Analog Modulation

1. Need for Modulation:

.
es
The whole communication system has three main parts which are i) the transmission
of the signal by transmitter through modulation ii) transmission of signal from

ot
transmitter to receiver through radio wave propagation and iii) receiving of the signal
by the receiver and activated by it through demodulation.

N
In transmitting station the modulating wave is added with carrier wave by the process

cs
of modulation and the modulated wave is then transmitted from transmitter to

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receiver and after that the modulated wave is accepted by the receiving antenna

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where in that receiver the modulating wave part of the modulated wave is made
detached from carrier wave by the process of demodulation. The modulator in
ec
transmitting station and demodulator in receiving station are essential circuit system
which are made activated in mutually reverse principle.
El

The modulation i.e. the mixing of the main signal to be transmitted or modulating
n

wave with the carrier wave can be made in three ways which are amplitude
io

modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM). The basic
principle is that the amplitude or the frequency or phase of the carrier wave is made
at

modified in accordance with the modulating signal.

ic

As we have already discussed that the power consumption for the modulating wave is
un

not so strong that it can itself propagate. Thus it should be modulated with the high
m

frequency carrier wave. Here the basic reasons of this modulation to be performed are
om

i) In general the frequency of the modulating signal is a few kHz, thus to propagate
itself the minimum required length of the antenna should be about 15 km which is
.C

practically impossible to use. More clearly, let us consider an audio signal of frequency
𝐜 𝟑×𝟏𝟎𝟖
10 kHz. So it has wavelength 𝛌 = 𝛎 = = 𝟑𝟎 𝐤𝐦. Here the length of the antenna
𝟏𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝛌
will be approximately 𝟒 = 𝟕. 𝟓 𝐤𝐦 which is again very large and practically cannot be
used.

Ii) Mathematically one can show that the power of radiation emitted from a
𝟏
transmitting antenna is proportional to𝛌𝟐 . Thus this radiated power will be poor for

1 / 73
 transmission of high wave length. Hence for proper transmission high frequency signal
is required.

As we have already mentioned that in transmitter of the communication system, the

high frequency carrier wave is mixed with comparatively low frequency audio or video
signal by modulator to send that signal from transmitter to receiver, the action of this
transmitter can be summarized in a few steps which are

.
es
i) At first the modulating signal is converted to equivalent electrical signal by

ot
microphone

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ii) This electrical signal along with the high frequency carrier wave from oscillator

cs
together has been sent to the modulator.

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Iii) The modulated wave is then sent to the amplifier at the transmission end.

tro
Iv) Finally the amplified modulated wave is made released from the transmitting
antenna.
ec
On the other hand in receiving station which is the another part of the communication
El

system, the action is based on the following steps

n

i) The modulated wave is accepted by the receiving antenna.

io

Ii) Then the accepted signal is directly transmitted to the demodulator.

at

Iii) The carrier wave part of the modulated wave is rejected by the demodulator and
ic

the modulating signal is sent to the amplifier at the receiving end.

un

Iv) After that the amplified modulating signal is transmitted to the speaker by which
m

the modulating electrical signal is converted to corresponding audio or video signal.

om

V) Then the audio or video signal (modulating) is sent to loud speaker to amplify it
where the loud speaker is operated by several audio or video amplifier.
.C

Vi) Finally the highly amplified modulating signal is sent to head phone or cathode ray
tube for audio or video acceptance.

The signal either modulating or carrier wave may have several frequencies. The
general range of the frequency of a signal is expressed in to a few groups which are
given below

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 i) Very Low Frequency (VLF): 𝟑 − 𝟑𝟎 𝐤𝐇𝐳 ii) Low Frequency (LF): 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝐇𝐳 iii)
Medium Frequency (MF):𝟑𝟎𝟎𝐤𝐇𝐳 − 𝟑𝐌𝐇𝐳 iv) High Frequency (HF): 𝟑 − 𝟑𝟎 𝐌𝐇𝐳 v)
Very High Frequency (VHF):𝟑𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐌𝐇𝐳 vi) Ultra High Frequency (UHF):
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝐌𝐇𝐳 − 𝟑𝐆𝐇𝐳 vii) Micro Wave (MW): 𝟑 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝐆𝐇𝐳

.
For telecommunication we should note that the frequency range or the frequency

es
band of speech wave is 30 Hz to 3000 Hz. But the carrier wave for this audio signal has
frequency range is from 3000 Hz to 3, 00,000 Hz. Thus the frequency band for this

ot
carrier wave is 2, 97, 000 Hz.

N
On the other hand for wireless or radio signal communication, the frequency range of

cs
audio signal is from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. But in this case the frequency range of the
carrier wave is from 5, 00, 000 Hz to 10, 80, 00, 000 Hz. This is true for AM and FM

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wave.

2. Amplitude Modulation: Modulation Index:

tro
ec
We now consider a carrier wave of frequency and a modulating wave of frequency.
El

These two waves are shown in graphical plot and the frequency of the carrier wave is
much greater than that of the modulating wave as expected. Since for amplitude
n

modulation, the amplitude of

io

the carrier wave will be

at

modified in accordance of the

modulating wave the graphical
ic

plot of the amplitude

un

modulated wave is shown in

figure. In this figure the replica
m

of the carrier wave will change

om

of in accordance of the
modulating wave as shown.
.C

For mathematical analysis of this amplitude modulation, let us consider the carrier
wave and modulating wave respectively as 𝐲𝐜 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 and 𝐲𝐦 = 𝐀 𝐦 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐦 𝐭.

where 𝛚𝐜 = the frequency of the carrier wave, 𝐀 𝐜 = the amplitude of the carrier
wave, 𝛚𝐦 = the frequency of the modulating wave, 𝐀 𝐦 = the amplitude of the
modulating wave. Thus for amplitude modulation the amplitude modulated wave will
𝐤𝐀𝐦
be 𝐲𝐀𝐌 = (𝐀 𝐜 + 𝐤𝐀 𝐦 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐦 𝐭) 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝟏 + 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐜 𝐭
𝐀𝐜

3 / 73
 𝐤𝐀𝐦
Hence 𝐲𝐀𝐌 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝟏 + 𝐦𝐚 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 where 𝐦𝐚 = = modulating index or
𝐀𝐜
depth of modulation. This modulation index has limit of magnitude 𝟎 < 𝐦𝐚 < 𝟏
where for very good modulation 𝐦𝐚 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏. We should note that if 𝐦𝐚 > 𝟏 then
distortion will appear and the modulation will become poor.

𝐤𝐀𝐦
Although the modulation index is given by 𝐦𝐚 = , but in ideal case we can

.
𝐀𝐜

es
𝐀𝐦
consider k=1 and 𝐦𝐚 = for which
𝐀𝐜

ot
𝐀𝐦
𝐲𝐀𝐌 = (𝐀 𝐜 + 𝐀 𝐦 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐦 𝐭) 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝟏 + 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 .

N
𝐀𝐜

In that case the maximum and minimum amplitude of AM wave will be

cs
(𝐀 𝐜 + 𝐀 𝐦 ) and (𝐀 𝐜 − 𝐀 𝐦 ) respectively and the ratio of that two amplitudes will

ni
(𝐀𝐜 +𝐀𝐦 ) 𝟏+𝐦𝐚
be 𝐱 = =
(𝐀𝐜 −𝐀𝐦 ) 𝟏−𝐦𝐚

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3. Concept of Single Side Band Generation and Frequency Spectrum:
ec
Here since we have the modulated wave for amplitude modulation is given by
El

𝐲𝐀𝐌 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝟏 + 𝐦𝐚 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 .

n

We have mathematically
io

𝐲𝐀𝐌 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝟏 + 𝐦𝐚 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐦𝐚 𝐀 𝐜 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐜 𝐭

at

𝐦𝐚 𝐀 𝐜
ic

= 𝐀 𝐜 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 − 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 − 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 + 𝛚𝐦 𝐭

𝟐
un

𝐦𝐚 𝐀𝐜 𝐦𝐚 𝐀𝐜
Thus we get 𝐲𝐀𝐌 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 − 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 − 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 + 𝛚𝐦 𝐭
𝟐 𝟐
m

Here we see that the modulated wave

om

carries three sinusoidal wave among of

which one wave corresponds the
.C

frequency of the carrier wave (𝛚𝐜 ) , the

second one corresponds the lower
frequency 𝛚𝐜 − 𝛚𝐦 and the third one
corresponds the upper frequency
𝛚𝐜 + 𝛚𝐦 . So here only two side bands
appear which are 𝛚𝐜 − 𝛚𝐦 and
𝛚𝐜 + 𝛚𝐦 respectively where 𝛚𝐜 + 𝛚𝐦

4 / 73
 is called upper side band (USB) and 𝛚𝐜 − 𝛚𝐦 is called lower side band (LSB). Since
the carrier wave will not carry the signal here only the two side bands each having
𝐦𝐚 𝐀𝐜
amplitude will carry the signal to be transmitted. The band width of these two
𝟐
side bands is given by ∆𝛚 = 𝛚𝐜 + 𝛚𝐦 − 𝛚𝐜 − 𝛚𝐦 = 𝟐𝛚𝐦 . This is twice the
frequency of the modulating wave.

.
4. Generation of AM Wave: (Emitter Modulation):

es
The AM wave or amplitude modulated wave can easily be produced by using an n-p-n

ot
CE -transistor. This transistor is at first made properly biased by self or potential

N
divider biasing to adjust and stabilize its operating point. After that the equivalent
electrical signal of carrier wave is applied at the base terminal of this transistor.

cs
ni
tro
ec
El
n
io
at
ic
un
m
om

Again the equivalent electrical signal of modulating wave is applied at the emitter
terminal of the transistor so that the output will appear at the collector terminal such
.C

that the collector output will occur in accordance to the variation of input base
voltage (i.e. carrier voltage) in addition with the unaltered emitter modulating voltage
and this output modulated voltage at collector is taken as AM modulated RF (Radio
Frequency for Radio wave propagation) output through the Tuned Circuit (which is
popularly called Tank Circuit). Thus the carrier signal will be modified in its amplitude
in accordance with the modulating wave. Finally we will get the amplitude modulated
wave.

5 / 73
 5. Amplitude Demodulation (Diode Detector) and Detection: Concept of
Single Side Band Generation and Detection.

In order to look at the amplitude demodulation process it is necessary to first look at

the format of an AM signal. An AM signal consists of a carrier which acts as the
reference. Any modulation that is applied then appears as sidebands which stretch

.
out either side of the signal - each sideband is a mirror image of the other.

es
Within the overall AM signal the carrier possess the majority of the power - a fully

ot
modulated, i.e. 100% modulation - AM signal has sidebands which have 25% that of

N
the main carrier.

cs
As the name implies, Amplitude Modulation, AM, is a form of modulation in which the
amplitude or intensity of the waveform is varied in line with the waveform of the

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modulating signal. As part of the modulation process, sidebands are created that

tro
extend out either side of the carrier. ec
When demodulating a signal, two basic steps may be considered:
El

i) Create baseband signal: The main element of AM demodulation is to create the

baseband signal. This can be achieved in a number of ways - one of the easiest is to
n

use a simple diode and rectify the signal. This leaves elements of the original RF signal.
io

When other forms of demodulation are used, they too leave some elements of an RF
signal.
at
ic

ii) Filter: The filtering removes any unwanted high frequency elements from the
demodulation process. The audio can then be presented to further stages for audio
un

amplification, etc.
m

The AM demodulation process is outlined in the diagram below. This particular

om

example applies particularly to a diode detector.

There are a number of

.C

ways in which an AM
signal can be
demodulated. There is a
balance that needs to
be made of the
performance of the

6 / 73
 circuit that is required against the complexity, and hence the cost that can be
tolerated.

The major types of AM demodulator are:

i) Diode AM detector: This is by far the simplest form of AM demodulator or

detector, requiring just a semiconductor (or other form) of diode along with a

.
es
capacitor to remove the high frequency components. It suffers from a number of
disadvantages, but its performance is more than adequate for most applications

ot
including broadcast receivers where cost is a significant driver.

N
ii) Synchronous AM detector: This form of AM detector offers a higher level of

cs
performance, but at the cost of considerably the use of considerably more
components. This means that it is only used in receivers where the levels of

ni
performance are paramount and can justify the additional component costs.

tro
Both types of detector are widely used, although the diode detector is far more
common in view of its simplicity and the fact that it is quite adequate for broadcast
ec
applications where performance is not normally an issue. One of the advantages of
El

amplitude modulation is that it is cheap and easy to build a demodulator circuit for a
radio receiver. The simplicity AM radio receivers AM is one of the reasons why AM has
n

remained in service for broadcasting for so long. One of the key factors of this is the
io

simplicity of the receiver AM demodulator.

at

Basically for Diode Envelope Detector or simply Diode Detector, it operates by

ic

detecting the envelope of the incoming signal which it does by rectifying the signal.
Current is allowed to flow through the diode in only one direction, giving either the
un

positive or negative half of the envelope at the output. If the detector is to be used
m

only for audio detection it does not matter which half of the envelope is used, either
will work equally well.
om

Only when the detector is also

.C

used to supply the automatic gain

control (AGC) circuitry will the
polarity of the diode matter. The
AM detector or demodulator
includes a capacitor at the
output. Its purpose is to remove
any radio frequency components
of the signal at the output. The

7 / 73
 value is chosen so that it does not affect the audio base-band signal. There is also a
leakage path to enable the capacitor to discharge, but this may be provided by the
circuit into which the demodulator is connected.

This type of detector or demodulator is called a linear envelope detector because the
output is proportional to the input envelope.

.
es
6. Frequency Modulation (FM) and Frequency Modulation Index:

ot
In case of frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier wave will be modulated
in accordance of the modulating wave. For such modulation purpose due to the

N
transmission of the modulating signal which may be the periodic function i.e. the

cs
cosine or sine function of time, we have for 𝐲𝐜 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 and 𝐲𝐦 = 𝐀 𝐦 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 ,

ni
The frequency modulated wave should be 𝐲𝐅𝐌 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 + 𝐤𝐀 𝐦 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 𝐭

tro
Thus the instantaneous frequency of this frequency modulated wave will be
𝛚 𝐭 = 𝛚𝐜 + 𝐤𝐀 𝐦 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 where 𝐤 is proportionality constant which is also
ec
called frequency conversion factor. This value of 𝐤 is determined by the modulating
system adopted.
El

Since the angular frequency for any wave form is so called ‘angular velocity’ of the
n

equivalent circular motion, the instantaneous angular displacement which is the

io

instantaneous phase angle for modulated (FM) wave is

at

𝐤𝐀 𝐦
ic

𝛉 𝐭 = 𝛚 𝐭 𝐝𝐭 = ( 𝛚𝐜 + 𝐤𝐀 𝐦 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐦 𝐭) 𝐝𝐭 = 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭
𝛚𝐦
un

Here we measure the time t from the instant at which the initial phase angle is zero.
m

The frequency modulated (FM) wave is thus represented as

om

𝐤𝐀 𝐦
𝐲𝐅𝐌 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭
𝛚𝐦
.C

And the instantaneous frequency of frequency modulated wave i.e. basically the
𝛚 𝐭 𝐤𝐀𝐦
frequency modulated carrier wave is 𝐧 𝐭 = = 𝐧𝐜 + 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 . For this
𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
frequency modulation, we should note that

a) The maximum departure of the frequency from the unmodulated frequency occurs
𝐤𝐀𝐦
when 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 = 𝟏 and it is given by ∆𝐧 = [𝐧 𝐭 − 𝐧𝐜 ]𝐦𝐚𝐱 = . So this ∆𝐧 is
𝟐𝛑
proportional to 𝐀 𝐦 , the amplitude of the modulating wave.

8 / 73
 The ratio of this maximum deviation of frequency to the frequency of the modulating
frequency 𝐧𝐦 is called frequency modulation index. This index is denoted by 𝐦𝐟 and
𝐤𝐀𝐦
∆𝐧 𝟐𝛑 𝐤𝐀𝐦 𝐤𝐀𝐦
it is given by 𝐦𝐟 = 𝐧 = = =
𝐦 𝐧𝐦 𝟐𝝅𝐧𝐦 𝛚𝐦

b) In respect of frequency modulation index, the frequency modulated wave is

presented as 𝐲𝐅𝐌 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭 . The wave shape of the

.
es
modulating and frequency modulated waves are shown in figure.

ot
c) The FM wave as described previously can
be shown to contain an infinite number of

N
side frequencies on either side of the

cs
carrier. The side frequencies are
𝐧𝐜 ± 𝐧𝐦 , 𝐧𝐜 ± 𝟐𝐧𝐦 , 𝐧𝐜 ± 𝟑𝐧𝐦 , and

ni
so on.

tro
The amplitude of n’th side frequency
component 𝐧𝐜 ± 𝐧𝐧𝐦 is proportional to
ec
𝐉𝐧 𝐦𝐟 which is Bessel function of 1st kind
El

of order n because the frequency spectrum

analysis for FM wave is quite complicated
n

where the help should be taken from Bessel

io

function.
at

For side frequency far away from the carrier frequency, the amplitudes are
ic

insignificantly small. The number of significant side frequency pairs is thus limited in
un

practical purpose.

d) Similar to amplitude modulated wave, here also for FM wave, the information is
m

carried in side frequencies. So if 𝐧𝐦 be the modulating frequency the band width

om

needed for transmission or reception of FM signal is 2n𝐧𝐦 where n is the number of

significant side frequency pairs. For not a single valued but for continuously varying
.C

modulating frequency, the frequency will be complicated and in that case, the band
width will be 2n(𝐧𝐦 )𝐦𝐚𝐱 where (𝐧𝐦 )𝐦𝐚𝐱 is maximum modulating frequency.

e) The power of the FM wave does not change through modulation. The total power
of the modulated carrier wave along with all of its side frequency components is equal
always to the sum of the power of the unmodulated carrier wave and the original
modulating wave.

9 / 73
 7. Frequency Spectrum in FM Wave:

.
es
In this section we shall look into the frequency spectrum of the signal
𝐲𝐅𝐌 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭 .

ot
Now we have

N
𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭 = 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐜 𝐭 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭 − 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐜 𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭)

cs
Consider now the expression 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 which appears as a factor on the right-

ni
hand side of above equation. It is an even, periodic function having an angular
frequency 𝛚𝐦 .
tro
ec
𝛚𝐦
Therefore it is possible to expand this expression in a Fourier series in which is the
𝟐𝛑
El

fundamental frequency. We shall not undertake the evaluation of the coefficients in

n

the Fourier expansion of 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭 but shall instead simply write out the
io

results.
at

The coefficients are of course, functions of 𝐦𝐟 , and, since the function is even, the
ic

coefficients of the odd harmonics are zero. The result is

un
m

𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 = 𝐉𝟎 𝐦𝐟 + 𝟐𝐉𝟐 𝐦𝐟 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝛚𝐦 𝐭 + 𝟐𝐉𝟒 𝐦𝐟 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝟒𝛚𝐦 𝐭 + ⋯ +

om

𝟐𝐉𝟐𝐧 𝐦𝐟 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭 + ⋯

While for 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭) which is an odd function, we find the expansion contains
.C

only odd harmonics and is given by

𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭 = 𝟐𝐉𝟏 𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭 + 𝟐𝐉𝟑 𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟑𝛚𝐦 𝐭 + ⋯ +

𝟐𝐉𝟐𝐧−𝟏 𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝐧 − 𝟏)𝛚𝐦 𝐭 + ⋯

10 / 73
 The functions 𝐉𝐧 𝐦𝐟 occur often in the
solution of engineering problems. They are
known as Bessel functions of the first kind
and of order 𝐧. The numerical values of
𝐉𝐧 𝐦𝐟 are tabulated in mathematical
tables.

.
es
Putting the above results for the expansion
of 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 and 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐟 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭 in

ot
terms of Bessel functions and using the

N
identities

cs
𝟏 𝟏
𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐀 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐁 = 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝐀 − 𝐁) + 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝐀 + 𝐁)
𝟐 𝟐

ni
𝟏 𝟏
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐀 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐁 = 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝐀 − 𝐁) − 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝐀 + 𝐁)

tro
𝟐 𝟐

in above equation we finally get

ec
𝐲𝐅𝐌 =
El

𝐉𝟎 𝐦𝐟 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 − 𝐉𝟏 𝐦𝐟 [𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 − 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 − 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 + 𝛚𝐦 𝐭] + 𝐉𝟐 𝐦𝐟 [𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 −

n

𝟐𝛚𝐦 𝐭 + 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 + 𝟐𝛚𝐦 𝐭] −𝐉𝟑 𝐦𝐟 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 − 𝟑𝛚𝐦 𝐭 − 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 + 𝟑𝛚𝐦 𝐭 + ⋯

io

This gives that the spectrum is composed of a carrier with amplitude 𝐉𝟎 𝐦𝐟 and a set
at

of side bands frequencies or side frequencies spaced symmetrically on either side of

ic

the carrier at frequency separations of 𝛚𝐦 , 𝟐𝛚𝐦 , 𝟑𝛚𝐦 ,…. etc.

un

In this respected the result is unlike that which prevails in the amplitude-modulation
m

systems discussed earlier, since in AM sinusoidal modulating signal gives rise to only
om

one sideband or one pair of sidebands.

.C

8. Phase Modulation and Phase Modulation Index:

In phase modulation, the amplitude of the modulated wave i.e. the modulated carrier
wave will remain the same as for unmodulated original carrier wave, but the
instantaneous phase angle of the carrier wave is changed by the modulating signal.
The instantaneous departure of the phase from unmodulated carrier to the

11 / 73
 modulated wave is proportional to the modulating signal as in other cases of
modulation.

As we have considered before, let us take the respective carrier and modulating
signals are 𝐲𝐜 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 and 𝐲𝐦 = 𝐀 𝐦 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 . Then the instantaneous phase
angle of the phase modulated (PM) wave is

.
es
𝛉 𝐭 = 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐊 𝐏 𝐀 𝐦 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 where 𝐊 𝐏 is a proportionality constant and it is called
phase conversion factor.

ot
From this instantaneous phase angle of phase modulated wave we see that the

N
maximum deviation of the phase from that of unmodulated carrier is 𝐊 𝐏 𝐀 𝐦 and this

cs
maximum deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal. This
maximum phase difference is called phase modulation index ( 𝐦𝐩 ) and it is given by

ni
𝐦𝐩 = 𝐊 𝐏 𝐀 𝐦 .

tro
Then this phase modulated wave is given by
ec
𝐲𝐏𝐌 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐊 𝐏 𝐀 𝐦 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 = 𝐀 𝐜 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 + 𝐦𝐩 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐦 𝐭 .
El

In compare with frequency modulated wave, we see that in both FM and PM waves
(and signals), the modulation component represents a departure of the phase angle
n

superimposed on the phase angle 𝛚𝐜 𝐭 of the unmodulated carrier.

io
at

Again the instantaneous angular frequency of the PM signal is

ic

𝐝𝛉
un

𝛚 𝐭 = = 𝛚𝐜 − 𝐦𝐩 𝛚𝐦 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭
𝐝𝐭
m

And the corresponding linear frequency of this phase modulated signal is

om

𝛚 𝐭
𝐧 𝐭 = = 𝐧𝐜 − 𝐦𝐩 𝐧𝐦 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐦 𝐭 . and then the maximum deviation in frequency
𝟐𝛑

from that of unmodulated carrier

.C

∆𝐧 = [𝐧 𝐭 − 𝐧𝐜 ]𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐦𝐩 𝐧𝐦 = 𝐊 𝐏 𝐀 𝐦 𝐧𝐦

Thus the maximum frequency deviation in PM wave is proportional to the both

amplitude and frequency of the modulating signal. This is the only difference from FM
wave because in our previous discussion we see that in case of FM signal, such

12 / 73
 maximum frequency difference from unmodulated to modulated wave is only
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.

9. Equivalence between FM and PM:

A comparison regarding equivalence between FM and PM can be made which are

.
es
a) In PM, maximum frequency deviation is proportional to the both amplitude and
frequency of the modulating signal but in FM, this deviation is only proportional to the

ot
amplitude of the modulating signal.

N
b) There is a phase shift of 90o of the modulating signal in the FM and PM waves.

cs
c) Like FM signal, also in case of PM signal, it consists of an infinite number of side
frequency pairs separated from the carrier frequency by 𝐧𝐦 , 𝟐𝐧𝐦 , 𝟑𝐧𝐦 , … .. and so on.

ni
d) For the same modulation index for FM and PM waves, the relative amplitudes of

tro
the side frequency components are the same.
ec
10. Generation of FM using VCO:
El

Here VCO means Voltage Controlled Oscillator by which we can generate FM wave in a
very simple way and in this purpose; a varactor diode is used in this oscillator.
n
io
at
ic
un
m
om
.C

13 / 73
 A circuit diagram for VCO FM generator is shown in figure. Here a parallel resonant
circuit containing a varactor diode C (which is basically a variable capacitor and is also
called Varicap) is connected to the collector terminal of the transistor Q1 used in this
circuit. Thus effectively the circuit becomes tuned collector oscillator.

In absence of the modulating voltage or modulating signal, the frequency of the

𝟏

.
oscillator is 𝐧𝐜 = 𝟐𝛑 where L is the self inductance of the primary coil of the

es
𝐋𝐂
transformer and C is the varactor diode capacitance.

ot
The reactance for this capacitance is made neglected for large value of it. But in

N
presence of modulating signal voltage, it changes the reverse bias of the varactor
diode and hence its capacitance. Actually the capacitance of such varactor diode

cs
𝐊
depends on its reverse biasing Vcc and is approximately given by 𝐂 = 𝐕 𝐧 where K is a
𝐜𝐜

ni
𝟏
constant and 𝐧 = 𝟐 for abrupt junction varactor diode (because it is fabricated by a

tro
p – n junction when activated with reverse biasing across it).
ec
Now if we consider that is the change in varactor diode capacitance ∆𝐂 for the
modulating voltage ∆𝐕 , the new frequency of oscillation is
El

𝟏 ∆𝐂
𝐧= ≈ 𝐧𝐜 𝟏 +
n

𝟐𝛑 𝐋 𝐂 − ∆𝐂 𝟐𝐂
io

𝐊 𝐊 ∆𝐕 ∆𝐕
at

Since ∆𝐂 ≪ 𝐂 , we also have 𝐂 − ∆𝐂 = = 𝐕𝐧 𝟏 − 𝐧 𝐕 = 𝐂 𝟏 − 𝐧𝐕

(𝐕𝐜𝐜 +∆𝐕)𝐧 𝐜𝐜 𝐜𝐜 𝐜𝐜
ic

∆𝐂 ∆𝐕
Thus we get = 𝐧𝐕 and finally the change in frequency
un

𝐂 𝐜𝐜

∆𝐂 𝐧𝐧𝐜
m

∆𝐧 = 𝐧 − 𝐧𝐜 = 𝐧𝐜 . = ∆𝐕
𝟐𝐂 𝟐𝐕𝐜𝐜
om

Hence ∆𝐧 is proportional to the modulating voltage ∆𝐕 and then frequency

modulation achieved.
.C

11. Principle of FM Detector (Slope Detector):

Demodulation or Detection is that process of Discrimination through which the

modulating signal from a modulated carrier wave can be successfully extracted
without any distortion or deformation.

14 / 73
 The simplest form of such FM discriminator is the slope detector. The circuit of such
detector is shown in figure. The LC tank circuit is detuned from the carrier frequency
𝐧𝐜 such that this carrier frequency 𝐧𝐜 lies at the middle of the most linear region of the
response curve as shown.
When the frequency of
the FM signal rises above

.
𝐧𝐜 the amplitude of the

es
output voltage increases.
But for FM signal

ot
frequency less than 𝐧𝐜 ,

N
the output voltage
reduces.

cs
Basically the slope

ni
detector changes FM to

tro
AM signal and after that a
simple diode detector
ec
recovers the merit or
intelligence contained in
El

the envelope of AM wave

form. But in actual case,
n

such slope detection is not widely used because the response curve of the tank circuit
io

deviates from linearity for large frequency variation in wide band FM.
at
ic
un
m
om
.C

15 / 73
 12. Qualitative idea of Super Heterodyne Receiver:

.
es
Here basically ‘heterodyne’ means the mixing of frequencies together so as to produce
a beat frequency, namely the difference between the two earlier frequencies. Here we

ot
should note that amplitude modulation is a heterodyne process because here the
information signal or modulating signal is mixed with the high frequency carrier signal

N
to produce the side-band frequencies. The side-bands occur at precisely the sum and

cs
difference frequencies of the carrier and modulating signals. These are beat
frequencies (normally the beat frequency is associated with the lower side-band, the

ni
difference between the two).

tro
When we use the lower side-band (the difference between the two frequencies -
ec
𝛚𝐜 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛚𝐦 ), we are actually going to super heterodyne. Frankly speaking, the term
super heterodyne refers to creating a beat frequency that is lower than that of original
El

signal. Although we have mentioned the example of amplitude modulation side-

bands, we are not talking about encoding information for transmission.
n
io

By means of super heterodyne we purposely mix another frequency with the

frequency of the modulated signal at the receiver, so as to reduce the main signal
at

frequency of modulated wave prior to processing for demodulation in receiving

ic

station. So clearly the super heterodyne receiver is used for this purpose of reducing
un

frequency before demodulation in receiving station. How this is done will be discussed
below.
m

We have already mentioned that super heterodyne process is simply reducing the
om

frequency of the incoming signal by mixing. In a radio application, we are reducing the
AM or FM signal frequency at the receiver which is centered on the carrier frequency
.C

to some intermediate value, called the IF (intermediate frequency).

For practical purposes, the super heterodyne receiver always reduces frequency to
some value of IF.

Super heterodyne receiver is essentially the conventional receiver with the addition of
a mixer and local oscillator. The local oscillator is linked to the tuner because they
both must vary with the carrier frequency. For example, suppose we want to tune in a

16 / 73
 TV station at 235 MHz. The band-pass filter (Tuner) (which only permits signals in a
small range about the center frequency to pass) must be centered at 235 MHz. The
local oscillator must be set to a frequency that will heterodyne the 235 MHz to the
desired IF of 452 kHz = 0.452 MHz (say). This means the local oscillator must be set to
234.548 MHz (or alternatively to 235.452 MHz like the side band frequencies
𝛚𝐜 − 𝛚𝐦 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛚𝐜 + 𝛚𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐀𝐌 𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧𝐚𝐥) so that the difference frequency will be

.
exactly 452 kHz = 0.452 MHz.

es
The local oscillator must be capable of varying the frequency over the same range as

ot
the tuner; in fact, they vary the same amount. Therefore, the tuner and the local

N
oscillator are linked so they operate together like a super heterodyne receiver.

cs
The block diagram of the operation of such super heterodyne receiver is given below.

ni
tro
ec
El
n
io
at
ic
un

13. Analog Pulse Modulation: Basic Principles – PAM, PPM and PWM:
m

Analog modulation refers the modulation process of transferring or transmitting a low

frequency (narrow band) analog data signal like an audio or TV signal or a Phone call
om

using high frequency carrier signal in radio frequency band.

.C

Analog Pulse Modulation is that modulation process through which a carrier wave as a
pulse is used for exchange data or for transmission of data (here data signal is actually
modulating signal) in analog form.

There are several types of pulse modulation because this can be done either through
Amplitude modulation called Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or through phase

17 / 73
 modulation called Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) or through the modulation of
width of the carrier pulse called Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM).

This pulse modulation is used for analog-to-digital

conversion.

.
es
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is an analog
modulation process in which the amplitude of the

ot
pulse carrier varies proportionally to the
instantaneous amplitude of the message signal or

N
data signal or modulating signal. In this

cs
modulation process, the message information is encoded in the amplitude of a series
of carrier pulses.

ni
tro
Since in this modulation process, the amplitude
of the pulsed carrier signal is changed according
ec
to the amplitude of the message signal, we can
see from figure as shown that the amplitude of
El

the carrier pulses is varying with respect to the

amplitude of analog modulating signal, like in
n

case of amplitude modulation (AM). But the

io

major difference is that unlike AM, here the

at

carrier wave is a pulse train rather than

continuous wave signal.
ic
un

Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) is that modulation process in which the width of the
carrier pulse varies according to the amplitude of
m

the message signal or modulating signal. In this

technique the amplitude of the carrier signal is
om

constant and only the width is varying. PWM

technique is similar to frequency modulation
.C

(FM) because by the variation in the width of the

pulses, the frequency of the pulses in the PWM
signal shows variation.

Pulse-Position Modulation (PPM) is a form of

signal modulation in which message bits or
message signal is encoded by transmitting carrier pulse in one of possible required
time shifts.

18 / 73
 Basically it is a technique in which the position of the pulses is changed in accordance
with the amplitude of the modulating signal.

Here the carrier pulse amplitude and width both remain constants and these do not
show variation with the amplitude of the modulating signal but only the position of
carrier pulse shows variation. It is to be noted here that the position of the pulse
changes according to the reference pulses. And these reference pulses are nothing but

.
es
PWM pulses.

ot
If we compare these three types of Analog Pulse Modulation, we can say that

N
1. In PAM amplitude of the pulse shows proportionality with the amplitude of

cs
modulating signal.

ni
In PWM width of the pulses shows proportionality with the amplitude of the message
signal whereas in PPM the position of the pulses is proportional to the amplitude of

tro
analog modulating signal.
ec
2. PAM technique shows low immunity towards the noise. PWM and PPM has low
noise interference factor because their noise immunity is high.
El

3. In PAM and PWM techniques, transmitter and receiver synchronization is not

n

required. But PPM technique needs synchronization between transmitter and receiver
io

section.
at

4. The transmission power in case of PAM and PWM is variable due to variation in
ic

amplitude and width respectively. However, it is constant in case of PPM because

un

both amplitude and width are constant in case of PPM.

m

5. As the position of the pulses is changed in PPM, therefore it requires

synchronization pulses. While both PAM and PWM do not require synchronization
om

pulses.
.C

6. All PAM, PWM and PPM show similarity in implementation with AM, FM and PM
respectively.

7. The bandwidth requirement is low in case of PAM but is comparatively high in case
of PWM and PPM.

19 / 73
 14. Modulation Technique for PAM:

Pulse amplitude modulation is the basic form of analog pulse modulation in which the
signal is sampled at regular and each sample is made proportional to the amplitude of
the modulating signal at the sampling
instant. The figure shows the block

.
diagram for the generation of PAM

es
signal from the sampler (Carrier)
which has two inputs i.e. modulating

ot
signal and sampling signal or carrier

N
pulse.

cs
Thus the amplitude of the signal is
proportional to the modulating signal

ni
through which information is carried.

tro
This is Pulse amplitude modulation
signal. The another figure shows the spectrum of pulse amplitude modulated signal
ec
along with the message signal and the sampling signal which is the carrier train of
pulses with the help of the waveform plotted in time domain. Pulse Modulation may
El

be used to transmitting analog

information, such as continuous speech
n

signal or data.
io
at

The circuit design of Pulse Amplitude

Modulation is also shown. A PAM is
ic

generated from a pure sine wave

un

modulating signal and a square wave

generator which produces the carrier
m

pulse and a PAM modulator circuit.

om

A sine wave generator is used which is

based on Wien Bridge Oscillator circuit.
.C

This can produce distortion less sine

wave at the output. The circuit is
designed such that the amplitude and
the frequency of the oscillator can be adjusted using a potentiometer.

20 / 73
 The frequency can be varied by varying the potentiometer R2 and the amplitude of the
adjusted using the potentiometer R1.
The frequency of the sine wave
𝟏
generated is 𝐧=
𝟐𝛑 𝐑 𝟏 𝐑 𝟐 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐

.
es
[C1 and C2 are not shown in circuit
diagram]

ot
N
cs
ni
tro
ec
El
n
io

15. Detection Technique for PAM:

at
ic

For the demodulation of the PAM signal, the PAM signal is fed to the low pass filter.
un

The low pass filter eliminates the high-frequency carrier pulse ripples and generates
the demodulated signal. This signal is then applied to the inverting amplifier to
m

amplify its signal level to have the demodulated output with almost equal amplitude
om

with the modulating signal.

.C

The process of Detection of PAM signal is just opposite to that of generation of PAM.

Here the block diagram for detection PAM is shown in figure.

21 / 73
 .
es
ot
N
cs
ni
The PAM signal is at first sent to analog multiplier and another sinusoidal wave form

tro
from an oscillator is made mixed with this PAM signal through analog multiplier. With
ec
frequency resonance the tuning of the modulating signal is made and then the
resonating wave form with high frequency carrier pulses is made transmitted through
El

the low pass filter (LPF) which will reject high frequency carrier pulses by using
n

capacitive circuit. Finally the original wave form of modulating signal will come out.
io
at
ic
un
m
om
.C

22 / 73
 16. Channel Capacity:

.
es
Channel Capacity is a wide-used process through which the maximum amount of
signal can be moved over a particular infrastructure or network, popularly known as

ot
channel. It is useful in computer science, in electrical engineering, and in some other
disciplines.

N
An estimation of the channel capacity concept with B Hz bandwidth and signal-to-

cs
noise ratio S/N can be obtained from Shannon–Hartley theorem and it is basically

ni
𝐒
applicable for noisy channel. This is given by 𝐂 = 𝐁𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟏 + 𝐍 and this channel

tro
capacity 𝐂 is measured in bits per second if the logarithm is taken in base 2 assuming B
in hertz; the signal and noise powers S and N are expressed in a linear power unit
ec
(watt).
El

Since S/N figures are often cited in dB, a conversion may be needed. Since the signal
to noise ratio is given by SNR = (Power of signal) / (power of noise), so this channel
n

capacity is directly proportional to the power of the signal.

io

This channel capacity is basically maximum data rate for data transmission. This data
at

rate governs the speed of data transmission. A very important consideration in data
ic

communication is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel. Data
un

rate or channel capacity depends upon 3 factors:

m

a) The bandwidth available b) Number of levels in digital signal c) The quality of the
channel – level of noise
om

Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate channel capacity: one by

.C

Nyquist equation for a noiseless channel, another by Shannon equation for a noisy
channel.

For noise less channel, Nyquist equation for measurement of channel capacity is given
by 𝐂 = 𝟐𝐁𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝐋 where 𝐁 is band width of the channel and 𝐋 is the number of signal
levels used to represent data. For noise less channel with fixed band width, this
channel capacity depends on the number of signal levels.

23 / 73
 As for example, consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting
a signal with two signal levels. Here the channel capacity is then given by Channel
Capacity = 2 x 3000 x log2(2) = 6000bps

For another example, let we need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a
bandwidth of 20 kHz. If we want to obtain how many signal levels do we need? Then
we should have 265000 = 2 x 20000 x log2(L). Thus we get log2(L) = 6.625 and finally we

.
es
get L = 26.625 = 98.7 levels.

ot
For noisy channel, the channel capacity is obtained from Shannon–Hartley equation
𝐒

N
which is given by𝐂 = 𝐁𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟏 + = 𝐁𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟏 + 𝐒𝐍𝐑 . Here we should note that
𝐍
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR = S/N) is usually expressed in decibels (dB) given by the

cs
𝐒
formula:𝟏𝟎𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 Suppose we have signal to noise ratio 1000, it is actually given
𝐍

ni
by 𝟏𝟎𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎𝐝𝐁.

tro
As for example, let us consider that a telephone line normally has a bandwidth of
3000 Hz (300 to 3300 Hz) assigned for data communication. The SNR or signal to noise
ec
ratio is usually 3162. Then the channel capacity of this channel is given by
El

C = 3000 x log2(1 + SNR) = 3000 x 11.62 = 34860 bps (bits/sec).

n

Let us take another example. Assume that SNR is 36dB and the channel bandwidth is 2
io

MHz. Now to find the channel capacity, here we have SNR (36dB) = 10 x log10(S/N).
at

Thus we get S/N = 103.6 = 3981. Hence we get the channel capacity C = 2 x 106 x
log2(1+3981) = 24 MHz
ic
un

17. Sampling and Sampling Theorem:

m

Sampling is actually a process through which a continuous signal can be converted or

om

can be represented into its discrete form (called samples). But sampling theorem
states that a continuous time signal can be completely converted into to its samples
and can be recovered back under the condition 𝐟𝐬 ≥ 𝟐𝐟𝐦 where 𝐟𝐬 is the frequency of
.C

the sample and 𝐟𝐦 is the maximum frequency of the message signal or modulating
signal.

Suppose we take a continuous time signal like a sinusoidal signal. This can be
converted into its discrete form or its sample by multiplying it with a pulse train
(discrete wave train which is also called impulse train) signal having frequency 𝐟𝐬
(which is the frequency of pulse train and this is considered as sample frequency) and

24 / 73
 time period, say,𝐓𝐬 . Finally we can then completely represent that continuous signal
into its sample or discrete form having same signal shape as shown. After such
conversion that
signal is then called
sampled signal which
has the same trace

.
to that of original

es
form of continuous signal. After that we can recover back the original signal
completely from this sampled form only by taking the envelope of the sampled form

ot
and that is possible under the condition as stated earlier.

N
More clearly, let us consider an original continuous message signal having three

cs
frequency components and is given by 𝐱 𝐭 = 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛑𝐭 + 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟑𝛑𝐭 + 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟒𝛑𝐭 . So the
respective frequencies of these three components are 1Hz, 1.5Hz and 2 Hz and thus

ni
the maximum frequency of this message signal will be 𝐟𝐦 = 𝟐𝐇𝐳 and it is then

tro
considered as message frequency. For the validity of this sampling theorem, we
should consider 𝐟𝐬 ≥ 𝟒. Here if we take the limiting case we should have least
ec
condition 𝐟𝐬 = 𝟒𝐇𝐳 and then it is called as Nyquist rate of the signal.
El

Suppose we violet this Nyquist rate as well as the condition of sampling theorem and
take 𝐟𝐬 ≤ 𝟐𝐟𝐦 then for such less frequency of the sample train, its time period will be
n

greater and then by using such pulse train with very less or less frequency, if it is
io
at
ic
un
m
om

multiplied with the original message signal the complete and total exact envelope of
message signal will not be observed in the sampled signal and the complete recovery
.C

of the original message signal from such sampled wave form will not be possible. So
the theorem will be valid exactly very well when the sample frequency will be very
high.

18. Concept of Multiplexing:

a) Basic Concept: Multiplexing (or Muxing) is a way of sending multiple signals or

streams of information over a communications link at the same time in the form of a

25 / 73
 single, complex signal; the receiver recovers the separate signals, a process called
Demultiplexing (or Demuxing). It is a method by which multiple analogue message
signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium.

When many signals or channels are to be transmitted, then from transmitter’s side
that sends simultaneously i.e. multiplexer converts many into one, so that at the
receiving end also all input we get simultaneously. Sending many signals separately is

.
es
expensive and requires more wires to send. So there is a need of multiplexing.

ot
In simple words multiplexing is used to tackle the problem of bandwidth, be it in
computers where multiple peripherals need to communicate with the processor

N
through a single communication bus or in telecommunication where different types of

cs
data must be transmitted simultaneously through a channel with limited bandwidth.

ni
Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one signal, over a shared

tro
medium. If the analog signals are multiplexed, then it is called as analog multiplexing.
Similarly, if the digital signals are multiplexed, then it is called as digital multiplexing.
ec
Multiplexing was first developed in telephony. A number of signals were combined to
El

send through a single cable. The process of multiplexing divides a communication

channel into several numbers of logical channels, allotting each one for a different
n

message signal or a data stream to be transferred. The device that does multiplexing
io

can be called as Multiplexer or MUX.

at

The reverse process, i.e., extracting the number of channels from one, which is done
ic

at the receiver, is called as de-multiplexing. The device that does de-multiplexing can
be called as De-multiplexer or DEMUX.
un

The following figures illustrate the concept of MUX and DEMUX. Their primary use is
m

in the field of communications.

om
.C

26 / 73
 b) Types of Multiplexers: There are mainly two types of multiplexers, namely
analog and digital. They are further divided into Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM), Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) and Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM). The following figure gives a detailed idea about this classification.

.
es
ot
N
cs
ni
tro
ec
El
n
io

There are many types of multiplexing techniques. Out of which, we have the main
at

types with general classification, mentioned in the above figure. Let us take a look at
ic

them individually.
un

i) Analog Multiplexing: (AM)

The signals used in analog multiplexing techniques are analog in nature. The analog
m

signals are multiplexed according to their frequency (FDM) or wavelength (WDM).

om

a) Frequency Division Multiplexing: (FDM)

.C

In analog multiplexing, the most used technique is Frequency Division Multiplexing

(FDM). This technique uses various frequencies to combine streams of data, for
sending them on a communication medium, as a single signal.

Example − A traditional television transmitter which sends a number of channels

through a single cable uses FDM.

27 / 73
 b) Wavelength Division Multiplexing: (WDM)

Wavelength Division multiplexing (WDM) is an analog technique, in which many data

streams of different wavelengths are transmitted in the light spectrum. If the
wavelength increases, the frequency of the signal decreases. A prism, which can turn
different wavelengths into a single line, can be used at the output of MUX and input of

.
DEMUX.

es
Example − Optical fiber communications use WDM technique, to merge different

ot
wavelengths into a single light for communication.

N
ii) Digital Multiplexing: (DM)

cs
The term digital represents the discrete bits of information. Hence, the available data

ni
is in the form of frames or packets, which are discrete.

tro
Time Division Multiplexing: (TDM)
ec
In Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), the time frame is divided into slots. This
technique is used to transmit a signal over a single communication channel, by
El

allotting one slot for each message. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) can be classified
into Synchronous TDM and Asynchronous TDM.
n
io

a) Synchronous TDM:
at

In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If there are ‘n’ numbers of
ic

connections, then the frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots. One slot is allocated for each
un

input line.
m

In this technique, the sampling rate is common for all signals and hence the same
clock input is given. The MUX allocates the same slot to each device at all times.
om

b) Asynchronous TDM:
.C

In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is different for each of the signals and a
common clock is not required. If the allotted device for a time slot transmits nothing
and sits idle, then that slot can be allotted to another device, unlike synchronous. This
type of TDM is used in Asynchronous transfer mode networks.

28 / 73
 Digital Pulse Modulation

1. Need for Digital Transmission: Digital Carrier Modulation Techniques:

.
es
Digital Transmission is one kind of transmission of signals where the transmission may
vary discretely with time between two values of some physical quantity, one value

ot
representing the binary number 0 and the other representing 1. Digital transmission is

N
used to achieve high reliability and because the low cost of digital switching systems.
This kind of transmission is applied in case of mobile communication where the analog

cs
signal is at first made digitized and then the digital transmission of that digitized signal

ni
is made from one base station to another base station through specific cellular
technology.

tro
We should keep in mind that in the process of communication, signal transmission can
ec
take place in two ways – analog transmission and digital transmission.
El

In digital transmission, the data will be transmitted in the form of square wave
whereas in case of analog transmission, the data transmission takes place through any
n

other wave form.

io
at
ic
un
m
om

If we compare this digital transmission with the analog transmission then we should
.C

note that analog transmission conveys voice, data, image signal, or video information
using an information signal or carrier signal (through modulation) that is continuously
varying whereas digital transmission transfers data over a transmission medium
discretely and this digital transmission can take place through two ways – Serial
transmission and Parallel transmission.

29 / 73
 One of the most common physical medias used in networking for digital transmission
is copper wire and that is able to carry signals to long distances using relatively low
amounts of power. For this purpose, unshielded twisted pair (UTP) of copper wire is
used.

At first we can highlight a few disadvantages in digital transmission which are a) the
process of ‘Sampling’ is required for this kind of transmission and this may cause loss

.
es
of information b) In this case the A/D and D/A networking for transmission demands
mixed-signal hardware c) Processor speed is limited d) Quantization and round-off

ot
errors occurs in this transmission and e) Systems and processing is more complex.

N
In spite of all these we can conclude that, although conventional methods of

cs
communication used analog signals for long distance communications, which suffer
from many losses such as distortion, interference, and other losses including security

ni
breach, in order to overcome these problems, the signals are digitized using different

tro
techniques. The digitized signals allow the communication to be more clear, secure
and accurate without losses
ec
The needs for such digital transmission are
El
n

 The effect of distortion, noise and interference is much less in digital signals as
io

they are less affected.

at

 Digital circuits are more reliable.

ic

 Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper than analog circuits.
un

 The hardware implementation in digital circuits is more flexible than analog.

m

 The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital communication.

om

 Signal processing functions such as encryption and compression are employed

.C

in digital circuits to maintain the security and privacy of the information.

 The probability of error occurrence is reduced by employing error detecting

and error correcting codes.

 Spread spectrum technique is used to avoid signal jamming.

30 / 73
  Combining digital signals using Time Division Multiplexing TDM is easier than
combining analog signals using Frequency Division Multiplexing FDM.

 The configuring process of digital signals is easier than analog signals.

 Digital signals can be saved more conveniently than analog signals.

.
 The whole capacity of the channel is effectively utilized by digital signals.

es
ot
N
The basic Block Diagram of such Digital Transmission is shown below.

cs
ni
tro
ec
El
n
io
at
ic
un

Here the specifications are

m

Source: The source can be an analog signal. Example: A Sound signal

om

Input Transducer: This is a transducer which takes a physical input and converts it to
an electrical signal (Example: microphone). This block also consists of an analog to
.C

digital converter where a digital signal is needed for further processes. A digital signal
is generally represented by a binary sequence.

Source Encoder: The source encoder compresses the data into minimum number of
bits. This process helps in effective utilization of the bandwidth.

31 / 73
 It removes the redundant bits unnecessary excess bits, i.e. zero unnecessary excess
bits i.e. zeroes.

Channel Encoder: The channel encoder does the coding for error correction. During
the transmission of the signal, due to the noise in the channel, the signal may get
altered and hence to avoid this, the channel encoder adds some redundant bits to the
transmitted data. These are the error correcting bits.

.
es
Digital Modulator: The signal to be transmitted is modulated here by a carrier. The

ot
signal is also converted to analog from the digital sequence, in order to make it travel
through the channel or medium.

N
cs
Channel: The channel or a medium allows the analog signal to transmit from the
transmitter end to the receiver end.

ni
Digital Demodulator: This is the first step at the receiver end. The received signal is

tro
demodulated as well as converted again from analog to digital. The signal gets
reconstructed here.
ec
Channel Decoder: The channel decoder, after detecting the sequence, does some error
El

corrections. The distortions which might occur during the transmission, are corrected
by adding some redundant bits. This addition of bits helps in the complete recovery of
n

the original signal.

io
at

Source Decoder: The resultant signal is once again digitized by sampling and
quantizing so that the pure digital output is obtained without the loss of information.
ic

The source decoder recreates the source output.

un

Output Transducer: This is the last block which converts the signal into the original
m

physical form, which was at the input of the transmitter. It converts the electrical
om

signal into physical output (Example: loud speaker).

Output Signal: This is the output which is produced after the whole process. Example −
.C

the sound signal received.

2. Pulse Code Modulation:

Modulation is the process of varying one or more parameters of a carrier signal in
accordance with the instantaneous values of the message or modulating signal.

32 / 73
 This message signal is the signal which is being transmitted for communication and
the carrier signal is a high frequency signal which has no data, but is used for long
distance transmission.

There are many modulation techniques, which are classified according to the type of
modulation employed. Of them all, the digital modulation technique used is Pulse
Code Modulation (PCM).

.
es
The output of a PCM i.e. a pulse coded modulated signal will resemble a binary

ot
sequence. The following figure shows an example of PCM output with respect to
instantaneous values of a given sine wave.

N
cs
ni
tro
ec
El
n
io
at

Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or digits, and hence this
ic

process is called as digital. Each one of these digits, though in binary code represent
un

the approximate amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.

m

In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented by a sequence of coded

om

pulses. This message signal is achieved by representing the signal in discrete form in
both time and amplitude.
.C

33 / 73
3. Digital Carrier Modulation:

.
es
Modulation techniques are basically divided into four types which are Analog modulation,
Digital modulation, Analog Pulse modulation and Spread spectrum method. Here Digital

ot
carrier modulation is basically digital modulation which is just opposite to Analog pulse

N
modulation. In case of Analog pulse modulation, we know that it is the mixing of analog
modulating signal with digital carrier wave. On the other hand, in this case of Digital carrier

cs
modulation a digital signal, representing the binary digits 0 and 1 by a series of on and off
amplitudes is impressed onto or modulated with an analog carrier wave of constant

ni
amplitude and frequency. There are three best digital modulation techniques which are

tro
a) Phase Shift Keying (PSK) b) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) c) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
ec
El
n
io
at
ic
un
m
om

Apart from this, we should mention that in the technique of such digital modulation, the best
ASK technique is On Off Keying (OOK). On the other hand another modulation technique is
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation which is the combination of FSK and PSK.
.C

ASK type of digital modulation technique basically assigns bit values to discrete amplitude
levels; FSK refers to a type of frequency modulation that assigns bit values to discrete
frequency levels.

34 / 73
Thus for this digital modulation, we should be informed that in case of ASK type, the
amplitude of the analog carrier
signal is varied in proportion to the
digital information signal. In case of
FSK type, the frequency of the

.
es
analog carrier signal is varied in
proportion to the digital

ot
information signal and also in case

N
of PSK type the phase of the analog

cs
carrier signal is varied in proportion

ni
to the digital information signal.

4. Sampling, Quantization and Encoding:

tro
ec
The digitization of analog signals involves the rounding off of the values which are
El

approximately equal to the analog

n

values. The method of

io
at
ic
un

sampling chooses a few points on the analog signal and

then these points are joined to round off the value to a
m

near stabilized value. Such a process is called as

om

Quantization.
.C

In signal processing, Sampling is the reduction of a

continuous-time signal to a discrete-time signal. A
common example is the conversion of a sound wave (a
continuous signal) to a sequence of samples (a
discrete-time signal). Thus Sampling converts a time-
varying voltage signal into a discrete-time signal, a

35 / 73
sequence of real numbers. Quantization replaces each real number with an approximation
from a finite set of discrete values. Most commonly, these discrete values are represented as
fixed-point words.

Encoding is the process of using various patterns of voltage or current levels to represent 1s

.
and 0s of the digital signals on the transmission link. The common types of line encoding are

es
Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar, and Manchester. Digital-to-digital encoding is divided into three

ot
categories: Unipolar Encoding, Polar Encoding and Bipolar Encoding. The purpose of encoding

N
is to transform data so that it can be properly (and safely) consumed by a different type of

cs
system, e.g. binary data being sent over email, or viewing special characters on a web
page. The digitization of the analog signal is done by the encoder. After each

ni
sample is quantized and the number of bits per sample is decided, each sample can be

tro
changed to an n bit code. Encoding also minimizes the bandwidth used.
ec
El
n
io
at
ic
un
m
om
.C

36 / 73
 Electronic Communication

1. Introduction to Communication – Means and Modes:

.
es
The motive of the communication process is to share message or information between
a source and a receiver. Thus Communication is giving, receiving or exchanging ideas,

ot
data, information, signals or messages through appropriate media and

N
every communication involves (at least) one sender, a message and a recipient. There
are eight essential elements in the communication process: source, message, channel,

cs
receiver, feedback, environment, context and interference. The way we communicate
is not simply through text or reading material but also through many different modes.

ni
tro
ec
El
n
io
at
ic
un
m
om
.C

For communication, the two basic important terms are means and modes. Means are
the way of communication and Modes are the process of communication.

37 / 73
 These two words ‘way’ and ‘process’ apparently are the same but in communication,
they are crucially different indeed.

The three primary means of communication are verbal, nonverbal and visual
communication.

Verbal communication depends on words to deliver meaning. It is further subdivided

.
es
into written communication and oral communication.

ot
Nonverbal communication is the transfer of information through the use of body
language including eye contact, facial expressions, gestures and more. For example,

N
smiling when you meet someone conveys friendliness, acceptance and happiness.

cs
By definition visual communication is the practice of graphically representing

ni
information to efficiently and effectively creating meaning. Examples of where visual
communication can be used include conferences and trade shows, websites, social

tro
media posts, office presentations and meetings, and so much more.
ec
All these means of communication can be made in several ways which are
El

Social Media, Social Media – Direct Message (DM), Instant Message (IM), SMS Text
Messaging, Email, Blogging, Voice Calling……. Etc.
n
io

All these ways for processing several means of communication and be accessed
through several process which are modes of communication.
at
ic

Since all the means are basically conversations, the conversations were carried on in
un

one of 9 modes of communication: (a) typewriting only (b) handwriting only (c)
handwriting and typewriting (d) typewriting and video (e) handwriting and video (f)
m

voice only (g) voice and typewriting (h) voice and handwriting (i) voice and video
om

2. Needs for Modulation: See Chapter – 2 (Analog Modulation)

.C

3. Block Diagram of an Electronic Communication System:

Since the delivering and receiving of message or information from one zone to
another is the basic meaning of communication, the block diagram of communication
can over all be presented by the following diagram.

38 / 73
 .
es
ot
N
cs
ni
tro
ec
Here with respect to this block diagram, Sender means observer in transmitting
El

station, Receiver means the observer or Listener in Receiving station, Encoding is

made through the process of Modulation in transmitting station, Decoding is made
n
io

through the process of Demodulation or Detection in Receiving station and in whole

at

process of communication, feedback may be sent to sender and noise may be made
ic

involved with the sending message or information.

un

But if this process of communication be given through the electronic way of

m

communication then the block diagram for the communication can be given in the
om

following way.
.C

39 / 73
 4. Brief Idea of Frequency Allocation for Radio Communication System in
India (TRAI): Electromagnetic Communication Spectrum: Band

.
es
Designations and Usage:

ot
Frequency allocation (or spectrum allocation or spectrum management) is

N
the allocation and regulation of the electromagnetic spectrum into
radio frequency bands, normally done by governments in most countries.

cs
In India, such allocation is made by Department of Telecommunications | Ministry of

ni
Communication | Government of India through National Frequency Allocation Plan

tro
2018 | ec
Basically a frequency band is an interval in the frequency domain, delimited by a
lower frequency and an upper frequency. A frequency band may represent one
El

communication channel or be subdivided into many. Allocation of

radio frequency ranges to different uses is a major function of radio spectrum
n

allocation.
io

For this frequency allocation the National Frequency Assignment Plan (NFAP) serves it
at

as a mandatory basis for the organizational units of the federal administration which
ic

are responsible for frequency allocation, enabling them to fulfill their tasks in relation
un

to frequency allocation.
m

For clear realization of this frequency allocation in India, we should have an initial
knowledge about several frequency bands of electromagnetic spectrum as suggested
om

by Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is given below

.C

Low Band Designations

3 Hz – 30 Hz Band: Extremely low frequency (ELF) / 30 Hz – 300 Hz Band: Super low
frequency (SLF) 300 Hz – 3 KHz Band: Ultra low frequency (ULF) / 300 Hz – 3 KHz
Band: Low frequency (LF)

40 / 73
 Radar Band Designations
3 – 30 MHz Band: HF / 30 – 300 MHz Band: VHF / 300 – 1000 MHz Band: UHF / 1 – 2
GHz Band: L / 2 – 4 GHz Band: S / 4 – 8 GHz Band: C / 8 – 12 GHz Band: X / 12 – 18
GHz Band: Ku / 18 – 27 GHz Band: K / 27–40 GHz Band: Ka / 40 – 75 GHz Band: V / 75
– 110 GHz Band: W

.
[Bandwidth is the portion of the spectrum that a given telecommunications system

es
can use. For example, a system that operates on frequencies between 150 and 200

ot
MHz has a bandwidth of 50 megahertz]

N
The nominal frequency of operation in Indian Grid is 50.0 Hz and the
permissible frequency band specified by Indian Electricity Grid Code (IEGC) is 49.5 Hz

cs
to 50.2 Hz with effect from 3rd May 2010. On the other hand, in Radio Communication
system, the essential Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic (EM) radiation with

ni
wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light. They have

tro
have frequencies from 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz, and corresponding wavelengths
from 1 millimeter to 100 kilometers.
ec
El
n
io
at
ic
un
m
om
.C

In India, the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) is a statutory body in the
Department of Telecommunication, set up by the Government of India under section 3

41 / 73
 of the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India Act, 1997. It is the regulator of the
telecommunications sector in India.

As per TRAI's new rules, all SMS messages have to be verified before they reach the
users and all messages have to be registered in the TRAI DLT platform. These include
communication messages like OTP, verification codes, notifications sent by businesses

.
es
to their customers …. Etc.

ot
With the suggestion given by TRAI, the permissible frequency allocation for Radio

N
Communication in India is given below

cs
Band Frequency (MHz) Wavelength

ni
9 434–438 70 cm

9 1260–1300
tro 23 cm
ec
10 3300–3400 9 cm
El

10 5725–5840 5 cm
n
io

In WIFI connection which is a part of Radio Communication, the frequency range in

at

allowed and licensed frequency band in India is 2.4GHz to 5.0GHz and in this case
ic

frequency band, the distribution is given below

un

Frequency Theoretical Speed Real-World Speed

m

2.4 GHz (802.11n) 300 Mpbs 150 Mbps

om

5 GHz (802.11a) 6- 54 Mbps 3 - 32 Mbps

.C

5 GHz (802.11ac) 433 Mbps - 1.7 Gbps 210 Mbps - 1 G

5 GHz (802.11n) 900 Mbps 450Mbps

42 / 73
 On the basis of this frequency allocation as suggested by TRAI and the allowed
frequency bands as decided by IEEE, the electromagnetic spectrum with band
designators and bandwidths

.
es
ot
N
cs
ni
tro
ec
5. Channels and Base – Band Signals:
El

A baseband signal or low pass signal is a signal that can include frequencies that are
n
io

very near zero, by comparison with its highest frequency (for example, a sound
at

waveform can be considered as a baseband signal, whereas a radio signal or any other
modulated signal is not).
ic
un

This baseband signal can be transmitted over a pair of wires (like in a telephone),
m

coaxial cables, or optical fibers. But a baseband signal cannot be transmitted over a
om

radio link or a satellite because this would require a large antenna to radiate the low-
frequency spectrum of the signal. Baseband signal is normally referred to as the
.C

original message signal which is intended to be transmitted (The signal which contains
a message to be transmitted, is called as a message signal. It is a baseband signal,
which has to undergo the process of modulation, to get transmitted. Hence, it is
also called as the modulating signal) whereas Passband signal refers to modulated or
filtered signal which ultimately gets converted back to baseband signal.

43 / 73
 On the other hand, a channel is used to convey an information signal, for example a
digital bit stream, from one or several senders (or transmitters) to one or several
receivers. A channel has a certain capacity for transmitting information, often
measured by its bandwidth in Hz or its data rate in bits per second.

.
es
ot
N
cs
ni
tro
6. Concept of Noise: Signal-to-Noise (S/N) Ratio:
ec
In terms of definition, SNR or signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio between the desired
information or the power of a signal and the undesired signal or the power of the
El

background noise.
n

Also SNR is a measurement parameter in use in the fields of science and engineering
io

that compares the level of the desired signal to the level of background noise. In other
at

words, SNR is the ratio of signal power to the noise power, and its unit of expression is
typically decibels (dB). Also a ratio greater than 0 dB or higher than 1, signifies more
ic

signal than noise. Actually for connectivity in Wireless network, this sound to noise
un

ratio is more significant and we have the following SNR requirements versus SNR
values:
m
om

a) 5 dB to 10 dB: is below the minimum level to establish a connection, due to the

noise level being nearly indistinguishable from the desired signal (useful information).
.C

b) 10 dB to 15 dB: is the accepted minimum to establish an unreliable connection.

c) 15 dB to 25 dB: is typically considered the minimally acceptable level to establish

poor connectivity.

d) 25 dB to 40 dB: is deemed to be good.

e) 41 dB or higher: is considered to be excellent.

44 / 73
 SNR calculations can be either simple or
complex and it depends on the devices
in question and your available data. So
if our SNR measurements are already in
decibel form, then we can subtract the
noise quantity from the desired signal:

.
SNR = S – N. This is because when we

es
subtract logarithms, it is the equivalent
of dividing normal numbers.

ot
N
Also the difference in the numbers equals the SNR. For example, we measure a radio
signal with strength of – 10 dB and a noise signal of – 50 dB as – 10 – (–50) = 40 dB.

cs
ni
tro
ec
El
n
io
at
ic
un
m
om
.C

45 / 73
 Introduction to Communication and Navigation Systems

.
es
1. Introduction to Satellite Communication: It’s need:

ot
In general terms, a satellite is a smaller object that revolves around a larger object in space.

N
For example, moon is a natural satellite of earth. But there are several types of artificial

cs
satellites which are Communication Satellite, Remote Sensing Satellite, Navigation Satellite ,
Geocentric Orbit satellites, Global Positioning System (GPS), Geostationary Satellites,

ni
Drone Satellite, Ground Satellite.

tro
We know that Communication refers to the exchange (sharing) of information between two
or more entities, through any medium or channel. In other words, it is nothing but sending,
ec
receiving and processing of information.
El

If the communication takes place between any two earth stations through a satellite, then it
is called as satellite communication. In this communication, electromagnetic waves are used
n

as carrier signals. These signals carry the information such as voice, audio, video or any other
io

data between ground and space through sky wave propagation.

at

Soviet Union had launched the world's first artificial satellite named, Sputnik 1 in 1957.
ic

Nearly after 18 years, India also launched the artificial satellite named, Aryabhata in 1975.
un

Need of Satellite Communication

m
om

The following two kinds of propagation are used earlier for communication up to some
distance.
.C

 Ground wave propagation − Ground wave propagation is suitable for frequencies up

to 30MHz. This method of communication makes use of the troposphere conditions of
the earth.
 Sky wave propagation − The suitable bandwidth for this type of communication is
broadly between 30–40 MHz and it makes use of the ionosphere properties of the
earth.

46 / 73
The maximum station distance is limited to 1500Km only in sky wave propagation for normal
communication which occurs for successive reflection from earth surface and Ionosphere. But
Satellite Communication overcomes this limitation. In this method, satellites provide
communication for long distances, which is well beyond the line of sight.

Since the satellites is located at certain height above earth, the communication takes place
between any two earth stations easily via satellite. So it overcomes the limitation of

.
es
communication between two earth stations due to earth’s curvature. Thus for satellite
communication, the effect of earth curvature does not affect the communication. But such

ot
effect is more significant in ordinary Space wave communication.

N
Let us now discuss a few basic ideas about Satellite and Satellite Communication.

cs
A satellite is a body that moves around another body in a particular path. A communication

ni
satellite is nothing but for its effectiveness there is a microwave repeater station in space. It

tro
is helpful in telecommunications, radio and television along with internet applications.

A repeater is a circuit which increases the strength of the received signal and then transmits
ec
it. But this repeater works as a transponder and it is also called satellite transponder. That
El

means it changes the frequency band of the transmitted signal from the received one.

The frequency with which,

n

the signal is sent into the

io

space is called as Uplink

at

frequency. Similarly the

ic

frequency with which, the

signal is sent by the
un

transponder is called as
m

Downlink frequency. The

following figure illustrates
om

this concept clearly.

.C

The transmission of signal

from first earth station to
satellite through a channel
is called as uplink. Similarly,
the transmission of signal
from satellite to second earth station through a channel is called as downlink.

47 / 73
Uplink frequency is the frequency at which, the first earth station is communicating with
satellite. The satellite transponder converts this signal into another frequency and sends it
down to the second earth station. This frequency is called as Downlink frequency. In similar
way, second earth station can also communicate with the first one.

The process of satellite communication begins at an earth station. Here an installation is

designed to transmit and receive signals from a satellite in an orbit around the earth. Earth

.
es
stations send the information to satellites in the form of high powered, high frequency (GHz
range) signals.

ot
The satellites receive and retransmit the signals back to earth where they are received by

N
other earth stations in the coverage area of the satellite. Satellite's footprint is the area which

cs
receives a signal of useful strength from the satellite.

ni
2. Orbits of Geostationary Satellite: Geosynchronous Satellite:

tro
If a particle of given mass be thrown with a certain velocity horizontally in parallel to earth
surface at a certain height from it and the particle rotates around earth then that particle is
ec
called artificial satellite. The basic principle of rotation of
El

this artificial satellite is that at every instant of rotation,

the weight of that satellite will be cancelled by the
n

centrifugal force developed in that satellite.

io

Thus if a satellite rotates in a circular orbit of radius r

at

around earth and h be the height of the orbit from earth

ic

surface then for orbiting velocity 𝐯𝐨 of that satellite we

un

have for satellite rotation

𝐦𝐯𝐨𝟐
m

𝐆𝐌𝐦 𝐆𝐌 𝐆𝐌
= ⟹ 𝐯𝐨 = = .
𝐫 𝐫𝟐 𝐫 𝐑+𝐡
om

This is orbiting velocity for satellite rotation in a circular orbit of radius 𝐫. For this rotation of
artificial satellite we should note that
.C

If 𝐓 be the time period of rotation of satellite then

𝟐𝛑𝐫 𝟐𝛑𝐫 𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
𝐓= = = . (𝐫)𝟑/𝟐 = . (𝐑 + 𝐡)𝟑/𝟐
𝐯𝐨 𝐆𝐌 𝐆𝐌 𝐆𝐌
𝐫
𝟏
Here the total energy of the rotating satellite is 𝐄 = 𝐄𝐊 + 𝐄𝐏 = 𝐦𝐯𝐨𝟐 + 𝐄𝐏 .
𝟐

48 / 73
 𝐫 𝐫 𝐆𝐌𝐦 𝐆𝐌𝐦
But 𝐄𝐏 = 𝐖 = 𝐝𝐖 =− − 𝐝𝐫 = − So total energy of satellite rotation
∞ ∞ 𝐫𝟐 𝐫

𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝐆𝐌𝐦 𝟏 𝐆𝐌 𝐆𝐌𝐦 𝐆𝐌𝐦
𝐄 = 𝐄𝐊 + 𝐄𝐏 = 𝐦𝐯𝐨𝟐 + 𝐄𝐏 = 𝐦𝐯𝐨𝟐 − = 𝐦 − = −
𝟐 𝟐 𝐫 𝟐 𝐫 𝐫 𝟐𝐫

If the satellite be geostationary which seems to be stationary from a certain place on earth

.
surface then the period of revolution of this satellite should be equal to the time period of

es
earth’s diurnal rotation i.e. 24 hrs then for geostationary satellite we get

ot
𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
𝐓 = 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎 = . (𝐑 + 𝐡)𝟑/𝟐 ⟹ 𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎 = (𝐑 + 𝐡)𝟑/𝟐

N
𝐆𝐌 𝐠𝐑𝟐

cs
𝟑
𝟐×𝟑.𝟏𝟒
⟹ 𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎 = . (𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 + 𝐡)𝟐 ⟹ 𝐡 ≈ 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐜𝐦 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝐦 .
𝟐
𝟗𝟖𝟎× 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟓

ni
tro
Hence the radius geostationary orbit which is called parking orbit is
ec
𝐫𝐏𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐎𝐫𝐛𝐢𝐭 = (𝐑 + 𝐡) = 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎 + 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟐, 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝐦 .
El

The orbit of geostationary satellite i.e. parking orbit always lies in equatorial plane of earth.

Geosynchronous satellite is placed in the geosynchronous orbit with an orbital period

n

matching the Earth's rotation

io

period. These satellites take 24

at

hours to complete one rotation

ic

around the earth. However, the

un

orbital plane for a typical

geosynchronous satellite is
m

generally not the equatorial plane,

it may be at any angle with the
om

equatorial plane where as for

geostationary satellite, its plane of
.C

orbit must be always parallel to the

equatorial plane.

The communication platforms based on the communication with the help of these satellites
are known as geosynchronous networks. Most of the communication satellites are placed in
the geosynchronous orbit.

49 / 73
When a geosynchronous satellite is placed directly above the Equator with a circular orbit
and angular velocity identical to that of the Earth, the satellite is known as a geostationary
satellite. These satellites appear to be stationary above a particular point which is due to the
synchronization.

This type of satellite provides a distinct benefit of fixing the receiving antennas at one place,
hence making them more economical than regular tracking antennas. Over the years, these

.
es
satellites have helped in revolutionizing the global communications, weather forecasting and
television broadcasting. When the orbit of a geosynchronous satellite is not aligned directly

ot
over the equator, the orbit is known as an inclined orbit.

N
A geosynchronous orbit is a high Earth orbit that allows satellites to match Earth's rotation.

cs
Located at 22,236 miles (35,786 kilometers) above Earth's equator, this position is a valuable
spot for monitoring weather, communications and surveillance.

ni
tro
Satellites are designed to orbit Earth in one of three basic orbits defined by their distance
from the planet: low Earth orbit, medium Earth orbit or high Earth orbit. The higher a satellite
ec
is above Earth (or any other world for that matter), the slower it moves. This is because of the
effect of Earth's gravity; it pulls more strongly at satellites that are closer to its center than
El

satellites that are farther away.

n

So a satellite at low Earth orbit — such as the International Space Station, at roughly 250
io

miles (400 km) — will move over the surface, seeing different regions at different times of
day. Those at medium Earth orbit (between about 2,000 and 35,780 km, or 1,242 and 22,232
at

miles) move more slowly, allowing for more detailed studies of a region. At geosynchronous
ic

orbit, however, the orbital period of the satellite matches the orbit of the Earth (roughly 24
un

hours), and the satellite appears virtually still over one spot; it stays at the same longitude,
but its orbit may be tilted, or inclined, a few degrees north or south.
m

3. Advantages of Geostationary Satellites:

om

Here the advantages of Geostationary

.C

Satellites are

(a) A geostationary satellite is ideal for

telecommunication purposes since it
remains ‘stationary’ above the same spot
on the Earth’s surface at all times. The
distance between the satellite and the
transmitting station on Earth is kept

50 / 73
relatively constant and a clear line of ‘vision’ between the transmitter and the receiver allows
continuous and uninterrupted signal transmission.

(b) Since it is always at the same relative position above the Earth’s surface, there is no need
to keep adjusting the direction of the satellite dish to receive signals from the geostationary
satellite.

.
es
(c) As geostationary satellites are positioned at a high altitude (a distance of 3.57 × 107 m
away from the surface of the Earth), it can view a large section of the Earth and scan the same

ot
area frequently. Hence they are ideal for meteorological applications and remote imaging.

N
cs
4. Concept of Satellite Visibility:

ni
Satellite visibility is the ability of a receiver of earth station or ground station to sense or

tro
receive a signal from a satellite. For a satellite to be visible to the terminal, the ground trace
of the satellite should be within the visibility perimeter. The minimum elevation angle
ec
required for visibility, denoted is assumed to be 10°. The visibility-time profile is computed by
El

iterating over consecutive rotations of the satellite.

Basically for this satellite visibility, the visibility parameters are the look angles (i.e. the
n

elevation angle and the azimuthal angle) and the

io

range from earth station to the satellite essential

at

for communication.
ic

Let us now consider for simplicity that our earth

un

is spherical of radius 𝐑 and there is a

geostationary satellite S at a certain height from
m

certain location on earth surface. C is the center

om

of earth and S is location of the satellite and also

E is the location of the earth station of the earth
.C

surface. Here as shown in the figure, the line

joining the center of the earth and the satellite
position S intersect the earth surface at a point P
and this point is called Sub satellite point which helps us to determine the latitude and the
longitude of that satellite.

51 / 73
Also here from figure we have for the triangle ∆𝐂𝐒𝐄, 𝐂𝐒 is satellite orbital radius (r) and 𝐂𝐄 is
the radius (𝐑) of the spherical earth as the earth station exists on the surface of the earth.
Hence the distance of the satellite from the earth station will be

𝐝 = 𝐫 𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐 − 𝟐𝐫𝐑𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛂 ………… (1)

Here the angle 𝛂 is the angle made by satellite orbital radius with the radius of earth at the

.
es
center of earth with respect to earth station E. Now the look angle for the visibility of satellite
from earth station for proper receiving of the signal from the satellite depends on the

ot
elevation angle and the azimuthal angle. Here the elevation angle is the angle made by the

N
line joining earth station to the satellite with the local horizontal line through earth station.

cs
On the other hand, the azimuthal angle is the angle (in clockwise sense) made by the line
joining earth station to the foot of perpendicular projection from the satellite on the local

ni
horizontal plane through earth station with the north – south line.

tro
Here as for example we now consider that an earth station exists on earth surface at latitude
angle 𝟐𝟎𝐨 𝐒 and at longitude 𝟑𝟎𝐨 𝐖 and the satellite is at longitude 𝟑𝟎𝐨 𝐄 . In this case we
ec
have the most effective formulas for elevation angle (𝛉) and azimuthal angle 𝛗 as
El

𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐆.𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐋−𝟎.𝟏𝟓 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐆
Elevation angle 𝛉 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 and Azimuthal angle 𝛗 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝟏−𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝐆.𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝐋 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐋
n
io

where 𝐆 is the longitude difference between the satellite and the earth station and 𝐋 is the
at

latitude of earth station.

ic

Again the range (𝐑 𝐨 ) of the proper visibility of the satellite which is the earth station to the
un

satellite distance (d) we have from the equation (1)

m

𝐑 𝐨 = 𝐝 = [ 𝐫 𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐 − 𝟐𝐫𝐑𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛂 ]𝛂=𝐆 = 𝐫 𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐 − 𝟐𝐫𝐑𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐆

om

Here ordinarily we have on the average 𝐑 = 𝟔𝟑𝟕𝟏 𝐤𝐦 , for geostationary satellite, the orbit
radius 𝐫 = 𝟒𝟐𝟏𝟔𝟒𝐤𝐦 . To calculate the longitude difference 𝐆 between the satellite and the
.C

earth station we have

𝐆 = Satellite Longitude – Earth Station Longitude = 𝟑𝟎𝐨 𝐄 − 𝟑𝟎𝐨 𝐖 = 𝟑𝟎 − −𝟑𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎𝐨

So we get the range for visibility from above equation 𝐑 𝐨 = 𝐝 = 𝟑𝟗𝟑𝟔𝟕𝐤𝐦

Also here given that the latitude of earth station i.e. 𝐋 = 𝟐𝟎𝐨 𝐒 = −𝟐𝟎𝐨 (by sign convention).
After calculation we get Elevation angle 𝛉 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟖𝐨 and Azimuthal angle 𝛗 = −𝟕𝟖. 𝟏𝟏𝐨

52 / 73
 .
es
5. Transponder:

ot
Transponder is basically a radio or radar system which is used for relaying communications

N
signals between satellite and earth station. This transponder which is also called as
“transmitter + responder” (which is also sometimes abbreviated as XPDR, XPNDR, TPDR or

cs
TP) is an electronic device that produces a response when it receives a radio-frequency signal.
As for example, an aircraft uses transponders (which is usually Mod C transponder) to assist

ni
in identifying them by air traffic control radar.

tro
In a communications satellite, a transponder gathers signals over a range of uplink
ec
frequencies and re-transmits them on a different set of downlink frequencies to receivers on
Earth station, often without changing the content of the received signal or signals.
El
n

It is surely a wireless communications which is basically a monitoring or control device that

io

picks up and automatically responds to an incoming signal. The term is a contraction of the
at

words transmitter and responder. Transponders can be either passive or active. . A passive
ic

transponder must be used with an active sensor that decodes and transcribes the data the
un

transponder contains. Simple active transponders are employed in location, identification,

and navigation systems for commercial and private aircraft.
m
om

In case of satellite communication which is a long range communication, when the signal is
made transmitted from the transmitter for communication, usually, the strength of the signal
.C

decreases to travel long distance. Thus there is a requirement of a device as we have

mentioned earlier, called ‘Repeater’ which basically increases the signal strength and such
Repeater is also known as ‘transponder’ which provides ‘receiving’ and ‘transmitting’ of the
signal coverage to the satellite.

53 / 73
The transponder has mainly two functions which are ‘amplification of the signal’ and
‘frequency down conversion’ or ‘frequency translation’. Here we know that the frequency of
uplink signal is different from that of the down link signal and here ‘frequency down
conversion’ by transponder is mostly required to avoid the interference between the
transmitted signal by the satellite to the earth station and the incoming uplink signal from the

.
es
earth station.

ot
For such signal amplification and frequency translation by the transponder, it has also the

N
role of modulation and detection and at this point of activity; a transponder differs from a

cs
simple transmitter.

ni
As a result we can say that a ‘transponder’ which by its role, is a mixture of ‘transmitter’ and

tro
‘Responder’, i) is a subsystem of the communication which receives the signal and shifts the
frequency of the signal for transmission (i.e. changes to higher frequency for uplink
ec
transmission to the satellite and also changes to lower frequency for down link transmission
El

to the earth station) ii) effectively provides the connecting link between transmitting and
receiving antenna iii) is a most important space segment sub system (because in
n
io

communication system, there are two segment sub system which are ground segment sub
system and space segment sub system and both the earth station – 1 and earth station – 2
at

are associated with ground segment through satellite link and the transponder is associated
ic

with space segment sub system) . The block diagram of a transponder is like this
un
m
om
.C

For this block diagram of a basic transponder we see that at the starting there is ‘satellite
antenna” with a double arrow between it and a ‘Duplexer’. This is because satellite antenna

54 / 73
is used in both receiving and transmissing signal and it receive signal at uplink frequency
through transponder and it transmit signal at down link frequency also through transponder.

Here ‘Duplexer’ is a ‘two way microwave gate’. It connects the satellite antenna with the
transmissing section at the time of signal transmission keeping the receiving section open

.
es
circuited and also for the requirement of receiving signal by the satellite, it makes receiving
section short circuited with the satellite antenna and keeps the transmission section open

ot
circuited at that time. So it allows the use of single antenna either in transmission or in

N
receiving purpose.

cs
‘Low noise amplifier’ (LNA) basically increases or amplifies weak received signal. The ‘Carrier

ni
Processor’ is very important part which is used for the purpose of ‘frequency translation’ to

tro
avoid effect of interference as mentioned earlier. There are several type of frequency
translation which are a) RF – RF translation b) RF – IF translation c) IF remodulation d)
ec
Demodulation – Remodulation and for each translation, the role of the transponder will be
El

different and here the ‘Carrier Processor’ determines the role of the transponder at the time
of specific translation.
n
io

On the other hand ‘Power Amplifier’ amplifies the power of the frequency down converted
at

signal at the time of signal transmission to a required level. After frequency translation, it is
ic

required to increase the strength of the signal and in satellite communication usually
un

‘Travelling Wave Tube Amplifier (TWTA)’ is used as a ‘Power Amplifier’.

m

There are two types of transponder in satellite communication which are a) Single Conversion
om

Transponder and b) Regenerative Transponder

.C

The single Conversion Transponder basically converts uplink frequency band to down link
frequency band which is needed for signal transmission from satellite to earth station. The
block diagram of such ‘Single Conversion Transponder’ is shown below

55 / 73
 .
es
ot
N
cs
This single conversion transponder is used at 4 to 6 GHz frequency band or C – Band and this
type of transponder is suitable for both analog and digital signal.

ni
tro
On the other hand the ‘Regenerative type transponder’ is used to improve the signal to noise
ratio of the signal and it also improves the flexibility in implementation. But only the
ec
disadvantage of this transponder is that it is somehow complicated in circuit structure. Here
El

the block diagram is shown here

n
io
at
ic
un
m
om
.C

56 / 73
6. C – Band:

For satellite communication which occurs through the communication of transmitter of earth
station – 1 to the satellite through uplink frequency band and satellite to receiver at earth
station – 2 through down link frequency band, we should be informed about the essential
frequency band needed for such satellite communication.

.
es
This frequency band for communication is guided by ITU (International Telecommunication
Union) (and in India, it is assigned by IEEE) where the several bands with specified band

ot
numbers are from Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) Band to Extra High Frequency (EHF) Band as

N
Band Number – 3: ULF (starting from 300Hz), Band Number – 4: VLF, Band Number – 5: LF,

cs
Band Number – 6: MF, Band Number – 7: HF, Band Number –8: VHF, Band Number – 9: UHF,
Band Number – 10: SHF, Band Number – 11: EHF (upto 300GHz),

ni
But for satellite communication, the satellite frequency bands are

tro
L – Band: (Popularly known as 1.5 GHz Band with frequency range 1 – 2 GHz)
ec
S – Band: (Popularly known as 2.5 GHz Band with frequency range 2 – 4 GHz)
El

C – Band: (Popularly known as 4/6 GHz Band with frequency range 4 – 6 GHz)
n
io

X – Band: (with frequency range 8 – 12 GHz)

at

Ku – Band: (Popularly known as 11/14 GHz Band with frequency range 12 – 18 GHz)
ic

K – Band: (Popularly known as 20 GHz Band with frequency range 18 – 27 GHz)

un

Ka – Band: (Popularly known as 30 GHz Band with frequency range 27 – 40 GHz)

m

Here particularly we see that C – Band is a satellite frequency band which has comparatively
om

low band width and it is normally used for domestic satellite telephony, satellite TV …. Etc.
.C

For this C – Band (which is usually applicable in Commercial purpose) the down link
frequency band is from 3.7 to 4.2 GHz and the uplink frequency band is from 5.925 to 6.425
GHz with band width 500 MHz in both cases.

57 / 73
7. Path Loss:

There are two main types of signal degradation introduced by wireless channels: the first is
attenuation and random variation of signal amplitude, and the second is distortion of the
signal spectrum.

Path loss (or path attenuation) is a decrement in power density of any given electromagnetic

.
es
wave as it propagates through space. Since, these waves or transmitted information travels
along different paths, such loss occurs and basically the wave may regroup at the destination

ot
point resulting in received signals that vary significantly. There is several types ‘Path loss

N
models’ which are Free-space model, Two-ray model, Simplified path loss model,
Empirical models.

cs
In telecommunication, free-space path loss (FSPL) is the loss in signal strength of

ni
an electromagnetic wave that would result from a line-of-sight path through free space, with

tro
no obstacles nearby to cause reflection or diffraction. Free space loss increases with the
square of distance between the antennas.
ec
El

8. Ground Station: Simplified Block Diagram of Earth Station:

n

Earth Station also known as the ground station is an arrangement of various equipment on
io

the surface or atmosphere of the earth that is used to transmit or receive signals in the form
at

of voice, video, or data through single or multiple satellites. It is sometimes called the earth
terminal and is a part of the ground segment of the satellite network.
ic
un

The earth station is an earth-based terminal that can be present on a ship or an aircraft as
well. The earth station is not a single equipment entity as various major elements constitute
m

it. It is to be noted here that the design of the earth station depends on requirements as well
om

as the quality of service.

The earth station is a crucial part of satellite communication because one earth station
.C

transmits the signal and another earth station receives it.

The three major categories in which an earth station is divided are as follows:

Transmit type: This type of earth station is the one that is only designed to transmit the
signals towards the satellite and has no arrangement of signal reception.

58 / 73
Receive type: The type of earth station that simply performs the function of reception of
signals coming from satellite and cannot transmit the signal to the satellite in space is known
as receive type earth station.

Transmit-Receive type: The earth station unit that solely handles two-way
communication i.e., sends the signal to the satellite and also receives the signal coming from

.
the satellite is known as transmit-receive type earth station.

es
As we have already discussed in the beginning the earth station is not a single entity but an

ot
arrangement of various elements that combinely operate as a single unit.

N
Thus, the subsystems of the earth station, in general, are as follows:

cs
1. Antenna (generally reflector type)

ni
2. Feed system for sending and receiving radio frequency carrier

tro
3. Tracking equipment that helps to keep the satellite in the operating region of the
ec
antenna.
The simplified block diagram of a typical earth station is given below.
El
n
io
at
ic
un
m
om
.C

59 / 73
9. Mobile Telephony System – Basic Concept of Mobile Communication:

.
es
Mobile Communication is the use of technology that allows us to communicate with others in

ot
different locations without the use of any physical connection (wires or cables). It is an

N
electric device used for full duplex two way radio telecommunication over a cellular network

cs
of base stations known as cell site.

ni
tro
ec
El
n
io
at
ic
un
m
om
.C

Mobile phone converts voice, text, multi-media messages or data calls into Radio Frequencies
(RF). Mobile phone base stations transmit and receive these RF signals and connect callers to
other phones and other networks.

In mobile phones, space wave mode of propagation is employed. Very simply, a mobile
phone network is made-up of a large number of geographic areas called 'cells'. Within these

60 / 73
cells are mobile base stations which send and receive radio signals to and
from mobile handsets located in those cells to enable their users to connect to the internet
and make calls.

Mobile phones are efficient communication devices and make life easier. Whether locating a

.
friend or following up with a new contact, mobile phones allow you to connect to people in

es
any part of the world.

ot
These networks, which are still used today, operate according to the GSM standard (Global

N
System for Mobile Communications). They employ radio frequencies in the range of 900 MHz

cs
and 1800 MHz.

ni
10. Frequency Bands used in Mobile Communication: Concept of Cell Sectoring
and Cell Splitting:
tro
ec
El

Basically Mobile Communication has a few basic Contents which are

a) Cellular Concept b) Mobile Phone System c) Features of Cellular Concept (e.g. Frequency
n

Reuse and Cell Splitting) d) Hand off Procedure d) Global System of Mobile (GSM)
io
at

When we talk in our mobile phone, the microphone of the mobile changes this voice signal to
the equivalent digital signal. After that equivalent electromagnetic wave will be transmitted
ic

by the antenna of that mobile phone. Since this propagation of this electromagnetic wave is
un

not suitable for long distance coverage

because of so many obstructions which
m

decreases the strength of the wave

om

remarkably, the transmission is made by

using so called ‘Cellular Technology’.
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By such technology, the whole geographic

area of coverage is divided into a number of
hexagonal cells each having its own call
tower with specific frequency slot or
frequency allocation. This is called ‘Cell Sectoring’ of the area and each cell will be covered by
its own Base station.

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A group of a number of cells in an area is called Cell Cluster and the size of this cluster is not
fixed and that depends on the requirement of the area.

Here we should note that this mobile communication is not at all wireless communication
and her the nearby tower of the transmitter mobile will be linked with the Home MSC

.
(Mobile Switching Center) where as the destination tower for receiver mobile is connected

es
with the Foreign MSC.

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The towers of the cells are mutually connected by wires or optical fibre cable with national

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and also international connectivity where the cables are laid under the ground or ocean.

cs
When the electromagnetic wave is transmitted by the transmitter mobile phone (i.e. Mobile

ni
Station (MS)), it will be picked up by the nearest tower of the nearby Base Transceiver Station

tro
(BTS) or Base Station and then it will be converted to a high frequency signal which will be
ec
sent to the ‘Base Transceiver’ (also called Base Station (BTS) of another cell where receiver’s
mobile belongs, through Base Station Controller (BSC).
El
n

Basically the base transceiver or base station of home MSC of transmitter mobile locates
io

receiver’s mobile’s cell whether it is in receiver’s home MSC or in foreign MSC). After
at

processing, the voice signal will reach to the ‘destination tower’ of foreign MSC through Base
ic

Station Controller (BSC) and finally this foreign MSC or home MSC of receiver mobile will
un

transfer the signal to the receiver mobile through the tower of receiver’s Base Station (BTS)
as guided by the associated Base Station Controller (BSC).
m
om

Actually for Mobile phone system the basic structure is like this.
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The basic features of this Cellular concept are frequency reuse and Cell splitting. Through the
proper Cell Sectoring of the area, there are a few cells marked by ‘A’ which are allotted the
same frequency slot. This is frequency reuse. The advantages of this feature are i) many

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transmitter of small output power can be operated in these cells ii) it reduces the minimum
height of the transmitting antenna. But here the only
disadvantage is that here co channel interference between two
signals of the same frequency may occur.

On the other hand the Cell Splitting means each cell of the
coverage area can also be divided by a number of micro cells of

.
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smaller dimension and the advantage is that it increases the
traffic of the regular cell beyond the limit.

ot
Here the hand off procedure means when a running car with transmitter or receiver mobile

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moves from one cell to another cell of the coverage area by crossing the boundary, the signal

cs
transmission or signal receiving will be handed over from one Base station of one Cell to the
another Base station of the another Cell. Thus no interruptions in communication occur.

ni
tro
For mobile communication,
frequency band in frequency
ec
spectrum is very important.
Since the whole Cellular
El

Technology is made carried out

through Radio wave or Radio
n

frequency (RF) wave with a

io

specific frequency band in

at

frequency spectrum from 800

(2G) to 2300 MHz (4G).
ic
un

To transfer 0 or 1 digital data through digital communication, each subscriber is allocated to a

certain frequency range. But the problem is that there are billions of the subscribers or users.
m

So how to allocate different frequency range to each subscriber? This problem can be solved
by any of two ways – Frequency Slot Distribution and Multiple Access Technique.
om

In first way, different frequency slot are carefully allocated to different cell towers and in 2 nd
.C

way, this slots are distributed among all the active users in the call area.

There are several generations of mobile telephony. At the early stage, there was 1G Mobile
which was the 1st generation without any cable attach. The data speed was 2.4 Kbps and the
two major problem was – i) here the wireless signal transmission from the mobile occurs in
Analog form which has poor vice property and poor security and ii) FDMA (Frequency Division
Multiple Access) technique used in a frequency spectrum works in an inefficient way.

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In second generation, that is in 2G Mobile communication the improved versions of FDMA
technology and newly developed CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) and TDMA (Time
Division Multiple Access) are used in this generation with 50Kbps data speed (with 800 MHz
to 900 MHz frequency band) and in this generation, initiation of SMS and ‘Internet Browsing’
are made started.

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In third generation 3G mobile communication, WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple

n

Access) technology along width increased band width is made activated at data speed 3Mbps
io

(with 1500 MHz to 1700 MHz frequency band) In this generation, the facilities of the voice
call, videos, GPS, … etc are made additionally attached. This is the 1st so called ‘Smart Phone’
at

in mobile generations.
ic

In 4th generation 4G mobile, high data speed from 20 to 100 Mbps (with 2000 MHz to 2300
un

MHz frequency band) is made involved with the facilities of Video Call, visibility of high
m

resolution movie … etc. In this generation, OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access) and MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) technologies are used
om

We expect that very soon we have 5G mobile telephony in 5th generation with at least 10
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Gbps data speed where Enhanced MIMO technology is used.

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11. SIM number: IMEI number: Need for Data Encryption:

.
es
SIM card is the most important part of mobile phone and the meaning of ‘SIM’ is ‘Subscriber

ot
identity module’ or ‘Subscriber identification module (SIM)’, and it is widely known as
a SIM card, It is basically an integrated circuit containing Card Operating System (COS) that is

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intended to securely store the “International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) number”.

cs
Thus SIM has an ID number i.e. IMSI number which is basically phone number of the

ni
subscriber. This SIM can also store contact information, telephone numbers, SMS messages,
billing information, data usage ……. etc.

tro
On the other hand, there is another number which is also related to the subscriber identity
ec
and it is called International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number and it is a factory-
El

installed unique serial number that identifies each unit or line of service under GSM (Global
System for Mobile Communications) specifications. It is a 15 digit number. A phone can
n
io

have 2 IMEI numbers if it is a dual SIM device. This unique 15-digit number can be used to
at

track or locate a phone that is lost or stolen.

ic

Now the ‘Encryption’ is the process through which data is encoded so that it remains hidden
un

from or inaccessible to unauthorized users. It helps protect private information,

sensitive data, and can enhance the security of communication between client apps and
m

servers. This is the need for data encryption. Thus Data encryption is a security method
om

where information is encoded and can only be accessed by a user

with the correct encryption key.
.C

Communication links such as a connection between a website and a browser are

commonly encrypted using a standard known as SSL (Secure Sockets Layer). Messages
between a website and a browser may traverse vast physical distances and pass through
many machines on the way.

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12. Block Diagram of Mobile Communication System:

Although the system of mobile communication is not strictly wireless communication but the
networking is based on base station communication under several control system.

The basic block diagram of this mobile communication is shown below:

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ic

13. Simplified Block Diagram of Mobile Phone Handset:

un

In our present generation, mobile means smart phone and in present 4G generation, it is a
m

special smart phone operated by ‘Android’ which is an Operating System as developed by

om

Google. We can now highlight the basic parts of a mobile handset. As we have already
mention that mobile can be used transmitter as well as receiver at the same hand set. It
.C

accept digital signal and converts it to analog signal through speaker which is one of the
transducer used in mobile hand set. On the other hand it can converts voice analog signal to
the digital signal ready for transmission through another transducer – ‘Microphone’ attached
with AD Converter (Analog to Digital Converter)

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The other main part of a mobile hand set is ‘Microprocessor’ where all types of operations is
made in the mobile and this microprocessor is guided primarily by SIM card and attached
with LCD Screen, Keypad, Flash system and RAM. The basic block diagram of a mobile
handset is shown below.

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 .
es
14. Idea of GSM:
The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a standard developed by the

ot
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in 1982 to describe the protocols for

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second-generation (2G) digital cellular networks

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used by mobile devices such as mobile phones

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and tablets. At that time of initiation of GSM,

tro
the initial Memorandum of Understanding
(MoU) is signed by telecommunication
ec
operators representing 12 countries.
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GSM is an open and digital cellular technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data
n

services. Basically it is a combination of TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), FDMA

io

(Frequency Division Multiple Access) and Frequency hopping (FH). Initially, GSM use two
at

frequency bands of 25 MHz width: 890 to 915 MHz frequency band for up-link and 935 to 960
ic

MHz frequency for down-link. Later on, two 75 MHz band were added.
un

The GSM network is divided into three major systems: the switching system (SS), the base
m

station system (BSS), and the operation and support system (OSS).The switching system (SS)
om

is responsible for performing call processing and subscriber-related functions.

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Basically GSM is combination of TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), FDMA (Frequency
Division Multiple Access) and Frequency Hopping (FH) through CDMA (Code Division Multiple
Access). The general architecture for GSM is shown in figure.

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 .
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15. Idea of FDMA Technology:

n
io

FDMA (frequency division multiple access) is the division of the frequency band allocated
at

for wireless cellular telephone communication into 30 channels, each of which can carry a
ic

voice conversation or, with digital service, carry digital data. With FDMA, each channel can be
un

assigned to only one user at a time.

m

FDMA allows multiple users to send data through a single communication channel, such as a
om

coaxial cable or microwave beam, by dividing the bandwidth of the channel into separate
non-overlapping frequency sub-channels and allocating each sub-channel to a separate user.
.C

Early cellular telephony mostly used FDMA analogue transmission. Walkie talkies and mobile
networks for closed user groups often use FDMA. More advanced systems time-share
frequencies among different user groups.

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 Thus FDMA works on the principle of
dividing the total bandwidth of the
communication channel into a
number of discrete segments, and
allocating each segment exclusively

.
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to a user. Guard bands are used
between each segment of the

ot
frequency band to prevent

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interference between users.

cs
ni
tro
16. Idea of CDMA Technology: ec
CDMA is radically a new concept in wireless communications wherein both data and voice are
separated from the signals using codes and then it is transmitted by using a wide range of
El

frequency band.
n

CDMA technology was originally designed by Qualcomm in the U.S. and it is primarily used in
io

U.S. and other places in Asia by other carriers. Nowadays 14% of the worldwide market is
at

choosing CDMA because it leaves more space at the time of data transferring. It is known as a
ic

spread-spectrum technique which allows many users to occupy the same time and frequency
un

allocations in a given band and space and in user’s language, this application is called
m

‘Conference Call’.
om

CDMA belongs to two basic categories: Synchronous CDMA and Asynchronous CDMA.

Synchronous CDMA is defined as exploiting the mathematical properties orthogonally

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between vectors representing the data strings.

If mobile-to-base links are not exactly matched, particularly due to handsets mobility, a
different approach is required and that is called Asynchronous CDMA. This type of CDMA is

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not mathematically possible to create signature sequences but it is made to use of the code
space.

Code Division Multiple Access is entirely

a different approach from the Time

.
es
Division Multiple Access. CDMA, after
digitizing the data, spreads out the date

ot
over the entire available bandwidth.

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Multiple calls are overlapped to each

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other on a channel which is assigned

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with a unique sequence code. CDMA is a

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form of spread-spectrum technique,
which means data can be sent in small
ec
pieces over a number of frequencies
El

available to use at any time in the

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specified range.
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at

17. Idea of TDMA Technology:

ic

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital cellular telephone communication

un

technology. It facilitates many users to share the same frequency without interference.
m

Its technology divides a signal into different timeslots, and increases the data carrying
om

capacity.

TDMA has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates. TDMA allows the operator to
.C

do services like fax, voice band data and SMS as well as bandwidth-intensive application such
as multimedia and video conferencing. TDMA is used for long-distance communication links
and bears heavy data traffic loads from end users. Sync TDMA is used for high-speed
transmission.

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TDMA occupies a channel but it allows two users to occupy the same channel at what
appears to them to be the same time. In TDMA, users transmit in rapid succession, each using
their own time slot. This shuttling process is so fast each user thinks they occupy the same RF
channel at the same time. By allocating a discrete amount of bandwidth to each user, TDMA
increases the amount of data that can be carried over the channel, while enabling

.
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simultaneous conversations.

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