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Critical mass

A critical mass in nuclear engineering is the minimum amount of fissile material required for a sustained nuclear chain reaction, influenced by factors like shape, density, and temperature. The states of criticality include subcritical (k < 1), critical (k = 1), and supercritical (k > 1), with various methods available to alter the point of criticality, such as changing fuel, shape, or using neutron reflectors. The critical size refers to the minimum size necessary for a nuclear reactor or weapon to maintain a chain reaction.

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Critical mass

A critical mass in nuclear engineering is the minimum amount of fissile material required for a sustained nuclear chain reaction, influenced by factors like shape, density, and temperature. The states of criticality include subcritical (k < 1), critical (k = 1), and supercritical (k > 1), with various methods available to alter the point of criticality, such as changing fuel, shape, or using neutron reflectors. The critical size refers to the minimum size necessary for a nuclear reactor or weapon to maintain a chain reaction.

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RAMAN
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In nuclear engineering, a critical mass is the smallest amount of fissile material

needed for a sustained nuclear chain reaction. The critical mass of a fissionable
material depends upon its nuclear properties (specifically, its nuclear fission cross-
section), density, shape, enrichment, purity, temperature, and surroundings. The
concept is important in nuclear weapon design.

Point of criticality
[edit]
See also: Dollar (reactivity)
When a nuclear chain reaction in a mass of fissile material is self-sustaining, the
mass is said to be in a critical state in which there is no increase or decrease in
power, temperature, or neutron population.

A numerical measure of a critical mass depends on the effective neutron


multiplication factor k, the average number of neutrons released per fission event
that go on to cause another fission event rather than being absorbed or leaving the
material.

A subcritical mass is a mass that does not have the ability to sustain a fission chain
reaction. A population of neutrons introduced to a subcritical assembly will
exponentially decrease. In this case, known as subcriticality, k < 1.

A critical mass is a mass of fissile material that self-sustains a fission chain reaction.
In this case, known as criticality, k = 1. A steady rate of spontaneous fission causes
a proportionally steady level of neutron activity.

A supercritical mass is a mass which, once fission has started, will proceed at an
increasing rate.[1] In this case, known as supercriticality, k > 1. The constant of
proportionality increases as k increases. The material may settle into equilibrium
(i.e. become critical again) at an elevated temperature/power level or destroy itself.

Due to spontaneous fission a supercritical mass will undergo a chain reaction. For
example, a spherical critical mass of pure uranium-235 (235U) with a mass of about 52
kilograms (115 lb) would experience around 15 spontaneous fission events per
second.[citation needed] The probability that one such event will cause a chain reaction
depends on how much the mass exceeds the critical mass. If there is uranium-
238 (238U) present, the rate of spontaneous fission will be much higher.[citation
needed]
Fission can also be initiated by neutrons produced by cosmic rays.

Changing the point of criticality


[edit]
The mass where criticality occurs may be changed by modifying certain attributes
such as fuel, shape, temperature, density and the installation of a neutron-reflective
substance. These attributes have complex interactions and interdependencies.
These examples only outline the simplest ideal cases:

Varying the amount of fuel


[edit]
It is possible for a fuel assembly to be critical at near zero power. If the perfect
quantity of fuel were added to a slightly subcritical mass to create an "exactly critical
mass", fission would be self-sustaining for only one neutron generation (fuel
consumption then makes the assembly subcritical again).

Similarly, if the perfect quantity of fuel were added to a slightly subcritical mass, to
create a barely supercritical mass, the temperature of the assembly would increase
to an initial maximum (for example: 1 K above the ambient temperature) and then
decrease back to the ambient temperature after a period of time, because fuel
consumed during fission brings the assembly back to subcriticality once again.

Changing the shape


[edit]
A mass may be exactly critical without being a perfect homogeneous sphere. More
closely refining the shape toward a perfect sphere will make the mass supercritical.
Conversely changing the shape to a less perfect sphere will decrease its reactivity
and make it subcritical.

Changing the temperature


[edit]
A mass may be exactly critical at a particular temperature. Fission and absorption
cross-sections increase as the relative neutron velocity decreases. As fuel
temperature increases, neutrons of a given energy appear faster and thus
fission/absorption is less likely. This is not unrelated to Doppler broadening of
the 238U resonances but is common to all fuels/absorbers/configurations. Neglecting
the very important resonances, the total neutron cross-section of every material
exhibits an inverse relationship with relative neutron velocity. Hot fuel is always less
reactive than cold fuel (over/under moderation in LWR is a different topic). Thermal
expansion associated with temperature increase also contributes a negative
coefficient of reactivity since fuel atoms are moving farther apart. A mass that is
exactly critical at room temperature would be sub-critical in an environment
anywhere above room temperature due to thermal expansion alone.

Varying the density of the mass


[edit]
The higher the density, the lower the critical mass. The density of a material at a
constant temperature can be changed by varying the pressure or tension or by
changing crystal structure (see allotropes of plutonium). An ideal mass will become
subcritical if allowed to expand or conversely the same mass will become
supercritical if compressed. Changing the temperature may also change the density;
however, the effect on critical mass is then complicated by temperature effects (see
"Changing the temperature") and by whether the material expands or contracts with
increased temperature. Assuming the material expands with temperature
(enriched uranium-235 at room temperature for example), at an exactly critical state,
it will become subcritical if warmed to lower density or become supercritical if cooled
to higher density. Such a material is said to have a negative temperature coefficient
of reactivity to indicate that its reactivity decreases when its temperature increases.
Using such a material as fuel means fission decreases as the fuel temperature
increases.

Use of a neutron reflector


[edit]
Surrounding a spherical critical mass with a neutron reflector further reduces the
mass needed for criticality. A common material for a neutron reflector
is beryllium metal. This reduces the number of neutrons which escape the fissile
material, resulting in increased reactivity.

Use of a tamper
[edit]
In a bomb, a dense shell of material surrounding the fissile core will contain, via
inertia, the expanding fissioning material, which increases the efficiency. This is
known as a tamper. A tamper also tends to act as a neutron reflector. Because a
bomb relies on fast neutrons (not ones moderated by reflection with light elements,
as in a reactor), the neutrons reflected by a tamper are slowed by their collisions with
the tamper nuclei, and because it takes time for the reflected neutrons to return to
the fissile core, they take rather longer to be absorbed by a fissile nucleus. But they
do contribute to the reaction, and can decrease the critical mass by a factor of four.
[2]
Also, if the tamper is (e.g. depleted) uranium, it can fission due to the high energy
neutrons generated by the primary explosion. This can greatly increase yield,
especially if even more neutrons are generated by fusing hydrogen isotopes, in a so-
called boosted configuration.

Critical size
[edit]
The critical size is the minimum size of a nuclear reactor core or nuclear weapon that
can be made for a specific geometrical arrangement and material composition. The
critical size must at least include enough fissionable material to reach critical mass. If
the size of the reactor core is less than a certain minimum, too many fission neutrons
escape through its surface and the chain reaction is not sustained.

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