Data Communication

Data communication is the process of transferring data between two locations using components
like:

1. Message: Data to be transmitted (text, photos, videos, etc.).

2. Sender: Device initiating the communication.
3. Receiver: Device receiving the communication.
4. Medium: Channel used for transmission (e.g., cables, wireless).
5. Protocol: Set of rules governing communication.

Types of Data Transmission

 Simplex: One-directional transmission (e.g., TV broadcast).

 Half Duplex: Data flows in both directions but not simultaneously (e.g., walkie-talkie).
 Full Duplex: Data flows in both directions simultaneously (e.g., telephone).

Computer Network
A computer network connects multiple devices to share information and resources. Components
include:

1. NIC: Hardware enabling internet connection, identified by a unique MAC address.

2. Repeater: Amplifies weak signals to extend transmission range.
3. Hub: Links devices and broadcasts signals to all connected devices.
4. Bridge: Connects two network segments, filtering traffic based on addresses.
5. Switch: Directs data between devices efficiently using MAC addresses.
6. Router: Connects networks and routes data packets intelligently.

Transmission Media

1. Twisted Pair Cable: Inexpensive, commonly used in telephony.

2. Coaxial Cable: Used in TV, internet, and CCTV; offers higher bandwidth.
3. Fiber Optic Cable: High-speed data transmission via light, used for long-distance and
high-demand applications.

Advantages of Computer Networks

 Enables data sharing, online transactions, and efficient communication (e.g., email, video
conferencing).
 Supports distributed computing and enhances data security.
 Easy addition/removal of users.

Risks of Computer Networking

 Vulnerabilities include equipment malfunctions, system failures, hacker threats, and virus
attacks, often exacerbated by natural disasters.
Computer Network Architecture

 Definition: The design and organization of software, hardware, protocols, and

transmission media for data communication.

Types of Network Architecture

1. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architecture:

o Equal privileges for all computers; no dedicated server.
o Suitable for small setups (up to 10 devices).
o Advantages: Low cost, easy setup, resilience to individual failures.
o Disadvantages: No centralized system, limited security, no global data backup.
2. Client/Server Architecture:
o Centralized server manages resources and security.
o Clients communicate through the server.
o Advantages: Centralized control, better security, efficient backups, high
performance.
o Disadvantages: High cost (server hardware/software), requires a network
administrator.

Computer Network Types

1. Personal Area Network (PAN):

o Small range; uses Wi-Fi or Bluetooth for wireless and USB for wired
connections.
2. Local Area Network (LAN):
o Connects devices in a limited area (home, office).
o Features: Easy setup, efficient resource sharing, typically uses Ethernet/Wi-Fi.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
o Covers larger areas like cities.
o Features: Medium data rates, often uses fiber optics.
4. Wide Area Network (WAN):
o Covers vast geographical areas (e.g., the internet).
o Features: Lower data rates, uses satellites, telephone lines, or fiber optics.
Network Topologies

1. Bus Topology:
o Single backbone cable connects all nodes.
o Advantages: Low cost, simple setup.
o Disadvantages: Cable faults disrupt communication, signal interference.
2. Ring Topology:
o Nodes form a loop; data flows in one direction.
o Advantages: Network management is easier.
o Disadvantages: Fault in one node disrupts entire network.
3. Star Topology:
o Central hub connects all nodes.
o Advantages: Easy troubleshooting, scalability, minimal failure impact.
o Disadvantages: Central hub failure affects the entire network.
4. Tree Topology:
o Hierarchical layout combining bus and star.
o Advantages: Expandable, easy error detection.
o Disadvantages: High cost, main bus cable failure disrupts the network.
5. Mesh Topology:
o Nodes interconnected with multiple paths.
o Advantages: Reliable, fast communication, easy reconfiguration.
o Disadvantages: High cost, complex management, redundancy reduces efficiency.
6. Hybrid Topology:
o Combination of various topologies.
o Advantages: Flexible, scalable.
o Disadvantages: Complex design, costly to implement.
OSI Model

2. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

Purpose:

 Ensures reliable data transfer between systems.

Key Functions:

 Segmentation: Divides large data into smaller segments.

 Error Control: Ensures error-free delivery using acknowledgments and retransmissions.
 Flow Control: Prevents data overflow by regulating transmission speed.
 Connection Management: Handles session setup, maintenance, and termination.

Protocols:

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Reliable, connection-oriented.

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Faster, connectionless.

3. Session Layer (Layer 5)

Purpose:

 Manages and controls connections (sessions) between devices.

Key Functions:

 Session Establishment: Initiates, maintains, and terminates sessions.

 Synchronization: Places checkpoints for data recovery during interruptions.
 Dialog Control: Manages communication modes (half-duplex, full-duplex).

Examples:

 Protocols: NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP.

4. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

Purpose:

 Ensures data is in a readable format for the application layer.

Key Functions:

 Data Translation: Converts data formats (e.g., EBCDIC to ASCII).

 Encryption/Decryption: Secures data by encrypting and decrypting it.
 Compression: Reduces data size for efficient transmission.

Examples:

 File formats: JPEG, PNG, MP3.

 Protocols: SSL/TLS.

5. Application Layer (Layer 7)

Purpose:

 Provides the interface between users and the network.

Key Functions:

 Resource Sharing: Enables access to network services (e.g., file sharing).

 Service Invocation: Provides protocols for specific applications (e.g., email, file
transfer).
 User Authentication: Ensures secure access to applications.

Examples:

 Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.

 Applications: Web browsers, email clients.

DNS:

Domain name system translate human readable domain names

Physical Layer in the OSI Model

First and lowest layer, responsible for physical connectivity and hardware interaction. It converts
data into electromagnetic signals for transmission and ensures quality and synchronization
during data transfer.

Key Features

1. Transmission Media
o Guided: Includes twisted pairs, coaxial cables, and fiber optics.
o Unguided: Uses airwaves, including communication satellites and radio signals (FM,
UHF, VHF).
o Fiber Optics:
 Multimode: LED-based, slower, shorter range.
 Single-mode: Laser-based, faster, longer range.
2. Signals
o Analog Signals: Continuous waveforms (e.g., AM, FM, Phase Modulation).
o Digital Signals: Discrete voltage pulses (e.g., line/block coding).
3. Transmission Modes
o Simplex: One-way (e.g., keyboard).
o Half-duplex: Alternating two-way (e.g., walkie-talkie).
o Full-duplex: Simultaneous two-way (e.g., mobile phones).
4. Standards
o RS-232: Serial communication standard for peripherals.
o RS-449: Advanced standard for higher data rates and longer distances.

Noise and Issues

 Attenuation: Signal loss over distance.

 Dispersion: Overlapping of data during transmission.
 Data Delay: Lag in data reaching the destination.

Functions

 Transfers data bit-by-bit.

 Synchronizes bits using a clock.
 Manages bit rate (bits per second).
 Supports physical topologies (e.g., mesh, ring, bus, star).
 Prevents data collisions.
 Modulates signals and decides the signal type for transmission.
 Standardizes interfaces for cables, connectors, and radio/wireless transmission.

The physical layer plays a vital role in enabling reliable data transmission across networks.
Modulation:
Modulation is the process of altering a carrier signal (amplitude, frequency, or phase) to encode
data for transmission over a medium.

 Purpose: Enables long-distance transmission and avoids signal interference.

 Advantages: Improves range, reception, and multiplexing while reducing antenna size
and wire costs.
 Disadvantages: Expensive equipment and power inefficiencies.

Demodulation:
Demodulation is the reverse process, extracting the original message signal from the modulated
carrier wave.

 Purpose: Recovers transmitted data at the receiver end.

Types of Analog Modulation:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM):

o Varies carrier amplitude with the message signal.
o Used in early telecommunication and AM radio.
o Advantages: Simple, cost-effective, long-distance propagation.
o Disadvantages: High power requirement, noise susceptibility.
2. Frequency Modulation (FM):
o Varies carrier frequency while keeping amplitude constant.
o Used in radio broadcasting and sound systems.
o Advantages: Noise resistance, efficient transmission, minimal interference.
o Disadvantages: Complex demodulation, interference from nearby stations.
3. Phase Modulation (PM):
o Varies carrier signal phase in relation to the message signal.
o Often used in velocity measurement systems.
o Advantages: Static resistance.
o Disadvantages: Requires specialized equipment.

Digital Modulation Techniques:

1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): Modulates amplitude based on digital data.

2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): Modulates frequency based on digital data.
3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK): Modulates phase based on digital data.
4. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): Combines amplitude and phase
modulation for higher data rates.

Modulation and demodulation together enable efficient, reliable communication across diverse
systems.
Data Encoding:
The process of converting data (characters, symbols, alphabets) into a specific format for secure
transmission.

Decoding:
The reverse of encoding, extracting information from the converted format.

Data Encoding Techniques:

1. Analog to Analog Conversion (Modulation)

2. Digital to Digital Conversion (Line Coding)
3. Analog to Digital Conversion
4. Digital to Analog Conversion
5. Character Encoding
6. Data Compression
7. Error Detection and Correction
8. Serialization
9. Encryption

Digtal-to-Digital Conversion:

Definition: Converting digital data into digital signals via line coding and block coding.

 Line coding: Necessary for all communications.

 Block coding: Optional.

Lne Coding Types:

1. Uni-Polar Encoding
o Single voltage level (e.g., High for 1, No voltage for 0).
o No rest condition (Unipolar Non-Return-to-Zero).
2. Polar Encoding
o Multiple voltage levels (positive and negative).
o Types:
 Polar NRZ:
 NRZ-L: Changes voltage with different bits.
 NRZ-I: Changes voltage when 1 is encountered.
 RZ: Uses three voltages (positive, negative, zero).
 Manchester: Combines RZ and NRZ-L; mid-bit transitions.
 Differential Manchester: Combines RZ and NRZ-I; transitions mid-bit
for 1.
3. Bipolar Encoding
o Uses three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero.
o Binary 0 = Zero voltage; Binary 1 = Alternating positive and negative voltages.
Data Link Layer (OSI Model)

 2nd layer from the bottom, 6th from the top in the OSI model.
 Interacts with the Physical layer and Network layer.

Role:

 Ensures error-free transmission of data.

 Converts packets from the Network layer into frames for transmission.
 Devices: Network Interface Card (NIC), Switches.
 Uses MAC Address (48-bit unique identifier) for device identification.

Sublayers:

1. Logical Link Control (LLC): Manages error detection, flow control, and frame
synchronization.
2. Media Access Control (MAC): Handles framing, addressing, and medium access.

Functions of the Data Link Layer:

1. Framing:
o Divides data into frames with a fixed or variable size.
o Frame = Header + Data + Trailer.
o Example: HDLC uses bit stuffing for variable-size framing.
2. Physical Addressing:
o Uses hardware addresses (MAC) to ensure correct delivery of frames within a
local network.
3. Flow Control:
o Regulates data transmission to prevent the sender from overwhelming the
receiver.
o Ensures smooth data flow and prevents congestion.
4. Access Control:
o Manages how devices share the communication medium.
o Prevents collisions using protocols like CSMA/CD (Ethernet) or CSMA/CA
(Wi-Fi).
5. Error Control:
o Ensures reliable data transmission through error detection and correction.
o Implements mechanisms like parity checks and bit stuffing to handle errors.

key Services:

 Framing: Separates frames for distinguishable transmission.

 Error Control: Detects and corrects errors in transmitted data.
 Access Control: Coordinates medium access to prevent conflicts.
 Flow Control: Balances data transfer rates between devices.
The Network Layer (OSI Model)

 Third layer in the OSI model.

 Ensures data travels from source to destination, even across different networks.

Primary Functions:

1. Logical Addressing:
o Uses IP addresses to identify devices.
o IPv4: 32-bit address (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
o IPv6: 128-bit address (e.g., 2001:db8::8a2e:0370:7334).
o Enables routing across networks.
2. Subnetting and Supernetting:
o Subnetting: Divides a large network into smaller sub-networks for better
management.
o Supernetting: Combines smaller networks into a larger one to optimize routing.
3. Routing:
o Routers use logical addresses to determine the best path for data.
o Ensures efficient delivery of packets between networks.
4. Fragmentation:
o Splits large packets into smaller fragments for networks with size limitations.
o Each fragment is independently transmitted with its own IP header.

Logical vs. Physical Addressing:

 Physical Address (MAC): Permanent, tied to hardware (NIC).

 Logical Address (IP): Temporary, changes based on network location.

IPv4 Address Notations:

 Binary: 01110101 10010101 00011101 00000010.

 Dotted Decimal: 117.149.29.2.
 Format: A.B.C.D (0 ≤ A, B, C, D ≤ 255).

Activities of the Network Layer:

 IP Addressing: Assigns unique IPs for communication.

 Routing: Determines paths for data to traverse networks.
 Fragmentation: Adapts packet size for transmission constraints.

Example:

 Valid IP: 192.168.1.1.

 Invalid IP: 200.28.256.8 (octet exceeds 255).
Routing and Routers

What is Routing?

Routing is the process performed by network devices, primarily routers, to deliver data packets
from one network to another by selecting the optimal path. It involves the following steps:

1. Packet Reception: The router receives a packet and examines its destination IP address.
2. Routing Decision: The router checks its routing table to find the most efficient path based on
metrics like hop count, bandwidth, or delay.
3. Forwarding the Packet: After choosing the best path, the packet is forwarded to the next hop,
which could be another router or the destination device.
4. Updating the Path: If network conditions change (e.g., a path becomes unavailable), routers
update their routing tables to reflect new routes.

What is a Router?

A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. Routers
direct traffic on the internet and ensure data reaches the correct destination by making routing
decisions.

What is a Routing Table?

A routing table is a database stored in a router that contains a list of paths (routes) to network
destinations. It helps the router decide how to forward packets based on the destination address.

Types of Routing

1. Static Routing:
o Routes are manually configured by the network administrator.
o Simple, secure, and doesn’t require overhead from routing protocols.
o Not scalable and requires manual updates for network changes.
o Suitable for small or stable networks where paths rarely change.
2. Dynamic Routing:
o Routers automatically calculate and update routes using algorithms and protocols based
on network conditions.
o Adapts to changes in the network.
o Scalable, but consumes bandwidth and CPU resources for routing calculations and
updates.
3. Default Routing:
o A default route directs packets with unknown destination addresses to a specific router
or gateway.
o Reduces routing table size and simplifies configuration.
o Not suitable for complex networks; typically used in smaller or branch networks to route
traffic to a main router.
Routing Protocols

Routing protocols determine how routers communicate with each other to distribute route
information and select paths.

1. RIP (Routing Information Protocol):

o Simple and suitable for small networks.
o Limited scalability.
2. OSPF (Open Shortest Path First):
o Scalable and efficient, ideal for large enterprise networks.
o Uses the Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm to find the most efficient routes.
3. BGP (Border Gateway Protocol):
o Policy-based and stable, primarily used for global internet routing.
o Connects large networks and ISPs.
o

Summary Table:
Routing
Description Pros Cons
Type

Static Routes manually configured Simple, secure, no protocol Not scalable, requires
Routing by admin. overhead. manual updates.

Dynamic Routes calculated and Adapts to network changes, Consumes bandwidth

Routing updated automatically. scalable. and CPU.

Default Directs unknown packets to a Simplifies configuration, Not suitable for complex
Routing default router. reduces routing table size. networks.

This provides a basic understanding of routing, routers, routing tables, and routing protocols used
in networking.