure that during the miniscule time that humans have trodden Earth
(compared to the 4.54 billions of years since Earth was born) there have
been many human genetic mutations induced by natural radiation which
have been beneficial to the human physiology. As far as radioactive sources
in the teaching laboratory are concerned, even the weak ones, I advise that
one should not suck them8 and it is always best put them in the lead housing
when not in use.

I set two batches of short questions during the semester and then the
final exam which was taken by 3rd and 4th year BSc, MPhys and MSc
students. Here are some of my questions and answers.

8
I once watched with incredulity as my PhD supervisor absent mindedly sucked a
cobalt-60 source.
174
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 1.

Draw a clearly labelled graph indicating the main features of the

dependence of the average binding energy per nucleon of the stable nuclei
as a function of their mass number.

Solution: Question 1.

The buzz word for questions like this is ‘Book work’. They crop up when
the examiner has run out of ideas. Be ready for them. When drawing a
graph, there are some basic mark-earning rules to follow. Draw a decent
set of axes. Believe it or not, a properly labelled set of axes, with no curve,
will get you marks. Label each axis with its variable and include the units,
if any. Where values are important (such as here) mark them clearly. If
necessary, use labels on the curve to draw attention to any features that
may not be obvious in your sketch. Not everyone has artistic talent; that is
not the issue, what is needed here is clarity9 .

9
You should not go into any nuclear physics exam without this curve, the axes and the
annotations, firmly in your memory.
175
 To get the marks here, you need:

A vertical axis with scale going up to 10, labelled with B=A and the
units MeV/nucleon.

A horizontal axis with scale going up to about 200 or 250, labelled A.

A curve of the right shape with a broad maximum situated at a value of

B=A  8 MeV/nucleon at A  50 ! 60.

Iron marked (some prefer nickel) on the A axis, The level, 8 marked
on the B=A axis.

At least one spike (at helium). To be really smart, it should go up to

about 7.25.

Another spike at carbon would be a bonus.

A little hump at lead would a real bonus, even more so if you labelled
it ‘magic number’. I cannot guarantee that examiners I have met would
award extra marks for a string of (correct) magic numbers. I would.

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176
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 2.

A radioactive source registers 676 counts in one minute on a Geiger

counter at a fixed distance from the source. In a similar experiment,
conducted precisely one year later, 400 counts are registered in one minute.
Calculate the value and error of the inverse lifetime  D  1 , and hence
the value and error of the lifetime .

Solution: Question 2.

t
N D N0 exp D N0 exp t D exp  .t D 1 yr/
   
N0 676
)  D ln D ln f D ln
N 400
The error can be obtained by differentiation:
@ @.ln f / ıf
ı D ıf D ıf D
@f @f f
The error on f comes from the statistical error on both N0 and N .
  "    # 1/2
ıf ıN0 2 ıN 2
D C
f N0 N
Where:
p
N0 D 676 ˙ 676 D 676 ˙ 26
p
N D 400 ˙ 400 D 400 ˙ 20
and substituting these values gives:
ıf
D 0:063
f
and for the inverse lifetime :
 D 0:525 ˙ 0:063 D 0:525 ˙ 12%
The percentage error on t D 1= is the same as the percentage error
on , (a fact you should know and understand) and then:
1
t D  D 1:91 ˙ 12% D 1:91 ˙ 0:23 yr

177
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 3.

In the first lecture of my course, I mentioned measuring the radii of several

nuclei using a beam of 6 GeV photons. Calculate the wavelength of a
6 GeV photon and comment on its suitability for measuring objects with a
size of a few 10 15 m.

Solution: Question 3.

Use the de Broglie equation to convert the momentum p into a wave

number k, and then convert the wave number to wavelength .
1 c
p D hk or p D h or pc D E D h
 
34
9 6:63  10 3  108
So 6  10 D

1:61  10 19 
15
And this leads to:  D 0:2  10 m D 0:2 fm.

Any mark-earning comment should include the remark that this length
is significantly less than typical nuclear radii, and so such s are a useful
nuclear probe. Such a short comment would get full marks from me.

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178
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 4.

Calculate the activity of a 1 mg sample of 238

92 U which has a mean life of
9
6:45  10 years.

Solution: Question 4.

Use the fact that 1 g molecular weight contains NA atoms to calculate the
number of atoms in 1 mg of 238 U.

The activity R is then this number divided by the mean lifetime.

number of decaying nuclei N
Activity D or RD
mean life 
238 g of 238 U has 6:022  1023 nuclei.

6:022  1023
So: 1 mg of 238 U has nuclei.
238  103
6:022  1023 1
Therefore: R D

238  103 6:45  109  3:14  107
The number that looks a bit like  multiplied by 107 is actually the
number of seconds in a year.

Hence the answer is: R = 12.5 Bq = 0.34 nCi.

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179
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 5.

The nuclide 131 I has a half life of 8.04 days. At midday on 5th January
2000, the sample had an activity of 1280 Bq. What was the activity at 6.45
pm on 1st March 2000?

Solution: Question 5.

We need to work out the time elapsed and then how many half lives this is.
Midday on 05.01.2000 to 18:45 on 01.03.2000 is 56 d 6.75 hr (leap year,
did you spot that?) = 56.28 hr = 7 half lives. I would not penalise if the
leap year was not spotted, but I might pluck an extra mark from my bonus
bag for the smarties who did.

So simplistically, using no calculators:

No of 1/2 lives 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
R 1280 640 320 160 80 40 20 10

or the usual way:

1280 1280
RD D D 10
27 128
Sometimes examiners are benignly generous. The activity of 1280 .D
10  27 / was a gift. (Did you spot it?) Although it would depress me
enormously, I have a feeling that there are those who might have used a
calculator for the final step, already having 1280 up in the display, dividing
it by 128 and not noticing if they fumbled an error and did not get 10 for
an answer.

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180
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 6.

A beam of photons with an intensity of 2  104 s 1 is incident on a foil

which presents 1:8  1027 atoms per m2 to the beam. The interaction cross
section is 12 mb. What is the interaction rate?

Solution: Question 6.

The question is extremely simple to answer, provided one remembers the

equation which expresses the interaction rate as a product of beam flux,
target density and cross section. You also need to know how to convert
millibarns into m2 . We shall denote the beam intensity (flux) by Nbeam ,
the target atom density by Ntarget and the interaction cross section by .

The number of interactions per second is given by10 :

I D Nbeam  Ntarget  
" " "
1 2
s m m2
D 2  104  1:8  1027  12  10 3
 10 28
s 1

1
D 43:2 s

N OTES

10
This is yet another equation you should memorise.
181
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 7.

What are the mechanisms by which a -ray with an energy of 1:0 MeV can
interact with matter?

Solution: Question 7.

This is standard book-work and all you have to do in the way of thinking is
to decide what is special about 1.0 MeV with respect to the various possible
processes.

So you should discuss the photo-electric (P.E.) effect and Compton

effect as per your notes and textbooks. But you must also say that 1.0 MeV
is below the threshold for pair production which needs an energy of at least
2  0:511 D 1:022 MeV. Mention that Compton dominates at 1.0 MeV
and even better, sketch graphs of the P.E. and Compton cross sections as a
function of energy.

The curves I have sketched here show that on matter with light nuclei
(such as carbon) the Compton process is the only one that counts; the cross
section for the photo-electric effect has become insignificant. On lead
however, the photo-electric effect is still significant. The curve marked
P.P. is pair production which has not yet started. The lower dashed curve
is for pair production off orbital electrons where the solid curve is off the
nuclear charge.

182
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 8.

A beam containing protons and electrons, both with an energy of 5 GeV,

passes through a volume of air, then through a few cm of aerogel and
finally through a vessel of water. Calculate the velocities of the protons
and electrons in units of the velocity of light (i.e. ˇ) and hence deduce
in which of these materials the protons and electrons will emit Ĉerenkov
radiation. Calculate the half-cone angles of the emitted radiation in each
case.

The refractive indices of air, the aerogel and water are 1.0028, 1.050
and 1.33 respectively.

Solution: Question 8.

Some of you may be freaked out by the words aerogel, and wonder where
it cropped up in the course. Cool reading of the question reveals that its
status is on a par with air and water; its refractive index being between
the other two. Therefore ignore the name and concentrate on the refractive
index.

Use the equations from special relativity to work out the velocity ˇ
from the particle energy and mass. Then insert these into the Ĉerenkov
pc
equation. ˇ D . (This is a very useful equation to use in your particle
E
or relativity exam questions.)

1
Particles emit Ĉ radiation if ˇ >
n
For protons: E D 5 GeV, m D 0:938 GeV=c 2

m2 c 4 / /2 D 24:12 /2 .
1 1
Thence: pc D .E 2

ˇ D pc=E D 0:9822

For electrons: E D 5 GeV and m D 0:511  103 GeV=c 2

2:6107 / /2 D 4:999999974
1
So: pc D .25

183
 and ˇ D pc=E D 0:999999994.

It’s a good idea to make up a little table of the requisite numbers, like
the one below.
1
Applying the condition that particles will only emit Ĉ light if ˇ > ,
n
we get the result that protons radiate in the aerogel and water, but not in
air. Electrons radiate in all three media.
11
 1/2 , the half-cone angle, is given by cos and the values which
nˇ
have been calculated using this formula are shown in the table.

n 1=n proton electron

1  1/2
/2
air 1.0028 0.99972 1:35ı
ı
aerogel 1.050 0.95238 14:7 18:2ı
water 1.33 0.752 40ı 41:2ı

N OTES

184
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 9.

A villain tricks James Bond into drinking a glass of vodka martini into
which some ice containing 1 Ci of tritium oxide (3 H2 O) had been mixed
and shaken. The villain informs Bond what he has done and says he
expects him to die. Bond immediately starts drinking large volumes of
champagne and manages to reduce tritium’s physical lifetime of 4,500 days
to an effective biological half life in his body of only 3 days.

Calculate the absorbed dose (Gy) received by Bond, assuming a body

weight of 75 kg. The tritium decay mode is 3 H !3 He C ˇ C N with
Q D 0:0186 MeV.11 . You can assume that on average, the energy released
is shared equally between the three decay products.

Estimate the equivalent dose.

Will Bond die?

Solution: Question 9.

From the initial activity, and the biological lifetime, one can work out
how many tritium nuclei decayed within the body. Multiplying this by the
energy deposition gives the dose and then multiplying by the RBE gives
the effective dose. Then the risk factor can be inserted to get the overall
cancer probability.

The energy deposited per particle is Q=3 D 0:0062 MeV D 6:2 keV.

Activity: R D 1 Ci D 3:7  1010 .

t 1/2 D 0:693 .

R D N= .

Therefore:
3  24  60  60
N D R D 3:7  1010 
0:693
D 1:38  1016
11
No, no, not that Q!
185
 This is the number of nuclei which will decay in Bond’s body.

The energy deposition D 1:38  1016  6:2 keV  2 D 27:6 J. The

factor of 2 is because there is a ˇ and a 3 He, whereas the neutrino does not
deposit any energy. PS, you do know that a ˇ particle is an electron (or
positron) don’t you?
27:6 1
Therefore the dose D J kg D 0:367 Gy.
75
The RBE for one component of this energy deposition (i.e. ˇ ) is RBE
= 1. For the other half (3 He), it is 20. Therefore the equivalent dose =
0:18 C 3:67 D 3:8 Sv. This is a heavy dose and there could be serious
consequences. The risk of developing a cancer is 3:8  5  10 2 D 0:19 D
19%. However, this is a lot less than the near 100% certainty if all the
tritium had remained in the body and decayed there.

Bond might live since he usually defies adverse probabilities. In any

case, he also drank copious amounts of water which reduced the biological
half life even further; the champagne served mainly to keep his spirits up.

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186
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 10.

On average, 0.27% of the mass of the human body is potassium of which

0.012% is radioactive 40 K ( 1/2 D 1:25  109 year). Each decay releases
an average of 0.5 MeV ˇ and radiation which is absorbed by the body.
Calculate the absorbed dose over a lifetime of 80 years from this source.

Solution: Question 10.

The amount of 40 K in the body can be estimated by putting in the isotopic

proportions and an assumed body mass. This number of nuclei and the
given lifetime then allow the activity to be calculated and this would not
change in a human’s lifetime of a ‘few’ years. Then put in the energy
deposition and RBE to get the dose and proceed to evaluate the risk.

First calculate the amount of 40 K in the body for an assumed body mass
of 75 kg:
0:27
D 75   0:012100 kg D 2:410 2 g  3:6  1020 nuclei.
100
Assume that the nuclei are constantly replenished, and so the activity
does not fall with time.

N
RD D 3:6  1020  0:6931:2  109    107 D 6:6  103 s 1

Over a lifetime, there will be 6:6  103  80    107 such decays
D 1:66  1013 .

(  107 is a very good approximation for the number of seconds in a

year and it saves extra numbers).

The corresponding energy deposition D 1:66  1013  0:5  106  1:6 

1019 D 1:33 J.
1:33 1
The dose therefore, is: J kg D 0:0177 Gy  0:0177 Sv
75
(RBE = 1) D 18 mSv.

Although this answers the question, let’s continue for interest. The risk
of a cancer is therefore D 18103 5102 D 0:09% which is significantly
less than the chance of a cancer from all sources in a lifetime, which is over
30% .
187
 For a population, however, this is about 9 in 10,000 over their lifetimes
or  700 per annum in a population of 60 million (UK). There is not
much to be done about this naturally occurring substance; we live on
a radioactive planet. As far as a species is concerned, adverse genetic
mutuations tend to be self extinguishing whereas beneficial ones improve
the species.

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188
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 11.

The world population of ca 7 billion receives an average annual dose of

2400 Sv per person from background radiation. Estimate the incidence
of cancer per year from this source of radiation and compare this with the
actual cancer incidence of 1 in 3 per person per lifetime.

Solution: Question 11.

This is just like question 9 except it’s a whole body and whole lifetime
exposure and therefore you just need to put all the factors in.

The annual dose of 2:4 mSv corresponds to a cancer death risk of:
5 2:4 5 1
  D 12  10 i.e
100 1000 8000
Then multiply by the population of the world, 7  109 and this leads to
8:8  105 deaths per year in the world.

If we take a value of 67 for the average life expectancy in the world,

this gives  60 million deaths over 67 years.

6  107 3 1
Therefore the chance is D 9  10 D . This is
7  109 200
considerably less than the 1 in 3 chance of death by cancer from all causes.
So we should not fret too much about background radiation except to avoid
unnecessary additions to the base level which is unavoidably received.

There are some approximations in this calculation. The lifetime

distribution of a population rarely has a single peak; infant and child
mortality skews this calculation. The average life expectancy at birth in
Medieval Britain was only 30 years, skewed by the fact that two thirds of
all children died before they reached four. But age 21, the expectancy was
for an additional 43 years, making a total of 64. The current world average
is 67.2 years; 67 was used in this calculation.

189
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 12.

In an effort to make him talk, a villain taped a 1 cm2 thin film of radium
to James Bond’s anatomy. The radium emits ˛ particles with an energy of
4:87 MeV. The source strength was 1 Ci. If the radium was in contact
with skin for 1 hour, estimate the equivalent dose absorbed by the skin.
Comment on the likely risk, supporting your arguments with quantitative
comparisons. The range of these ˛ particles in tissue is 3:7 mg cm 2 .

Solution: Question 12.

The ˛s don’t penetrate far, so the amount of skin irradiated is easy to

calculate from the surface area of the source and the skin depth. Then
put in the energy deposited and the RBE and this gives the risk to the skin.

We shall convert the activity in Ci to Bq, multiply by particle energy

and estimate the mass of tissue to find the dose.

The source is a thin film so all the ˛s can be assumed to escape. 50%
go inwards into the skin, 50% go outwards into the clothing or air.

Thus 1 Ci D 3:7  1010  10 6

Bq and in 1 hr, this means 6:7  107
˛s enter the skin.

The energy deposition is 6:7  107  4:87  106  1:610 19

J D
5:22  10 5 J. This is deposited in  3:7 mg of tissue.

5:22  10 5 3 1
So the dose is D 1:4  10 J kg D 14 mGy.
3:7  10 3
These ˛s have an RBE of 20 and this means that the equivalent dose is
14  20 D 280 mSv which is not particularly nice. A skin dose of 1 Gy
can cause temporary hair loss. A whole body dose of 1 Gy is usually fatal
within a fortnight. There is a significant chance of giving Bond a local skin
cancer or even atrophy of the skin in the short term.

Bond was fortunate that the villain was scientifically illiterate and when
he saw the canister marked 1 muCi and phoned his scientific friend who
was supposed to know, he failed to pronounce the “u” and was told it was
a potentially lethal source, 1000 times stronger than it actually was.

190
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 13.

The absorption length for photons with an energy of 0.511 MeV is

10 g cm 2 for most materials. A positron annihilates with an electron in
the centre of a patient’s head, undergoing a PET scan. The s emerge
antiparallel. Assuming the head to be a 25 cm diameter cylinder of water,
calculate the probability that both s from the annihilation reach the
detectors.

Solution: Question 13.

Sometimes, questions may require knowledge of parameters or terms not

given or defined in the question. The intention that you should also learn
something new from answering the question is not as Kafka-esque as it
sounds.

This is just an exercise in the use of the mass attenuation coefficient.

Put the distance to be traveled (in units of g cm 2 ) and the attenuation
length (same units) into the exponential and calculate the fraction getting
out. Then square this fraction (probability of observing one) to get the
probability of observing both.

A ‘schematic’ diagram of
the annihilation of a positron
with an orbital brain electron
inside a human head, which
for simplicity of graphic
presentation, has been
approximated to a cylinder.

191
 25 cm diameter of water presents a thickness t of 12:5 g cm 2 at the
centre of the head. We take the absorption coefficient to be 10 g cm2 .
(Absorption coefficients for most materials are ' 20 g cm2 at E '
1 MeV and are about half this at E ' 0:5 MeV:
t
I D I0 exp 

I have modeled the head cylinder here on a nuclear physicist with

whom I was once collegiate. In his case, the positron does not annihilate in
the centre of his head because he would have wanted to add complications.

Therefore:
I t 12:5
 1:25
D exp D exp 10 D exp D 0:2865 D 28:65%
I0
This is the probability for one to escape the head. The probability for
both to escape (which is what the device needs to work), is:

0:28652 D 8:2  10 2
D 8:2%

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192
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 14.

Explain why electrons tend to align with their spins opposite (anti-parallel)
to the direction of an applied magnetic field but protons align with their
spins parallel to direction of the field.

Solution: Question 14.

The only thing to be careful of here is to keep track of the minus signs and
therein lies the answer to this question.

The first thing to note is that the additional energy U , when a particle
with magnetic moment  is situated in magnetic field B, is given by:

U D 
B

This equation says that the lowest energy state will be attained if the
magnetic moment vector  and the magnetic field vector B align parallel
(to the extent that they can be parallel in quantum mechanics).

The magnetic moment vector of a particle is proportional to its spin

vector. The constant of proportionality for leptons is the Bohr magneton
multiplied by 2 and also multiplied by ˙ depending on whether the charge
is Cve or ve. The factor 2 is because intrinsic particle spin does not
behave like orbital angular momentum when producing magnetic fields.
So one unit of orbital angular momentum produces one Bohr magneton
193
and a half unit of spin also produces a Bohr magneton.

e„
For electrons: B D
2me
e„
For protons: N D
2mp

Here the elementary charge, e D 1:602  10 19 C. There is an

additional factor for the proton due to its intrinsic (quark-gluon) structure
that the nuclear magneton needs multiplying by a further 2.793 to get the
measured value.

So the magnetic moment vector of the negatively charged electron

points in the opposite direction to its spin vector because the electron has
negative charge. Conversely, the proton’s magnetic moment vector points
in the same direction to its spin because the proton has positive charge.

We are essentially there with the answer and the figure shows the full
story. The electron magnetic moment aligns with p the field such that the
projection of its spin vector (which has magnitude s.s C 1/ where s D
1/ ) has value 1/ . But its spin vector is opposite to the magnetic moment
2 2
vector on account of the electron’s negative charge. So an electron in a
magnetic field ‘tends’ to have its spin vector anti-parallel to the magnetic
field. One could quibble about the phrase in the question ‘tend to align’.
The spin vector actually precesses around the magnetic field direction,
as first worked out by Joseph Larmor who can be seen in a photograph
taken the Physics Department in Manchester in 1903 along with Ludwig
Boltzmann (see the picture in Question 2 in the ‘Thermal Physics’ section).

The proton has positive charge, its magnetic moment vector is in the
same direction as its spin vector and so it ‘tends to align’ (i.e. precesses)
with its magnetic moment vector, and hence its spin, in the direction of the
magnetic field.

Joseph Larmor gets little credit these days for a conclusion he made
in the pre-Einstein days of 1897. In fact many contributors have perished
as if they had never been in the tidal wave of ‘Einstein did everything’.
J J Thompson, a physics student in Manchester before he went on to
electron fame, managed E D 3/4 mc 2 and would have scooped massively
if he had persevered. Joseph Larmor came to certain conclusions about
194
electrons in a paper he published when Einstein was a mere 18 years old:
‘A Dynamical Theory of the Electric and Luminiferous Medium:

‘ . . . individual electrons describe corresponding

p parts of their orbits in
times shorter for the [rest] system in the ratio .1 v 2 =c 2 / ’

Where have we read that before?

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195
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 15.

A quantity of liquid hydrogen is placed in a magnetic field of 1 Tesla.

Calculate the magnetic energies of the two spin alignment states and
hence the frequency of the radiation that will induce transitions from the
lower to the higher state.

What is the Larmor precession frequency of the proton spin around the
magnetic field axis?

The magnetic moment of the proton is 2.793 nuclear magnetons and a

nuclear magneton is: N D .e„/=.2mp /.

Solution: Question 15.

Firstly the magnetic energies:

The two magnetic energies are given by 
B corresponding to the

alignment of the proton spin, parallel, or antiparallel to the field direction.
Therefore the two magnetic energy levels corresponding to the two spin
alignments are 2:793N B (parallel) and C2:793N B (anti-parallel).

The frequency, !, of radiation that will induce transitions from the

lower to higher state is given by the relationship:

E D 2  2:793  N B D „!
So first evaluate the proton magnetic moment:
19
2:793  e„ 2:82  1:602  10 „
 D D 27
2mp 2  1:673  10
8 1
D 1:35  10  „ J T
And then:
2B D 2:7  108  „ J D „!
) ! D 2:7  108 rad s 1

! 2:7  108
f D D
2 2
7
D 4:26  10 Hz D 42:6 MHz

196
 Now for the Larmor precession frequency of a single proton due to its
spin:

As far as I am concerned, you don’t need to quote any formulae, but

get full credit for saying that the precession frequency is the same as the
frequency of the radiation that will induce transitions between the two
energy spin orientation states.

Therefore f D 42:6 MHz is the correct answer.

N OTES

197
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 16.

Calculate the Q values of the following processes:

2
H C 2 H ! 4 He C
2
H C 2 H ! 3 He C n
2
H C 2H ! 3H C p
2
H C 3 H ! 4 He C n

Atomic masses in amu are:

2
H: 2.014102
3
H: 3.016049
3
He: 3.016029
4
He: 4.002603.

Nucleon masses in amu are:

n: 1.0086649
p: 1.007276.
1 amu = 931:494 MeV2

Solution: Question 16.

The physics of this question hangs in the background. All you need to
know is the definition of Q and how to add and subtract a few numbers.
The energy implications of the four solutions are physically interesting.

The results are best presented in a simple table. Presentation is all

important in exam answers. You don’t help yourself if you obscure a result
within a scribble of crossings out. If you make a mistake, strike the wrong
bits out firmly with a single cross. There is no need to make it look as if
Jackson Pollock had used your sheet as a canvas. No examiner has time to
read through what is under a crossing out and have a laugh at your expense.
198
2
H C 2 H ! 4 He C
Q D .2:014102  2 4:002603/  931:494 MeV
D 23:8 MeV

2
H C 2 H ! 3 He C n
Q D .2:014102  2 3:016029 1:0086649/  931:494 MeV
D 3:27 MeV

2
H C 2H ! 3H C p
Q D .2:014102  2 3:016049 1:007276/  931:494 MeV
D 4:54 MeV

2
H C 3 H ! 4 He C n
Q D .2:014102 C 3:016029 4:002603 1:0086649/  931:494 MeV
D 17:6 MeV

N OTES

199
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 17.

A scientist offers to date the Turin shroud with his 14 C detection kit, which
has a sensitivity of 109 C atoms. If he wishes to date the shroud within
a window of 1000 to 2000 years ago, what is the minimum amount of
material he needs to sacrifice? Assume that 1 g of cloth contains 0.5 g of
carbon. The half life of 14 C is 5730 years. The ratio of 14 C to 12 C in the
atmosphere can be assumed to have been unchanged for thousands of years
at a value of 1:3  10 12 .

Solution: Question 17.

One of man’s worst and most despicable contribution to science was the
testing of nuclear weapons, predominantly in the 1950s and 1960s, but not
yet extirpated. The primordial balance between 14 C to 12 C was wrecked,
rendering future carbon dating exceedingly difficult, if not impossible. In
centuries and millennia to come, if humans survive, they will regard this
crime much as we regard slavery: heinous but still not eradicated.

Instead of converting the half-life to a mean life and using exponentials,

let us give a formula a rare outing. The number of 14 C naturally present in
the vegetation used to make the cloth started decaying when the vegetation
was cropped with a half life of t 1/2 D 5730 years. Let the number of
14
C atoms in the minimal sample 2000 years ago be N0 compared to the
number now which is 109 .

Then:
 t=t 1
1 /2
N.t / D N0
2
 2000=5730
1
N.t D 2000 yr/ D 109 D N0
2

Inverting this:

) N0 D 109  22000=5730
D 109  20:349
D 1:2737  109

200
 This corresponds to 1:2737=1:3  1012 atoms of 12 C which weigh:

1:2737  1012
12  g
1:3  6:023  1023
D 1:95  10 10 g of carbon
D 3:9  10 10 g of cloth
D 0:39 ng of cloth

The scientist should be all right with a couple of nanograms.

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201
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 18.

A 50 g piece of charcoal is found in some ruins on the island of Thera

(Santorini). Local archaeology and folklore suggests that the layer dates
from a cataclysmic volcanic eruption about 3,500 years ago. Calculate the
total activity of this sample if the archaeological and hearsay evidence is
correct.

The half life of 14 C is 5730 years. The ratio of the relative abundance
of 14 C to 12 C in the atmosphere can be assumed to have been unchanged
for thousands of years at a value of 1:3  10 12 .

Solution: Question 18.

I went to the island of Thera, aka Santorini, almost by accident. I was

facing an exceedingly hot weekend in Athens and a wise physicist ordered
me to hop on a ferry to the island. I did what he said, rented a beautifully
bleak studio for 10A C a night and despite an artist’s impression of the island
on a poster at the ferry terminal, the reality stunned me. I am glad I was not
within a thousand miles of the island when the caldera was created. But its
history permits this nuclear physics question to be posed.

When the wood from which the charcoal was produced was severed
from its roots, the ratio of 14 C to 12 C was fixed to be 1:3  10 12 and
from that time, the 14 C in the charcoal started to decay without being
replenished.

The question tests knowledge of two things, apart from arithmetic skill:
how to convert abundance and lifetime into an activity, and how to run the
activity down over a period of time by the appropriate decay law.

Assuming the charcoal is pure carbon, the number of 14 C atoms present

when the charcoal was made, N14 .t D 0/, is given by:

50
N14 .t D 0/ D  6:023  1023  1:3  10 12
12
D 3:262  1012

202
 Therefore:

N14 .t / D 3:262  1012 exp ln 2t=t 1

2

dN14 .t/
The activity is: A D
dt
ln 2
D N14 .t /
t1
2
 
ln 2  3:262  1012 3500
And 3500 yrs ago: D exp ln 2
5730 5730
D 2:6  108 per year
1
D 8:2 s D 8:2 Bq

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203
Applied Nuclear Physics: Question 19.

A recluse farmer and his family live off the land in North West England.
They read no newspapers, watch no TV and listen to the radio (Radio 4)
for 14 minutes a day at 05:45 Mondays to Fridays. Their Jersey cow was
grazing a 4000 m2 paddock in April 1986 when 5000 Bq m 2 of
radioactive iodine-131 from Chernobyl fell with the rain. The cow yielded
a gallon (4.54 litres) of milk per day of which the family’s new baby was
fed 2 litres per day until the cow was brought into the cowshed to spend
the winter indoors.

Describe a plausible path of the iodine isotope from the grass to humans
and estimate the risk of thyroid cancer to the infant.

Solution: Question 19.

Ah, there’s always a question you fail to answer in time.

I set this one, liked it and have mislaid my old answer sheet. Next
edition perhaps.

The graphic shows the path of the centre of the pollution cloud as it
was driven by prevailing winds over the sceptered Isle. France claims that
the cloud ‘respected’ France’s borders, although the definitive map shows
204
that hilly wet Alsace-Lorraine got its share of undeserved and uninvited
fall-out. The Isle of Ireland was spared. Yet with almost merciless
precision, Windscale in Cumbria was picked out for an exceptional lashing.
The Windscale nuclear reactor had already been mismanaged in 1957,
allowing a serious plume of radioactive cloud to contaminate the
surroundings. Perhaps 30 people died before their time as a result of this
blunder, for which no one lost their job, even though many lost their lives.
Chernobyl came out of the blue and repeated the dose to the community
already assaulted by Windscale. At the time, the Windscale scandal passed
almost unnoticed because almost to the day, as it happened, the Soviet
Union put Sputnik into space and the newspapers, radio and TV had no
space for Windscale. Now they should find space. It is never too late to
make amends.

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205
About the author

The author, not long

after gaining his PhD.

Robin Marshall spent most of his career researching particle physics. After
graduating from Manchester University in 1962, he was the first PhD
student in the newly formed ‘High Energy Group’ at the same University.
Thereafter he worked at the Deutsches Elektron Synchrotron (DESY) in
Hamburg, at MIT, Daresbury and then the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory.

In 1992 he was appointed Professor of Experimental Physics at

Manchester University, to lead the by now much expanded particle physics
group.

In 1995, he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1997,

awarded the Max Born medal and Prize by the German and British Physical
Societies.

In 2005, he was appointed as Research Professor of Particle Physics

and Life Sciences at Manchester and extended his research into plant
biology.

He now lives in Castillon du Gard, in the South of France, working part

time, applying ultrasound techniques to the detection of buried land mines
and other stray ordnance. In between he also paints, writes books and has
set up the e-Publishing e-Company: Champagne Cat.

206
Index

Acoustic modes object falling into Moon, 39

empty room, 123 Cross section
Activity interaction rate, 181
connexion to lifetime, 179 Crossed E and B fields
Aeroplane wing electron velocity and e=m, 133
upthrust, 9
Airy disk, 131 Deep water surface waves
Angular momentum L capillary, 3
all allowed values for Lz , 94 gravity, 3
Artillery shell Displacement current, 154
trajectories of fragments, 37 Electric dipole moment, 158
Electric field
Binding energy
breakdown at curved edge, 136
nuclear, 175
due to charged sphere, 135
Binomial statistics
Electron
possible bias, 172
ˇ particle, 186
Black body, 112, 114, 115
binding energy in lead, 66
Boltzmann, Ludwig, 98
Electrostatic images, 137
Brillouin, Léon, 99
Entropy
Bungee jumper
dropping log into lake, 119
half period, 31
ice, water and steam, 95
Capacitor mixing gases, 116
air-spaced with mica film, 156 paramagnetic salt, 108
relation between Q, V & C , 160 Errors
spherical, 160 calculation of source strength and
stored energy, 145 error, 171
Carbon dating combining three independent, 166
Santorini volcano, 202 combining two independent, 165
Turin shroud, 200 Gaussian, 171
Cavendish, Henry, 23 Floating object
Cerenkov radiation, 183 oscillation period, 26
Chernobyl Four component lens system, 127
PC virus, v Franz Mandl, vi
radiation pollution of NW England,
204 Gamma rays
Clock interaction with matter, 182
variation with altitude, 29 Geostationary orbit
Collision kinematics, 20 period, 25
Compton scattering, 50 Gramophone cartridge
Conservation of energy, 12 natural frequency, 33
207
Heat capacity Network analysis
monatomic perfect gas, 121 operating a 120 V bulb from a 240 V
two level state, 107 supply, 150
Heat pump, 100, 102, 103 R L C circuit, 148
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle three terminal black box, 142
CRT tube, electron beam, 82 voltage divider, 162
electron momentum in nucleus, 63 Neutrinos
electrons passing through slit, 86 Fermi temperature, 110
line width and lifetime, 62 Neutron star
Hydrogen atom rotation, 14
energy levels, 92 Newton’s 2nd Law
force, rate of change of momentum,
Ionisation energy, 87 10, 18
Isothermal work, rate of change of momentum,
heat flow, 122 11
Nuclear fusion
Large Magellanic Cloud, 59 Q values, 198
Larmor precession, 196
Larmor, Joseph, 99 Our Galaxy viewed from the LMC, 61
precession frequency, 194, 196
Particle orbit in a magnetic field, 55
Laser
Partition function, 120
pointed at Moon, 131 Pendulum, 29
Lecroy, Walter, 19 Perturbation theory
Lees, Charles Herbert, 99 modified infinite square well, 84
Lens optics modified square well, 74
magnification, 129, 132 PET scanner, 191
Liquid flow through long tube Phase and group velocity, 124, 126
dimensions, 2 surface waves on deep liquid, 125
tube diameter, 2 Photons
viscosity, 2 as nuclear probe, 178
Low Earth orbit Poisson statistics
free fall through Earth, 22 low intensity light, photon counting,
period, 24 170
pairs with same birthday, 168
Magnetic field Pole vaulting, 12
force on paramagnetic particle, 141 Poynting, John Henry
in small gap of ferromagnet, 140 density of Earth, 22
inside & outside a current carrying letter book, 23
wire, 138 Pressure
inside & outside a loop of iron, 164 particle in box ground state, 68
Magnetic moment, 193, 196
Mascart, Eleuthère Élie Nicolas, 99 Radiation dose and risk, 185, 187, 189,
Mercury in U-tube 190
period of oscillation, 30 Radioactive decay rate, 177, 180
Moment of Inertia Relativistic equations
solid cylinder, 34  velocity diference, 59
solid sphere, 16  C decay, 52
Muonium energy levels, 64 0 ! decay, 46, 51
208
 †C ! p decay, 48 Thin film
classical equivalence, 57 optical interference, 130
Lorentz transformation, 57 Thompson J J, 194
particle energy, momentum and Three dimensional well
velocity, 44, 45 electron energy levels, 91
Rolling down a slope Tides
cylinder, 34 Earth tides on the Moon, 28
sphere, 16 solar and lunar, 27
Time dilation
Schuster, Arthur, 99 K meson decay, 42
Soddy, Frederick, 99 radioactive decay, 43
Solenoid rocket, 41
self-inductance, 147 Toroid coil
Spectroscopic notation, 90 field produced by discharging a
Speed of sound capacitor, 146
dimensions, 8 Transitions in hydrogen & tritium, 88
Spin
alignment in magnetic field, 193, Van der Waals, 106
196 Vibrating liquid drop
singlet and triplet states, 76 surface tension, 5
sodium D line splitting, 78
Stern-Gerlach experiment, 79 Wave function
Stefan’s Law, 112, 114 mean value of 1=r 2 , 71
Submerged object mean value of px , 73
effective mass, 36 square well, 70
Supernova
1987a, 60 Zero point energy
Synchrotron radiation, 54 solids with free electrons, 89

209