Unit II

Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the variation among living organisms from different sources
including terrestrial, marine and desert ecosystems, and the ecological
complexes of which they are a part.
Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth.
The term biodiversity was coined in 1985.
It deals with nature’s variety, the biosphere. It refers to variabilities among
plants, animals and microorganism species.
Biodiversity includes the number of different organisms and their relative
frequencies in an ecosystem.
It also reflects the organization of organisms at different levels.
It provides us with nourishment, housing, fuel, clothing and several other
resources.
It also extracts monetary benefits through tourism.

Levels of Biodiversity
Species diversity

Species diversity refers to the variety of different types of species found in a

particular area.
It is the biodiversity at the most basic level.
It includes all the species ranging from plants to different microorganisms.
Importance: High species diversity ensures ecosystem stability and
productivity. It helps in maintaining ecological processes such as nutrient
cycling, pollination, and pest control.
No two individuals of the same species are exactly similar.
For example, humans show a lot of diversity among themselves.

Genetic diversity

It refers to the variations among the genetic resources of the organisms.

It encompasses the different alleles (variations of a gene) and the
combination of these alleles in populations.
Importance: High genetic diversity allows species to adapt to changing
environments and resist diseases. It contributes to the survival and evolution
 of species by providing a pool of traits that can be beneficial under different
conditions.
Every individual of a particular species differs from each other in their
genetic constitution.
That is why every human looks different from each other. Similarly, there are
different varieties in the same species of rice, wheat, maize, barley, etc.

Ecosystem diversity

An ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living organisms and their

interaction with each other.
Ecological biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and animal
species living together and connected by food chains and food webs.
It encompasses the different habitats, biotic communities, and ecological
processes, along with the interactions between organisms and their
environment.
Importance: Ecosystem diversity supports a wide range of services that are
crucial for human survival, including water purification, climate regulation,
and soil formation. It also provides cultural, recreational, and aesthetic
benefits.
Examples: The different ecosystems such as deserts, wetlands, grasslands,
forests, and marine environments.

India as a Mega-Biodiversity Nation

India is recognized as one of the world’s mega-biodiversity nations, a
distinction that highlights its remarkable richness in flora and fauna, diverse
ecosystems, and significant genetic resources.
The country’s unique geographic location, varied climatic conditions, and
extensive landscapes contribute to its biodiversity wealth.

Key Aspects of India’s Biodiversity

1. Geographic and Climatic Diversity
Geography: India’s landscape includes the Himalayas, the Indo-
Gangetic Plain, the Thar Desert, the Western and Eastern Ghats, and
extensive coastlines along the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
Climate: Ranges from tropical in the south to temperate and alpine in
the northern regions. This variety supports different types of
ecosystems and species.
2. Ecosystem Diversity
 Forests: Tropical rainforests in the Western Ghats and Northeast India,
deciduous forests in central India, and coniferous forests in the
Himalayas.
Grasslands: Including the Shola grasslands in the Western Ghats and
the alpine meadows in the Himalayas.
Deserts: The Thar Desert in Rajasthan, characterized by its unique
desert flora and fauna.
Wetlands: Numerous freshwater and coastal wetlands, including the
Sundarbans mangrove forest.
Marine Ecosystems: Rich marine biodiversity along its extensive
coastline, including coral reefs, estuaries, and mangrove ecosystems.
3. Species Diversity
Flora: Over 45,000 plant species, including a significant number of
endemic species found nowhere else in the world.
Fauna: Home to approximately 91,000 species of animals, including
iconic species such as the Bengal tiger, Asiatic lion, Indian elephant,
and one-horned rhinoceros.
Birds: Nearly 1,300 bird species, making it a critical region for avian
diversity.
4. Genetic Diversity
Agriculture: India is the center of origin for many cultivated plants such
as rice, wheat, pulses, and various fruits.
Traditional Knowledge: Indigenous communities possess rich traditional
knowledge regarding the use and conservation of biodiversity,
particularly in medicinal plants and sustainable farming practices.

Conservation Efforts in India

1. Protected Areas
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries: Over 100 national parks and
more than 500 wildlife sanctuaries, including renowned ones like Jim
Corbett National Park, Kaziranga National Park, and Sundarbans
National Park.
Biosphere Reserves: India has designated 18 biosphere reserves,
aimed at balancing conservation with sustainable use of natural
resources.
2. Legislation and Policy
Wildlife Protection Act (1972): Provides legal protection to wildlife and
establishes protected areas.
 Forest Conservation Act (1980): Regulates deforestation and promotes
the conservation of forests.
Biological Diversity Act (2002): Focuses on the conservation of
biodiversity, sustainable use, and fair sharing of benefits arising from
the use of biological resources.
3. Community Involvement
Joint Forest Management (JFM): Engages local communities in the
management and restoration of forests.
Community Conserved Areas (CCAs): Areas conserved by local
communities, particularly in the north-eastern states and tribal regions.

Biogeographic Zones of India

1. Trans-Himalayan Zone
It comprises the high-altitude, chilly, and arid mountain regions of Himachal
Pradesh’s Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, North Sikkim, Lahaul, and Spiti
regions, making up 5.6% of the country’s total land area.
Characteristics: Cold deserts, high altitudes, sparse vegetation.
Key Species: Snow leopard, Tibetan antelope, Himalayan ibex, black-necked
crane.

2. Himalayan Zone
It contains some of the highest peaks in the globe and makes up 6.4% of the
entire geographic area.
Location: Spans across the entire Himalayan mountain range in India, from
Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh.
Characteristics: Varies from temperate forests to alpine meadows;
significant altitudinal gradient.
Key Species: Red panda, Himalayan tahr, musk deer, various pheasants.

3. Indian Desert Zone

It is the severely dry area west of the Aravalli mountain range, which
contains both the saltwater desert of Gujarat and the sand desert of
Rajasthan.
Covers the Thar Desert in Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat.
makes up 6.5% of the entire geographic area
Characteristics: Arid climate, sandy and rocky terrain, sparse vegetation.
 Key Species: Indian bustard, chinkara (Indian gazelle), desert fox, desert cat,
wolf, spiny-tailed lizard.

4. Semi-Arid Zone
The 16.6% of the overall geographic area that is made up of the semi-arid
region serves as a transitional area between the desert and the Western
Ghats’ lush forests.
The region is characterized by irregular vegetation covered in barren soil, as
well as by a constant lack of soil water.
The Punjab plains, Delhi, Haryana, the western margins of Himachal Pradesh,
Jammu and Kashmir, eastern Rajasthan, eastern Gujarat, and northwest
Madhya Pradesh are all included in this region.
The semi-arid zone in Western India is distinguished by savannah woodland,
dry deciduous forest, and tropical thorn forest.
Characteristics: Grasslands and dry forests, seasonal rainfall.
Key Species: Blackbuck, Indian wolf, caracal, jackal, various migratory birds.

5. Western Ghats Zone

Western Ghats accounts for 4% of the total geographical area.
It is one of two “hotspots” for biodiversity and one of India’s key tropical
evergreen forest zones.
From the Tapti river in the north to Kanyakumari in the south, the Western
Ghats run along the west coast of peninsular India, spanning through the
states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
One of India’s largest tropical evergreen forested regions and one of the
world’s 25 biodiversity “hotspots” with a vast array of plant species is the
Western Ghats zone.
Nearly 4000 types of blooming plants may be found in the area, which
makes up nearly 27% of all the flora in India.
There are 1500 indigenous species among them.
With a wide variety of ancient lineages, the Western Ghats region is an
important genetic estate.
Key Species: Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr, Malabar giant squirrel, various
amphibians and reptiles.

6. Deccan Peninsula Zone

The Deccan Plateau, which makes up 42% of the country’s total land area, is
its greatest biogeographic zone.
 The region is rather uniform, with climates ranging from moist-
deciduous/semi-evergreen to semi-arid.
Location: Central and southern India, excluding the Western Ghats. The
central highlands include the Vindhya and Satpura hill ranges, the Chhota
Nagpur Plateau, the Eastern Ghats, the Tamil Nadu Plains, and the Karnataka
Plateau.
Deciduous forests predominate
Numerous wildlife species can be found in the area, which is made up of
degraded scrubland, thorn woods, and deciduous forests.
Key Species: Bengal tiger, Indian elephant, gaur (Indian bison), dhole (wild
dog).

7. Gangetic Plain Zone

About 10.8% of the world’s land area is made up of the Gangetic plain.
Over several miles, the Gangetic plain is topographically uniform.
This zone includes the Gangetic split as well as the Upper Gangetic plain,
Middle Gangetic plain, and Lower Gangetic plain.
The majority of the land is used for agriculture, and there are many of people
living in this area, which runs from eastern Rajasthan through Uttar Pradesh
to Bihar and West Bengal.
Characteristics: Alluvial soils, high agricultural productivity, grasslands, and
wetlands.
Some of the largest population densities and topographic regularity can be
found in the teak, shisham, sal, khair, and other trees from these forests.
Key Species: Ganges river dolphin, Indian rhinoceros, barasingha (swamp
deer), various migratory birds.

8. North-East India Zone

The North East Region accounts for 2.5 percent of the total geographical
area.
This area serves as a meeting place for the Himalayan Mountains and
peninsular India as well as a transition zone between the Indian, Indo-
Malayan, and Indo-Chinese bio-geographical areas.
Location: Includes the northeastern states of India, such as Assam,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Arunachal Pradesh.
Characteristics: Tropical and subtropical forests, high rainfall, rich
biodiversity.
 Key Species: Hoolock gibbon, clouded leopard, one-horned rhinoceros,
various orchids and butterflies.

9. Islands Zone
makes up around 5.21 geographical area
Includes the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Lakshadweep Islands
A collection of 27 tiny islands known as the Lakshadweep Islands can be
found in the Arabian Sea.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a 348-island group that extends
north-south in the Bay of Bengal.
Unique plants and animals can be found on the islands.
Characteristics: Tropical rainforests, coral reefs, unique island ecosystems.
The only endemic island biodiversity in India is found on the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
Key Species: Dugong, saltwater crocodile, Nicobar pigeon, various endemic
species of flora and fauna.

10. Coastal Zone

India’s wealth and health zone is the coastal region, which makes about 0.25
percent of the country’s total land area and is home to sandy beaches,
mangroves, mud flats, coral reefs, and marine angiosperm pastures.
Location: Covers India’s extensive coastline along the Arabian Sea and the
Bay of Bengal, including estuaries and mangroves.
Characteristics: Sandy and rocky shores, mangrove forests, coastal
wetlands.
Key Species: Olive ridley turtles, mangrove whistlers, various species of fish
and crustaceans, migratory shorebirds.

Biodiversity Hotspots in India

Biodiversity is referred to as the variation of plant and animal species in a
particular habitat.
India is known for its rich biodiversity and has around 24.46% of its
geographical area covered by forests and trees.
Coined by Norman Myers, the term “Biodiversity hotspots” can be defined as
the regions which are known for their high species richness and endemism.
According to Conservation International, a region must fulfil the following
two criteria to qualify as a hotspot:
 1. The region should have at least 1500 species of vascular plants i.e., it
should have a high degree of endemism.
2. It must contain 30% (or less) of its original habitat, i.e. it must be
threatened.
India is home to four major biodiversity hotspots:

1. The Himalayas
Considered the highest in the world, the Himalayas (overall) comprise North-
East India, Bhutan, Central and Eastern parts of Nepal.
The north-eastern states of India (Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, and
parts of West Bengal).
This region (NE Himalayas) holds a record of having 163 endangered species
which includes the Wild Asian Water Buffalo, Red panda, snow leopard, One-
horned Rhino; and as many as 10,000 plant species, of which 3160 are
endemic.
This mountain range covers nearly 750,000 km2.
The region includes a wide range of climates and altitudes, from subtropical
forests at lower elevations to alpine meadows and glaciers at higher
elevations.

2. The Western Ghats

The Western Ghats are present along the western edge of peninsular India
and cover most of the deciduous forests and rain forests.
As per UNESCO, it is home to at least 325 globally threatened flora, fauna,
bird, amphibian, reptile and fish species- 129 are classified as Vulnerable,
145 as Endangered and 51 as Critically Endangered.
Originally, the vegetation in this region was spread over 190,000 km2 but
has been now reduced to 43,000 km2.
Key Species: Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr, Malabar civet, various
amphibians and reptiles like the purple frog, and a rich diversity of plant
species.

3. Indo-Burma
The Indo-Burma Region is stretched over a distance of 2,373,000 km².
Geographic Scope: Covers parts of north-eastern India (including the states
of Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura), extending
into Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and southern China.
 This hotspot is also known for the endemic freshwater turtle species, most
of which are threatened with extinction, due to over-harvesting and
extensive habitat loss.
Comprises tropical and subtropical forests, wetlands, and grasslands with
high species endemism.
Key Species: Hoolock gibbon, Asian elephant, Indochinese tiger, numerous
species of turtles, Orange-necked Partridge, and a high diversity of
freshwater fish.

4. Sundaland (Nicobar Islands)

The Sundaland hotspot lies in Southeast Asia and covers Singapore,
Thailand, Indonesia, Brunei, and Malaysia. (it includes the Nicobar Islands of
India.)
This region is famous for its rich terrestrial and marine ecosystem.
Sundaland is one of the biologically richest hotspots in the world which
comprises 25,000 species of vascular plants, of which 15,000 are found only
in this region.
Key Species: Nicobar pigeon, saltwater crocodile, dugong, and various
endemic bird and plant species.

Endangered and Endemic Species

Species are said to be endemic when they are exclusive to a single location
and cannot be found anywhere else on the planet.
Endangered species are those that are in danger of extinction or are already
extinct.

Endemic Species of India

Flora
1. Neelakurinji (Strobilanthes kunthiana)
Location: Western Ghats
Characteristics: Known for its mass flowering every 12 years, carpeting
the hills with blue flowers.
2. Sapria Himalayana
Location: Eastern Himalayas
Characteristics: A parasitic plant related to the Rafflesia, known for its
large, red flowers.
Fauna
1. **The Asiatic Lion, the Gir Forest
2. Kashmir Stag, Kashmir Valley
3. Lion-tailed Macaqu, Western Ghats
4. **Purple Frog, Western Ghats
5. **Sangai Deer, Loktak Lake
6. Nilgiri Tahr, Western Ghats
7. Pygmy Hog, Assam
8. Bronzeback Vine Snake, Western Ghats
9. Nilgiri Blue Robin, Nilgiri Hills
10. Malabar Civet, Western Ghats
11. Anaimalai Gliding Frog, Anaimalai Hills
12. Namdapha Flying Squirrel, Arunachal Pradesh
13. Indian Giant Squirrel
14. Bonnet Macaque

Endangered Species of India

Flora
1. **Red Sandalwood
Location: Eastern Ghats
Threats: Illegal logging and habitat loss.
2. **Jeevanti
Location: Throughout India
Threats: Over-harvesting for medicinal uses and habitat destruction.
3. Ebony tree
4. Indian Mallow
5. Malabar Lily
6. Assam Catkin Yew
7. Milkwort

Fauna
1. **Bengal Tiger
Threats: Poaching, habitat loss, and human-wildlife conflict.
2. **Asiatic Lion
Location: Gir Forest, Gujarat
 Threats: Limited population range, human encroachment, and disease.
3. Indian Elephant
Threats: Habitat fragmentation, human-wildlife conflict, and poaching
for ivory.
4. **One-Horned Rhinoceros
Threats: Poaching for horn and habitat destruction.
5. Snow Leopard
Threats: Poaching, human-wildlife conflict, and habitat degradation.
6. Ganges River Dolphin
Threats: Pollution, dam construction, and accidental bycatch.
7. Nilgiri Tahr
8. Malabar Civet
9. Nicobar Hangul
10. Andaman White-toothed Shrew
11. Pygmy Hog

IUCN Red List

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of
Threatened Species
Founded in 1964, the IUCN Red List also known as the Red Data List
evaluates the biological species in the world which are at the risk of
extinction.
IUCN aims to focus on the conservation of the world’s species to reduce
species extinction.
More than 77,300 species have been assessed on the IUCN Red List.

Categories
1. Extinct (EX) – No known individuals remaining. Example: Passenger pigeon
2. Extinct in the wild (EW) – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a
naturalized population outside its historic range. Example: Scimitar-horned
oryx
3. Critically endangered (CR) – Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
Example: Javan rhino
4. Endangered (EN) – High risk of extinction in the wild. Eg: Bengal tiger
5. Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of endangerment in the wild. Eg: Indian elephant
6. Near Threatened (NT) – Likely to become endangered shortly. Eg: Blue
whale
 7. Least concern (LC) – Lowest risk. Does not qualify for a more at-risk
category. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category. Eg:
House sparrow
8. Data Deficient (DD) – Not enough data to assess its risk of extinction. Eg:
Many deep-sea species
9. Not evaluated (NE) – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria Eg:
Numerous newly discovered species

Criteria
1. Population Reduction (Criterion A)
Assessment: Quantifies declines in population size over a specified
period (10 years or three generations).
2. Geographic Range (Criterion B)
Assessment: Evaluates the size and fragmentation of a species'
geographic range.
3. Small Population Size and Decline (Criterion C)
Assessment: Focuses on small populations that are declining or
expected to decline.
4. Very Small or Restricted Population (Criterion D)
Assessment: Considers extremely small or restricted populations.
5. Quantitative Analysis (Criterion E)
Assessment: Uses quantitative models to predict the probability of
extinction.

Value of Biodiversity
Biodiversity, which encompasses the variety of all life forms on Earth,
including plants, animals, and microorganisms, holds immense value across
multiple dimensions.
These values can be categorized into ecological, economic, social, ethical,
aesthetic, and informational values.

Ecological Value
1. Ecosystem Services: Biodiversity underpins essential ecosystem services
such as pollination, nutrient cycling, water purification, and soil fertility.
Example: Bees and other pollinators are vital for the reproduction of
many plants, which in turn supports entire food webs.
 2. Resilience: Diverse ecosystems are more resilient to disturbances such as
climate change, diseases, and natural disasters.
Example: Mangrove forests protect coastlines from erosion and storm
surges, while also providing habitat for numerous species.
3. Regulation of Climate: Forests and oceans, through processes like carbon
sequestration, help regulate the Earth's climate.
Example: The Amazon rainforest absorbs large amounts of CO2, playing
a crucial role in mitigating climate change.

Economic Value
1. Agriculture and Food Security: A wide range of crop species and livestock
breeds, maintained through biodiversity, ensures food security.
Example: Genetic diversity in crops like rice helps develop strains that
are resistant to pests and diseases.
2. Pharmaceuticals: Many medicines are derived from plants, animals, and
microbes.
Example: The rosy periwinkle plant is the source of compounds used to
treat cancer (vincristine and vinblastine).
3. Tourism and Recreation: Natural landscapes and wildlife attract millions of
tourists, generating revenue and employment.
Example: Safaris in African countries and bird-watching in Costa Rica
are significant sources of income.

Social Value
1. Cultural Practices: Many indigenous and local communities rely on
biodiversity for their cultural rituals, food, medicine, and livelihoods.
Example: The Maasai people in Kenya and Tanzania depend on native
plants and animals for traditional practices and daily needs.
2. Community Health: Access to diverse natural resources ensures nutritional
and medicinal needs are met, supporting public health.
Example: Traditional medicines derived from local plants are crucial for
healthcare in many rural areas.

Ethical Value
1. Moral Responsibility: Many cultures and philosophies believe that all species
have a right to exist.
Example: The Jain tradition in India teaches non-violence and respect
for all living beings, emphasizing the protection of biodiversity.
 2. Intergenerational Equity: Preserving biodiversity ensures that future
generations can enjoy and benefit from natural ecosystems.
Example: Efforts to conserve endangered species like the giant panda
are motivated by the desire to prevent their extinction for future
generations.

Aesthetic Value
1. Natural Beauty: Diverse landscapes and wildlife offer aesthetic pleasure and
inspiration.
Example: The sight of cherry blossoms in Japan or the colors of coral
reefs in Australia attracts millions of visitors and inspires art and
literature.
2. Recreation and Well-being: Access to biodiverse environments enhances
mental and physical well-being.
Example: Hiking in biodiverse national parks, such as Yellowstone in the
USA, provides recreational opportunities and stress relief.

Informational Value
1. Scientific Research: Studying diverse species helps advance knowledge in
biology, ecology, and evolution.
Example: Research on the diverse finch species in the Galápagos
Islands contributed to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural
selection.
2. Educational Resources: Biodiverse ecosystems serve as living laboratories
for education and environmental awareness.
Example: Programs like Project Tiger in India educate the public and
students about the importance of conservation and the role of tigers in
ecosystems.

Sacred Groves
Sacred groves are communally protected forests that usually have a
significant religious connotation for the protecting community.
A sacred grove also called sacred forest comprises patches of natural
vegetation from a few trees to several acres.
The spaces of these sacred groves are protected by local communities
because of their religious beliefs and traditional rituals that run through
several generations.
 The degree of sanctity accorded to the sacred groves varies from one area
to another. In some forests, even the dry foliage and fallen fruits are not
touched.
Sacred groves have been legally protected under ‘community reserves’ in
the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002.
Hunting and logging are usually strictly prohibited within these patches.

Importance of Sacred Groves

1. Biodiversity Conservation: Sacred groves help in the protection of a number
of rare, endangered, and endemic species.
2. Sacred groves are important repositories of flora and fauna diversity that
have been conserved by local communities in a sustainable manner.
3. Soil Stability: The roots of trees and other vegetation in sacred groves help
in preventing soil erosion, maintaining soil fertility, and reducing the risk of
landslides.
4. Sacred groves often contain water bodies like ponds, streams, and springs,
which are protected and maintained as part of the sacred landscape.
5. Sacred groves often contain a wealth of medicinal plants used in traditional
medicine.
Example: The "Sarpagandha" plant, found in some sacred groves, is
used in traditional Indian medicine for treating hypertension and mental
disorders.
6. The dense vegetation in sacred groves helps in regulating local climate
conditions, providing shade and reducing temperatures in surrounding areas.
7. Cultural Heritage: Sacred groves are integral to the cultural identity and
spiritual practices of local communities, preserving ancient traditions and
rituals.
Example: The Khasi tribe in Meghalaya, India, worships sacred groves
called "Law Kyntangs," which are central to their cultural and religious
practices.

Examples of Sacred Groves

Among the largest sacred groves of India are the ones in Hariyali, near
Gauchar in Chamoli District of Uttarakhand, and the Deodar grove in Shipin
near Shimla in Himachal Pradesh.
Kavus of Kerala
Dev Van in Uttar Pradesh
 The Mallur Gutta (Hill) of Warangal district in Telangana state, India, is
reputed as a habitat for medicinal plants
The vanis of Mewar, the kenkris of Ajmer, the oraans of Jodhpur, Jaisalmer
and Bikaner and the shamlat dehs of Alwar constitute the sacred groves of
Rajasthan.
Gamkhap and Mauhak (sacred bamboo reserves) in Manipur
Maharashtra: The sacred groves in the western part are called Devrai or
Devrahati whereas in the east, the Madiya tribals call them Devgudi.
Alligam, Maulimaa, Bhairabguda, Dudhari, Mali Dusara and Kanta Basunsuni
are some sacred groves in Odisha dedicated to Deities

Threats to Biodiversity
Habitat Loss
Habitat loss refers to the complete conversion of a natural habitat into an area
with little or no ecological value, such as urban developments, agricultural fields,
or mining sites.

This process can lead to the extinction of species that are unable to adapt or
relocate.
Causes
1. Urbanization: Expansion of cities and infrastructure development.
2. Agricultural Expansion: Conversion of forests, grasslands, and
wetlands into agricultural land.
3. Deforestation: Clearing of forests for timber, fuel, and land
development.
Impacts
Species Extinction: Loss of habitat can lead to the extinction of species
that depend on specific environments.
Disruption of Ecosystem Services: Reduces the availability of
ecosystem services such as clean water, air, and fertile soil.
Climate Change: Deforestation contributes to increased greenhouse
gas emissions, exacerbating climate change.

Habitat Degradation
Habitat degradation refers to the decline in habitat quality, which reduces its
ability to support biodiversity.

Causes
 1. Pollution: Contamination of air, water, and soil by chemicals, plastics,
and other pollutants.
2. Overexploitation: Unsustainable harvesting of natural resources such
as timber, fish, and game.
3. Invasive Species: Introduction of non-native species that outcompete,
prey on, or bring diseases to native species.
Impacts
Reduced Biodiversity: Degradation can lead to declines in species
populations and diversity.
Altered Ecosystem Function: Degraded habitats often fail to perform
essential ecological functions, such as nutrient cycling and water
filtration.
Human Health Risks: Pollution and degradation can lead to health
issues for communities relying on the affected ecosystems.

Habitat Fragmentation
Habitat fragmentation occurs when large, continuous habitats are divided into
smaller, isolated patches, often due to human activities like road construction,
agriculture, and urban development.

Causes
1. Infrastructure Development: Roads, highways, and railways that cut
through natural habitats.
2. Agricultural Practices: Fragmentation caused by creating fields,
pastures, and plantations.
3. Urban Expansion: Development of cities and suburbs leading to
fragmented landscapes.
Impacts
Reduced Genetic Diversity: Fragmented populations become isolated,
leading to inbreeding and reduced genetic diversity.
Increase vulnerability to predators and invasive species.

Poaching of Wildlife
Poaching, the illegal hunting, capturing, or killing of wildlife, poses a severe threat
to biodiversity worldwide.

Causes of Poaching

1. Economic Incentives
 High Value of Wildlife Products: Items such as ivory, rhino horns, and
tiger bones fetch high prices on black markets.
2. Cultural and Traditional Beliefs
Traditional Medicine: Some cultures use animal parts in traditional
medicine, believing in their healing properties.
3. Subsistence Hunting
Poverty and Food Security: In some regions, local communities hunt
wildlife for food or income due to lack of alternatives.
4. Illegal Pet Trade: Demand for exotic animals as pets drives the illegal
capture and trade of species. Parrots, reptiles, and primates are often
captured from the wild to be sold as exotic pets.
5. Weak Law Enforcement: Inadequate laws and lack of enforcement allow
poaching to thrive.

Impacts of Poaching

1. Species Extinction: Continuous poaching pressures can lead to the

extinction of species. Example: The Western black rhinoceros was declared
extinct in 2011 primarily due to poaching.
2. Ecosystem Imbalance: Removing key species can disrupt ecological balance
and lead to the overpopulation or decline of other species.
3. Loss of Tourism Revenue: Wildlife tourism is a significant income source for
many countries; poaching reduces wildlife populations and tourism appeal.
4. Social Consequences: Poaching can fuel conflict and crime, destabilizing
local communities and economies.

Man-Wildlife Conflict
Man-wildlife conflicts occur when human activities and wildlife needs intersect,
often leading to negative outcomes for both humans and animals.

Causes

1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: Human expansion into natural habitats

forces wildlife into closer proximity with humans.
2. Crop Raiding: Wildlife like elephants, deer, and primates often raid crops,
causing significant economic losses to farmers.
3. Competition for Resources: Humans and wildlife often compete for limited
resources such as water and food.
4. Proximity to Wildlife: Settlements near national parks and reserves increase
the likelihood of encounters with wildlife.
 5. Climate Change: Altered weather patterns and environmental conditions can
force wildlife to move into human-inhabited areas in search of food and
shelter.

Impact

1. Loss of Life and Injuries: Attacks by wildlife can result in human fatalities
and injuries.
2. Economic Losses: Damage to crops, livestock, and property can have
significant financial impacts on local communities.
3. Retaliatory Killing: In response to conflicts, humans often kill wildlife, leading
to population declines and disruption of ecosystems.
4. Habitat Fragmentation: Efforts to prevent conflicts, such as building fences,
can further fragment habitats and limit wildlife movement.

Biological Invasion
Biological invasion, or the introduction and spread of non-native species into
new ecosystems.
Invasive species can outcompete, prey on, or bring diseases to native
species, leading to ecological imbalance, economic losses, and negative
impacts on human health.

Impact

Loss of Native Biodiversity: Invasive species can outcompete, prey on, or

hybridize with native species, leading to declines or extinctions.
Alteration of Ecosystems: Invasive species can change the structure and
function of ecosystems, affecting nutrient cycling, hydrology, and fire
regimes.
Agricultural Losses: Invasive weeds and pests can reduce crop yields and
increase management costs.
Allergies and Diseases: Some invasive species can cause health problems in
humans.

Examples of Invasive Species in India

1. The introduction of the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) in Indian waters

has led to the decline of native fish populations.
2. Lantana camara of South America alters forest fire regimes by increasing the
amount of flammable material in forests.
 3. Parthenium hysterophorus from North and South AMerica reduces crop
productivity and requires significant investment in weed control.
4. The spread of the invasive tilapia fish affects native fish populations and
fisheries in Indian rivers and lakes.

Current Mass Extinction Crisis

The current mass extinction crisis, often referred to as the "Sixth Mass
Extinction". Unlike previous mass extinctions caused by natural events, this one is
largely driven by human activities.

Causes

1. Deforestation: Clearing forests for agriculture, logging, and urban

development.
2. Urbanization: Expansion of cities and infrastructure encroaching on natural
habitats.
3. Global Warming: Rising temperatures alter habitats and affect species'
survival.
Example: Polar bears are losing their sea ice habitat in the Arctic due to
melting ice caps.
4. Extreme Weather Events: Increased frequency and intensity of storms,
droughts, and heatwaves.
5. Chemical Pollution: Pesticides, heavy metals, and other pollutants
contaminate ecosystems.
6. Plastic Pollution: Oceans and other water bodies are increasingly polluted
by plastic waste.
Example: Marine animals ingesting plastic waste, leading to injury or
death.
7. Overfishing: Unsustainable fishing practices deplete fish populations.
8. Hunting and Poaching: Illegal hunting and trade of wildlife for meat,
trophies, and traditional medicine.
Example: Rhino poaching for their horns has brought several rhino
species to the brink of extinction.
9. Non-Native Species: Introduction of invasive species that outcompete, prey
on, or bring diseases to native species.
Example: The introduction of the brown tree snake in Guam has led to
the extinction of several bird species.
Impact

1. Species Extinctions: Rapid decline in the number of species across various

taxa.
2. Genetic Diversity: Reduction in genetic variability, making species more
vulnerable to diseases and environmental changes.
3. Regulating Services: Disruption of services such as pollination, water
purification, and climate regulation.
4. Many communities depend on natural resources for their livelihoods, which
are threatened by biodiversity loss.
5. Cultural Loss: Extinction of species that hold cultural significance and value.

Biodiversity Conservation Strategies

Conserving biodiversity is crucial for maintaining ecological balance and ensuring
the sustainability of ecosystems.

In-Situ Conservation
In-situ conservation refers to the protection and maintenance of species within
their natural habitats. This method aims to conserve the natural ecosystem and
processes that sustain biodiversity.

1. National Parks
Purpose: To protect large areas of natural habitat with minimal human
interference.
Example: Jim Corbett National Park in India, established to protect the
endangered Bengal tiger.
2. Wildlife Sanctuaries
Purpose: To protect specific species and their habitats while allowing
some degree of human activity.
Example: Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala, known for its elephant
and tiger populations.
3. Biosphere Reserves
Purpose: Regions combining conservation, sustainable use of natural
resources, and scientific research.
Example: The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, which encompasses parts of
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala, protecting diverse ecosystems and
species.
Ex-Situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation involves protecting species by removing part of the
population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, often in
controlled environments.
This method is often used for species that are critically endangered or have very
small populations.

1. Zoos and Botanical Gardens

Purpose: To maintain and breed endangered species in captivity, with
the aim of reintroducing them into the wild.
Example: The Mysore Zoo in India, which participates in breeding
programs for endangered species like the Asiatic lion.
2. Seed Banks and Gene Banks
Purpose: To preserve genetic material for future use, ensuring that
genetic diversity is maintained.
Example: The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources in India,
which conserves seeds of important crop species.
3. Cryopreservation
Purpose: To preserve genetic material at extremely low temperatures
for long-term storage such as seeds, sperm, eggs, and embryos of
endangered species.

Keystone, Flagship, Umbrella, and Indicator Species

1. Keystone Species
Species that have a disproportionately large impact on their
ecosystems relative to their abundance.
Their presence and activities significantly influence the structure and
functioning of the ecosystem.
Example: In kelp forest ecosystems, sea otters prey on sea urchins,
controlling their population. Without sea otters, sea urchins can
overgraze kelp, leading to the degradation of the habitat.
2. Flagship Species
Species that are charismatic and popular species that serve as symbols
for conservation campaigns
These species help raise public awareness and support for biodiversity
conservation.
Used to attract funding and support for broader conservation efforts.
 Example: The giant panda is a global symbol for wildlife conservation
and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) uses it as its logo.
3. Umbrella Species
Species whose conservation provides protection for many other
species that share their habitat.
By focusing on these species, conservation efforts can indirectly
protect a wide range of other organisms.
Example: The Indian elephant, whose conservation requires large
habitats that also support many other species.
4. Indicator Species
Indicator species are used to assess the health of an ecosystem.
Their presence, absence, or abundance can provide insights into
environmental conditions, such as pollution levels, climate change
impacts, and habitat quality.
Sensitive to environmental changes and stressors.
Serve as early warning signals for ecological shifts or degradation.
Example: The amphibians, such as frogs, which are sensitive to
pollution and changes in water quality, indicating the health of aquatic
ecosystems.

Species Reintroduction and Translocation

1. Species Reintroduction
The process of releasing individuals of a species back into an area
where they have historically occurred but have been extirpated (locally
extinct).
This strategy aims to re-establish a self-sustaining population in its
native habitat.
Enhance biodiversity and ecosystem functions.
Strengthen the genetic diversity of populations.
Example: The reintroduction of the Asiatic lion into the Kuno Wildlife
Sanctuary in India.
2. Species Translocation
The process of moving individuals from one location to another, often to
prevent extinction or to establish a new population.
Enhance the survival of species by moving them to more suitable or
safer habitats.
Mitigate the impacts of habitat loss, climate change, or other threats.
 Example: Translocation of rhinos in Assam, India, to ensure genetic
diversity and reduce the risk of poaching.

Case Studies
Project Tiger
Launched in 1973
Project Tiger aims to protect and stabilize the tiger population in India, which
had drastically declined due to poaching and habitat loss.
Objectives:
To guarantee a viable population of tigers for financial, scientific, aesthetic,
social, and ecological values.
Limit the elements which lead to the reduction of tiger habitat and to tone
down them by suitable strategy.
Key Features:
Establishment of tiger reserves across India.
Measures to reduce human-tiger conflict.
Strict anti-poaching laws and enhanced protection measures.
Community involvement and relocation programs.
Impact:
Increased tiger populations in several reserves.
Enhanced awareness and global recognition of tiger conservation.
The project has opened a wide door of tourism and thereby employment
opportunities.
This initiative has brought the participation of local people and their
participation has made the habitat to revive.

Project Elephant
Initiated in 1992
Project Elephant focuses on the conservation of elephants and their
habitats, addressing issues such as habitat fragmentation, human-elephant
conflict, and poaching.
It ensures the protection of elephant corridors and elephant habitat for the
survival of the elephant population in the wild.
Aim:
Develop and promote scientific and planned management strategies for
Elephant conservation.
 Prevent illegal trade of ivory and ensure elephant protection from hunters
and poachers.
Ensure ecological restoration of the natural elephant habitats and their
migratory routes.
To mitigate and prevent the increasing conflict in elephant habitats between
humans and elephants.
To facilitate veterinary care for proper breeding and health care of
domesticated elephants and to facilitate Eco-development for the elephants
Impact:
Improved elephant habitat management.
Increased awareness and reduction in human-elephant conflicts in some
regions.

Vulture Breeding Program

Vultures in India have faced catastrophic declines due to the use of the
veterinary drug diclofenac, which is toxic to them.
The Vulture Breeding Program aims to breed vultures in captivity and release
them back into the wild.
Key Features:
Captive breeding centers established in Haryana, West Bengal, and Assam.
Ban on veterinary use of diclofenac and promotion of alternative drugs.
Release of captive-bred vultures into safe zones.
Impact:
Initial success in breeding and releasing vultures.
Gradual recovery of vulture populations in monitored areas.

Project Great Indian Bustard

Launched to save the critically endangered Great Indian Bustard, this project
aims to protect and restore its grassland habitat and mitigate threats from
agriculture and development.
Bustards are large terrestrial birds found in dry grasslands and steppe
regions.
Also known as the Indian Bustard, it is among the heaviest of flying birds in
existence.
The main threat to the birds is habitat loss and hunting.
Key Features:
Habitat protection and restoration efforts.
Captive breeding programs.
 Community involvement in conservation activities.
Legal protections and anti-poaching measures.
Impact:
Improved awareness and protection of bustard habitats.
Slow but ongoing efforts to stabilize populations.

Crocodile Conservation Project

Crocodiles were scarce due to increased human activity in rivers and other
traditional habitats, resulting in a reduction in the extent of habitable
stretches. In addition, predation reduces the survival rate of crocodile
hatchlings in the wild.
Started in 1975
This project aims to conserve three species of crocodiles in India: the
mugger, the saltwater crocodile, and the gharial.
Objectives:
Creating sanctuaries to protect the remaining crocodilians in their natural
habitat.
To promote captive breeding.
Release of bred individuals into the wild.
To conduct research to improve management.
To increase the number of trained personnel on project sites through the
(then) Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute in
Hyderabad.
Involve the community in the project on a personal level.
Impact:
Successful increase in populations of all three crocodile species.
the saltwater crocodiles which were 96 in count in 1976, increased to 1640
by 2012
Improved habitat conditions and reduced poaching.
Made significant contributions to the development of knowledge and the
spread of awareness.
Locals have been intimately involved in crocodile management.
Crocodiles have been used as the flagship species in some important
wetland sanctuaries.

Silent Valley Movement

Silent Valley Movement was a movement against the state to protect Silent
valley, an evergreen tropical forest in the Palakkad district of Kerala, India.
 The valley is famous for many rare species of birds and animals.
It was started in 1973 to save the Silent Valley Reserve Forest from being
flooded by a hydroelectric project.
The movement was first initiated by the local people and was subsequently
taken over by the Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP).
The KSSP effectively aroused public opinion by publishing a techno-
economic and socio-political assessment report on the Silent Valley
hydroelectric project.
The KSSP generated public opinion against the project.
As a consequence, in 1979, the Government of Kerala passed legislation
regarding the Silent Valley Protection Area (Protection of Ecological balance
Act of 1979) and issued a notification declaring the exclusion of the
hydroelectric project area from the proposed national park.
Impact:
Preservation of a unique and biodiverse ecosystem.
Inspired future environmental movements in India.

Save Western Ghats Movement

Launched in the 1980s, this movement aimed to protect the Western Ghats,
a global biodiversity hotspot, from deforestation, mining, and development
pressures.
The goal was to create an integrated ecological perspective providing for
both environmental protection as well as the rights of the rural communities.
Western Ghats consist of a chain of mountains running parallel to India’s
Western Coast and passing from the states of Kerala, Maharashtra, Goa,
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
The Ghats influence the Indian monsoon weather patterns that mediate the
warm tropical climate of the region.
They act as a barrier to rain-laden monsoon winds that sweep in from the
south-west.
Western Ghats are home to tropical evergreen forests, as well as to 325
globally threatened species.
Threats to Western Ghats:
- Developmental Pressures: Urbanisation together with agricultural
expansion and livestock grazing are posing serious threats to the region.
- Biodiversity Relates Issues: Forest loss, habitat fragmentation, habitat
degradation by invasive plant species, encroachment and conversion also
continue to affect the Ghats.
- Climate Change: In the intermediate years, the climate crisis gained
momentum: floods have ravaged the ghat areas of Kerala thrice, Landslides
and flash floods and Cyclones were also gaining intensity.
- Threats from Industrialisation**
Key Features:
Advocacy for sustainable development and conservation policies.
Involvement of local communities and NGOs.
Research and documentation of biodiversity.
Impact:
Enhanced awareness and legal protections for the Western Ghats.
Inclusion of Western Ghats in UNESCO World Heritage Sites.