Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

Ascalew Abebe & Dr Ian GN Smith School of the Built Environment, Napier University, Edinburgh
See Elements of Soil Mechanics (8th Edition) to learn how to design piles (and other geotechnical structures) to Eurocode 7. Full details are here....

PURPOSE OF THE GUIDE There are many texts on pile foundations. Generally, experience shows us that undergraduates find most of these texts complicated and difficult to understand. This guide has extracted the main points and puts together the whole process of pile foundation design in a student friendly manner. The guide is presented in two versions: text-version (compendium from) and this web-version that can be accessed via internet or intranet and can be used as a supplementary self-assisting students guide. STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDE
Introduction to pile foundations Pile foundation design Load on piles

(Note: This Student Guide is intended as just that a guide for students of civil engineering. Use it as you see fit, but please note that there is no technical support available to answer any questions about the guide!)

Single pile design Pile group design

Installation-test-and factor of safety Pile installation methods Test piles Factors of safety

Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

Chapter 1 Introduction to pile foundations

1.1 Pile foundations 1.2 Historical 1.3 Function of piles 1.4 Classification of piles 1.4.1 Classification of pile with respect to load transmission and functional behaviour 1.4.2 End bearing piles 1.4.3 Friction or cohesion piles 1.4.4 Cohesion piles 1.4.5 Friction piles 1.4.6 Combination of friction piles and cohesion piles 1.4.7 .Classification of pile with respect to type of material 1.4.8 Timber piles 1.4.9 Concrete pile 1.4.10 Driven and cast in place Concrete piles 1.4.11 Steel piles 1.4.12 Composite piles

1.4.13 Classification of pile with respect to effect on the soil 1.4.14 Driven piles 1.4.15 Bored piles 1.5 Aide to classification of piles 1.6 Advantages and disadvantages of different pile material 1.7 Classification of piles - Review

Chapter 2 Load on piles

2.1 Introduction 2.2 Pile arrangement

Chapter 3 Load Distribution

3.1 Pile foundations: vertical piles only 3.2 Pile foundations: vertical and raking piles 3.3 Symmetrically arranged vertical and raking piles 3.3.1 Example on installation error

Chapter 4 Load on Single Pile

4.1 Introduction 4.2 The behaviour of piles under load 4.3 Geotechnical design methods 4.3.1 The undrained load capacity (total stress approach) 4.3.2 Drained load capacity (effective stress approach) 4.3.3 Pile in sand 4.4 Dynamic approach

Chapter 5 Single Pile Design

5.1 End bearing piles 5.2 Friction piles 5.3 Cohesion piles

5.4 Steel piles 5.5 Concrete piles 5.5.1 Pre-cast concrete piles 5.6 Timber piles (wood piles) 5.6.1 Simplified method of predicting the bearing capacity of timber piles

Chapter 6 Design of Pile Group

6.1 Bearing capacity of pile groups 6.1.1 Pile group in cohesive soil 6.1.2 Pile groups in non-cohesive soil 6.1.3 Pile groups in sand

Chapter 7 Pile Spacing and Pile Arrangement

Chapter 8 Pile Installation Methods

8.1 Introduction 8.2 Pile driving methods (displacement piles) 8.2.1 Drop hammers 8.2.2 Diesel hammers 8.2.3 Pile driving by vibrating 8.3 Boring methods (non-displacement piles) 8.3.1 Continuous Flight Auger (CFA) 8.3.2 Underreaming 8.3.3 C.H.P

Chapter 9 Load Tests on Piles

9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 CRP (constant rate of penetration) 9.1.2 MLT, the maintained increment load test

Chapter 10 Limit State Design

10.1 Geotechnical category GC 1 10.2 Geotechnical category GC 2 10.3 Geotechnical category GC 3 10.3.1 Conditions classified as in Eurocode 7 10.4 The partial factors
m,

n, Rd
Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

Introduction to pile foundations Objectives: Texts dealing with geotechnical and ground engineering techniques classify piles in a number of ways. The objective of this unit is that in order to help the undergraduate student understand these classifications using materials extracted from several sources, this chapter gives an introduction to pile foundations. 1.1 Pile foundations Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer the load of the structure to the bearing ground located at some depth below ground surface. The main components of the foundation are the pile cap and the piles. Piles are long and slender members which transfer the load to deeper soil or rock of high bearing capacity avoiding shallow soil of low bearing capacity The main types of materials used for piles are Wood, steel and concrete. Piles made from these materials are driven, drilled or jacked into the ground and connected to pile caps. Depending upon type of soil, pile material and load transmitting characteristic piles are classified accordingly. In the following chapter we learn about, classifications, functions and pros and cons of piles. 1.2 Historical Pile foundations have been used as load carrying and load transferring systems for many years. In the early days of civilisation[2], from the communication, defence or strategic point of view villages and towns were situated near to rivers and lakes. It was therefore important to strengthen the bearing ground with some form of piling. Timber piles were driven in to the ground by hand or holes were dug and filled with sand and stones. In 1740 Christoffoer Polhem invented pile driving equipment which resembled to days pile driving mechanism. Steel piles have been used since 1800 and concrete piles since about 1900. The industrial revolution brought about important changes to pile driving system through the invention of steam and diesel driven machines. More recently, the growing need for housing and construction has forced authorities and development agencies to exploit lands with poor soil characteristics. This has led to the development and improved piles and pile driving systems. Today there are many advanced techniques of pile installation. 1.3 Function of piles As with other types of foundations, the purpose of a pile foundations is: to transmit a foundation load to a solid ground to resist vertical, lateral and uplift load A structure can be founded on piles if the soil immediately beneath its base does not have adequate bearing capacity. If the results of site investigation show that the shallow soil is unstable and weak or if the magnitude of the estimated settlement is not acceptable a pile foundation may become considered. Further, a cost estimate may indicate that a pile foundation may be cheaper than any other compared ground improvement costs. In the cases of heavy constructions, it is likely that the bearing capacity of the shallow soil will not be satisfactory, and the construction should be built on pile foundations. Piles can also be used in normal ground conditions to resist horizontal loads. Piles are a convenient method of foundation for works over water, such as jetties or bridge piers. 1.4 Classification of piles 1.4.1 Classification of pile with respect to load transmission and functional behaviour End bearing piles (point bearing piles) Friction piles (cohesion piles ) Combination of friction and cohesion piles 1.4.2 End bearing piles These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum located at a considerable depth below the base of the structure and they derive most of

Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

LOAD ON PILES
2.1 Introduction
This section of the guide is divided into two parts. The first part gives brief summary on basic pile arrangements while part two deals with load distribution on individual piles. Piles can be arranged in a number of ways so that they can support load imposed on them. Vertical piles can be designed to carry vertical loads as well as lateral loads. If required, vertical piles can be combined with raking piles to support horizontal and vertical forces. often, if a pile group is subjected to vertical force, then the calculation of load distribution on single pile that is member of the group is assumed to be the total load divided by the number of piles in the group. However if a group of piles is subjected to lateral load or eccentric vertical load or combination of vertical and lateral load which can cause moment force on the group which should be taken into account during calculation of load distribution. In the second part of this section, piles are considered to be part of the structure and force distribution on individual piles is calculated accordingly.

Objective: In the first part of this section, considering group of piles with limited number of piles subjected to vertical and lateral forces, forces acting centrally or eccentrically, we learn how these forces are distributed on individual piles. The worked examples are intended to give easy follow through exercise that can help quick understanding of pile design both single and group of piles. In the second part, the comparison made between different methods used in pile design will enable students to appreciate the theoretical background of the methods while exercising pile designing. Learning outcome When students complete this section, they will be able to: Calculate load distribution on group of piles consist of vertical piles subjected to eccentric vertical load. Calculate load distribution on vertically arranged piles subjected to lateral and vertical forces. Calculate load distribution on vertical and raking piles subjected to horizontal and eccentric vertical loads. Calculate load distribution on symmetrically arranged vertical and raking piles subjected to vertical and lateral forces

2.2 Pile arrangement Normally, pile foundations consist of pile cap and a group of piles. The pile cap distributes the applied load to the individual piles which, in turn,. transfer the load to the bearing ground. The individual piles are spaced and connected to the pile cap or tie beams and trimmed in order to connect the pile to the structure at cut-off level, and depending on the type of structure and eccentricity of the load, they can be arranged in different patterns. Figure 2.1 bellow illustrates the three basic formation of pile groups.

a) PILE GROUP CONSIST OF ONLY VERTICAL PILES

b) PILE GROUP CONSIST OF BOTH VERTICAL AND RAKING PILES

c) SYMMETRICALLY ARRANGED VERTICAL AND RAKING PILES

Q = Vertically applied load H = Horizontally applied load Figure 2-1 Basic formation of pile groups

Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

LOAD DISTRIBUTION
To a great extent the design and calculation (load analysis) of pile foundations is carried out using computer software. For some special cases, calculations can be carried out using the following methods?...For a simple understanding of the method, let us assume that the following conditions are satisfied: The pile is rigid The pile is pinned at the top and at the bottom Each pile receives the load only vertically (i.e. axially applied ); The force P acting on the pile is proportional to the displacement U due to compression

P = k.U

3.1

Since P = E.A
E.A = k.U 3.2

3.3

where: P = vertical load component k = material constant U = displacement E = elastic module of pile material A = cross-sectional area of pile

Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

LOAD ON SINGLE PILE

4.1 Introduction
In this section, considering pile/soil interaction, we learn to calculate the bearing capacity of single piles subjected to compressive axial load. During pile design, the following factors should be taken into consideration: pile material compression and tension capacity deformation area of pile, bending moment capacity condition of the pile at the top and the end of the pile eccentricity of the load applied on the pile soil characteristics ground water level ..etc.

Nevertheless, calculation method that can satisfy all of these conditions will be complicated and difficult to carry out manually, instead two widely used simplified methods are presented. These two methods are refereed as geotechnical and dynamic methods. This section too has worked examples showing the application of the formulae used in predicting the bearing capacity of piles made of different types of materials. Learning outcome When students complete this section, they will be able to understand the theoretical back ground of the formulae used in pile design carry out calculation and be able to predict design bearing capacity of single piles appreciate results calculated by means of different formulae

4.2 The behaviour of piles under load Piles are designed that calculations and prediction of carrying capacity is based on the application of ultimate axial load in the particular soil conditions at the site at relatively short time after installation.

This ultimate load capacity can be determined by either: the use of empirical formula to predict capacity from soil properties determined by testing, or load test on piles at the site

Fig.4-1, When pile is subjected to gradually increasing compressive load in maintained load stages, initially the pile-soil system behaves in a linear-elastic manner up to point A on the settlement-load diagram and if the load is realised at any stage up to this point the pile head rebound to its original level. When the load is increase ? ? beyond point A there is yielding at, or close to, the pile-soil interface and slippage occurs until point B is reached, when the maximum skin friction on the pile shaft will have been mobilised. If the load is realised at this ? stage the pile head will rebound to point C , the amount of permanent settlement being the distance OC. When the stage of full mobilisation of the base resistance is reached ( point D), the pile plunges downwards with out any farther increase of load, or small increases in load producing large settlements.

No end-bearing is mobilised up to this point. The whole of the load is carried by the skin friction on the pile shaft see The pile shaft is carrying its maximum skin friction and the pile toe will be carrying some load

figure 4-1 I)
?

At this point there is no further increase in the load transferred in skin friction but the base load will have reached its maximum value.

Figure -1 axial compression of pile

4.3 Geotechnical design methods In order to separate their behavioural responses to applied pile load, soils are classified as either granular/noncohesive or clays/cohesive. The generic formulae used to predict soil resistance to pile load include empirical modifying factors which can be adjusted according to previous engineering experience of the influence on the accuracy of predictions of changes in soil type and other factors such as the time delay before load testing. (Fig 4-1II) the load settlement response is composed of two separate components, the linear elastic shaft friction Rs and non-linear base resistance Rb. The concept of the separate evaluation of shaft friction and base resistance forms the bases of "static or soil mechanics" calculation of pile carrying capacity. The basic equations to be used for this are written as: Q = Qb + Qs - Wp or Rc = Rb + Rs - Wp Rt = Rs + Wp

Where: Q =

Rc = the ultimate compression resistance of the pile

Qb = Rb = base resistance Qs = Rs = shaft resistance Wp = weight of the pile Rt = tensile resistance of pile In terms of soil mechanics theory, the ultimate skin friction on the pile shaft is related to the horizontal effective stress acting on the shaft and the effective remoulded angle of friction between the pile and the clay and the ultimate shaft resistance Rs can be evaluated by integration of the pile-soil shear strength a over the surface area of the shaft:

a = Ca + n tan

Where: n = Ks v (refer geotechnical notes)

a = Ca + KS v tan

and where: p = pile perimeter L = pile length

= angle of friction between pile and soil

Ks = coefficient of lateral pressure
the ultimate bearing capacity, Rb, of the base is evaluated from the bearing capacity theory:

Ab = area of pile base C = undrained strength of soil at base of pile NC = bearing capacity factor

4.1

Nevertheless, in practise, for a given pile at a given site, the undrained shear strength Ca varies considerably with many factors, including, pile type, soil type, and methods of installations. Ideally, Ca should be determined from a pile-load test, but since this is not always possible, Ca is correlated with the undrained cohesion Cu by empirical adhesion factor so that the general expression in e.q. (4-1) could be simplified to the following expression:

4.2

Where: Ws = weight of soil replaced by the pile

=average value of shear strength over the whole shaft length 4.3.1 The undrained load capacity (total stress approach) For piles in clay, the undrained load capacity is generally taken to be the critical value unless the clay is highly over consolidated. If the undrained or short-term ultimate load capacity is to be computed, the soil parameters C, , , should be appropriate to undrained conditions and v and vb should be the total stresses. If the clay ? is saturated , the undrained angle of friction u is zero, and a (angle of friction between pile and soil) may also be taken as zero. In addition, Nq = 1, N = 1, so that the eq in(4-1) reduces to:

4.3

Where: Nc, Nq, N ,= bearing capacity factors and are functions of the internal angle of friction of the soil, the relative compressibility of the soil and the pile geometry. 4.3.2 Drained load capacity (effective stress approach) For piles installed in stiff, over consolidated clays, the drained load capacity is taken as design criterion. If the simplified assumption is made that the drained pile-soil adhesion C? a is zero and that the term in eq (4-1) involving Nc, N ignoring the drained ultimate bearing capacity of the pile may be expressed as :

4.4

Where: s ? v, and s ? vb = effective vertical stress at depth z respective at pile base f ? a,= effective angle of friction between pile/soil and implied can be taken as f ? , Nq which is dependant up on the values of f ? may be taken to be the same as for piles in sand, and can be decided using table 10-5 & 10-6 4.3.3 Pile in sand

If the pile soil adhesion Ca and term Nc are taken as zero in e.q (4-1) and the terms 0.5 d N is neglected as being small in relation to the term involving N , the ultimate load capacity of a single pile in sand may be expressed as follows:

4.5

Where: s ? v, and s ? vb = effective vertical stress at depth z respective at pile base Fw = correction factor for tapered pile ( = 1 for uniform diameter) 4.4 Dynamic approach Most frequently used method of estimating the load capacity of driven piles is to use a driving formula or dynamic formula. All such formulae relate ultimate load capacity to pile set (the vertical movement per blow of the driving hammer) and assume that the driving resistance is equal to the load capacity to the pile under static loading they are based on an idealised representation of the action of the hammer on the pile in the last stage of its embedment. Usually, pile-driving formulae are used either to establish a safe working load or to determine the driving requirements for a required working load. The working load is usually determined by applying a suitable safety factor to the ultimate load calculated by the formula. However, the use of dynamic formula is highly criticised in some pile-design literatures. Dynamic methods do not take into account the physical characteristics of the soil. This can lead to dangerous missinterpretation of the results of dynamic formula calculation since they represent conditions at the time of driving. They do not take in to account the soil conditions which affect the long- term carrying capacity, reconsolidation, negative skin friction and group effects.

specified load acting on the head of the pile

Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

SINGLE PILE DESIGN

5.1 End bearing piles If a pile is installed in a soil with low bearing capacity but resting on soil beneath with high bearing capacity, most of the load is carried by the end bearing. In some cases where piles are driven in to the ground using hammer, pile capacity can be estimated by calculating the transfer of potential energy into dynamic energy . When the hammer is lifted and thrown down, with some energy lose while driving the pile, potential energy is transferred into dynamic energy. In the final stage of the piles embedment,On the bases of rate of settlement, it is able to calculate the design capacity of the pile. For standard pile driving hammers and some standard piles with load capacity (FRsp,), the working load for the pile can be determined using the relationship between bearing capacity of the pile, the design load capacity of the pile described by: FRsp ? n FSd and table 5-1 where: FSd = design load for end baring. The data is valid only if at the final stage, rate of settlement is 10 mm per ten blow. And pile length not more than 20 m and geo-category 2 . for piles with length 20 - 30 m respective 30 - 50 m the bearing capacity should be reduced by 10 res. 25%.

Table 5-1 Baring capacity of piles installed by hammering

hammer

DROP HAMMER (released by trigger)

drop hammer (activated by rope and friction winch cross-sectional area of pile fall height 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.055m2 390 kN 450 520 440 510 550 550 610 670 0.073m2 420 kN 480 540 480 550 610 600 660 730

cross-sectional area of pile fall height 0.3 3 TON 0.4 0.5 0.3 4 TON 0.4 0.5 0.3 5 TON 0.4 0.5 0.055m2 420 kN 490 560 470 540 610 580 670 760 0.073m2 450 kN 520 590 510 590 680 640 740 840

Example 5.1 A concrete pile with length 26 m and cross-sectional area (235) is subjected to a vertical (235) loading of 390 kN (ultimate) load. Determine appropriate condition to halt hammering. Type of hammer

Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

DESIGN OF PILE GROUP

Introduction
Group action in piled foundation: Most of pile foundations consists not of a single pile, but of a group of piles, which act in the double role of reinforcing the soil, and also of carrying the applied load down to deeper, stronger soil strata. Failure of the group may occur either by failure of the individual piles or as failure of the overall block of soil. The supporting capacity of a group of vertically loaded piles can, in many cases, be considerably less than the sum of the capacities the individual piles comprising the group. Grope action in piled foundation could result in failure or excessive settlement, even though loading tests made on a single pile have indicated satisfactory capacity. In all cases the elastic and consolidation settlements of the group are greater than those of single pile carrying the same working load as that on each pile within the group. This is because the zone of soil or rock which is stressed by the entire group extends to a much greater width and depth than the zone beneath the single pile (fig.6-1)

Figure 6-1 Comparison of stressed zone beneath single pile and pile group

Learning out come

When students complete this section, they will be able: o o o to calculate and predict design bearing capacity of pile group in different soil types to appreciate the governing factors in design of group of piles to design pile groups with appropriate pile spacing

6.1 Bearing capacity of pile groups Pile groups driven into sand may provide reinforcement to the soil. In some cases, the shaft capacity of the pile driven into sand could increase by factor of 2 or more. But in the case of piles driven into sensitive clays, the effective stress increase in the surrounding soil may be less for piles in a group than for individual piles. this will result in lower shaft capacities. Figure 6-2 Under axial or lateral load, In a group, instead of failure of individual piles in the group, block failure (the group acting as a block) may arise.

Figure 6-2 Block failure In general ,the bearing capacity of pile group may be calculated in consideration to block failure in a similar way to that of single pile, by means of equation 4-1,but hear As as the block surface area and Ab as the base area of the block or by rewriting the general equation we get:

................................(6.1)

where: As, surface area of block Ab = base area of block (see fig.6-3) Cb, Cs= average cohesion of clay around the group and beneath the group. Nc = bearing capacity factor. For depths relevant for piles, the appropriate

value of Nc is 9 Wp and Ws = weight of pile respective weight of soil

In examining the behaviour of pile groups it is necessary to consider the following elements:
a free-standing group, in which the pile cap is not in contact with the underlying soil. a "piled foundation," in which the pile cap is in contact with the underlying soil. pile spacing independent calculations, showing bearing capacity of the block and bearing capacity of individual piles in the group should be made. relate the ultimate load capacity of the block to the sum of load capacity of individual piles in the group ( the ratio of block capacity to the sum of individual piles capacity) the higher the better. In the case of where the pile spacing in one direction is much greater than that in perpendicular direction, the capacity of the group failing as shown in Figure 6-2 b) should be assessed.

6.1.1 Pile groups in cohesive soil For pile groups in cohesive soil, the group bearing capacity as a block may be calculated by mans of e.q. 4-5 with appropriate Nc value. 6.1.2 Pile groups in non-cohesive soil For pile groups in non-cohesive soil, the group bearing capacity as a block may be calculated by means of e.q. 4-7 6.1.3 Pile groups in sand In the case of most pile groups installed in sand, the estimated capacity of the block will be well in excess of the sum of the individual pile capacities. As a conservative approach in design, the axial capacity of a pile group in sand is usually taken as the sum of individual pile capacities calculated using formulae in 4-8.

Worked Example 6-1

Calculate the bearing capacity and group efficiency of pile foundation installed in uniform clay of bulk unit weight, of 20kN/m3 and undrained shear strength of Cu of 50kN/m2. The foundation consists of 25 piles each 18m long ,0.4m in diameter and weight 60kN. The weight of the pile cap is 600kN and founded 1m below the ground level. The adhesion factor for the soil/pile interface has a value of 0.8

Figure 6-3 Worked Example 6-1

SOLUTION Calculate single pile bearing capacity: Rs = Cs As = 0.8 50 18 ? (0.4) = 904kN Rb = Nc Ab = 9 50 (0.2)2 = 56.6kN Cb Rci = Rsi + Rbi = 904 + 56.6 = 960 (Wp +Wcap) - Ws = (60? 25+(600-20? 5.0? 5.0? 1.0)) - (20? 18 (0.2)2 ?? 25 = 469kN

total load capacity of 25 piles = Ruc25 = (Rci = Rsi + Rbi) 25 - {(Wp +Wcap) - Ws} = 960

25 - 469 = 23531kN

calculate block load capacity : = 4 ? (18? 4.4? 50 0.8)+ 50 4.4 ? 4.4

9 = 25650kN

surface area of pile group

??

weight of soil replaced by pile cap

Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

Pile spacing and pile arrangement

In certain types of soil, specially in sensitive clays, the capacity of individual piles within the a closely spaced group may be lower than for equivalent isolated pile. However, because of its insignificant effect, this may be ignored in design. Instead the main worry has been that the block capacity of the group may be less than the sum of the individual piles capacities. As a thumb rule, if spacing is more than 2 - 3 pile diameter, then block failure is most unlikely. It is vital importance that pile group in friction and cohesive soil arranged that even distribution of load in greater area is achieved. Large concentration of piles under the centre of the pile cap should be avoided. This could lead to load concentration resulting in local settlement and failure in the pile cap. Varying length of piles in the same pile group may have similar effect. For pile load up to 300kN, the minimum distance to the pile cap should be 100 mm for load higher than 300kN, this distance should be more than 150 mm. In general, the following formula may be used in pile spacing:

End-bearing and friction piles: S = 2.5

...............7.1

Cohesion piles: S = 3.5 where: d = assumed pile diameter L = assumed pile length S = pile centre to centre distance (spacing) Example 7-1

...............7.2

A retaining wall imposing a weight of 120kN/m including self-weight of the pile cap is to be constructed on pile foundation in clay. Timber piles of 250mm in diameter and each 14m long with bearing capacity of 90kN/st has been proposed. Asses suitable pile spacing and pile arrangement.

Solution: 1. recommended minimum pile spacing: S = 3.5 (d) + 0.02 L = 3.5 (0.25) + 0.02 ? 14 = 1.16 m 2. try arranging the piles into two rows: vertical load = 120kN/M single pile load capacity = 90kN/st

= 1.33m

spacing in the two rows

minimum distance to the edge of the pile = 0.1m B = 2 0.1 + 0.25 + 1.10 = 1.55m

here because of the descending nature of the pile diameter a lesser value can be taken , say 1.10m

Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

PILE INSTALATION METHODS

8.1 Introduction
The installation process and method of installations are equally important factors as of the design process of pile foundations. In this section we will discuss the two main types of pile installation methods; installation by pile hammer and boring by mechanical auger. In order to avoid damages to the piles, during design, installation Methods and installation equipment should be carefully selected. If installation is to be carried out using pile-hammer, then the following factors should be taken in to consideration: the size and the weight of the pile the driving resistance which has to be overcome to achieve the design penetration the available space and head room on the site the availability of cranes and

the noise restrictions which may be in force in the locality.

8.2 Pile driving methods (displacement piles) Methods of pile driving can be categorised as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Dropping weight Explosion Vibration Jacking (restricted to micro-pilling) Jetting

8.2.1 Drop hammers

A hammer with approximately the weight of the pile is raised a suitable height in a guide and released to strike the pile head. This is a simple form of hammer used in conjunction with light frames and test piling, where it may be uneconomical to bring a steam boiler or compressor on to a site to drive very limited number of piles. There are two main types of drop hammers: Single-acting steam or compressed-air hammers Double-acting pile hammers

1. Single-acting steam or compressed-air comprise a massive weight in the form of a cylinder (see fig.8-1). Steam or compressed air admitted to the cylinder raises it up the fixed piston rod. At the top of the stroke, or at a lesser height which can be controlled by the operator, the steam is cut off and the cylinder falls freely on the pile helmet. 2. Double-acting pile hammers can be driven by steam or compressed air. A pilling frame is not required with this type of hammer which can be attached to the top of the pile by leg-guides, the pile being guided by a timber framework. When used with a pile frame, back guides are bolted to the hammer to engage with leaders, and only short leg-guides are used to prevent the hammer from moving relatively to the top of the pile. Double-acting hammers are used mainly for sheet pile driving.

Figure 8-1 Pile driving using hammer

8.2.2 Diesel hammers

Also classified as single and double-acting, in operation, the diesel hammer employs a ram which is raised by explosion at the base of a cylinder. Alternatively, in the case of double-acting diesel hammer, a vacuum is created in a separate annular chamber as the ram moves upward, and assists in the return of the ram, almost doubling the output of the hammer over the single-acting type. In favourable ground conditions, the diesel hammer provide an efficient pile driving capacity, but they are not

effective for all types of ground.

8.2.3 Pile driving by vibrating

Vibratory hammers are usually electrically powered or hydraulically powered and consists of contrarotating eccentric masses within a housing attaching to the pile head. The amplitude of the vibration is sufficient to break down the skin friction on the sides of the pile. Vibratory methods are best suited to sandy or gravelly soil. Jetting: to aid the penetration of piles in to sand or sandy gravel, water jetting may be employed. However, the method has very limited effect in firm to stiff clays or any soil containing much coarse gravel, cobbles, or boulders.

8.3 Boring methods ( non-displacement piles) 8.3.1 Continuous Flight Auger (CFA)
An equipment comprises of a mobile base carrier fitted with a hollow-stemmed flight auger which is rotated into the ground to required depth of pilling. To form the pile, concrete is placed through the flight auger as it is withdrawn from the ground. The auger is fitted with protective cap on the outlet at the base of the central tube and is rotated into the ground by the top mounted rotary hydraulic motor which runs on a carrier attached to the mast. On reaching the required depth, highly workable concrete is pumped through the hollow stem of the auger, and under the pressure of the concrete the protective cap is detached. While rotating the auger in the same direction as during the boring stage, the spoil is expelled vertically as the auger is withdrawn and the pile is formed by filling with concrete. In this process, it is important that rotation of the auger and flow of concrete is matched that collapse of sides of the hole above concrete on lower flight of auger is avoided. This may lead to voids in filled with soil in concrete. The method is especially effective on soft ground and enables to install a variety of bored piles of various diameters that are able to penetrate a multitude of soil conditions. Still, for successful operation of rotary auger the soil must be reasonably free of tree roots, cobbles, and boulders, and it must be self-supporting. During operation little soil is brought upwards by the auger that lateral stresses is maintained in the soil and voiding or excessive loosening of the soil minimise. However, if the rotation of the auger and the advance of the auger is not matched, resulting in removal of soil during drilling-possibly leading to collapse of the side of the hole.

Figure 8-2 CFA Process

8.3.2 Underreaming
A special feature of auger bored piles which is sometimes used to enable to exploit the bearing capacity of suitable strata by providing an enlarged base. The soil has to be capable of standing open unsupported to employ this technique. Stiff and to hard clays, such as the London clay, are ideal. In its closed position, the underreaming tool is fitted inside the straight section of a pile shaft, and then expanded at the bottom of the pile to produce the underream shown in fig. 8-3.Normally, after installation and before concrete is casted, a man carrying cage is lowered and the shaft and the underream of the pile is inspected.

Figure 8 -3 a)hydraulic rotary drilling equipment b) C.F.A, c)undrreaming tool open position

8.3.3 C.H.D.P
Figure 8-4, Continuous helical displacement piles: a short, hollow tapered steel former complete with a larger diameter helical flange, the bullet head is fixed to a hallow drill pipe which is connected to a high torque rotary head running up and down the mast of a special rig. A hollow cylindrical steel shaft sealed at the lower end by a one-way valve and fitted with triangular steel fins is pressed into the ground by a hydraulic ram. There are no vibrations. Displaced soil is compacted in front and around the shaft. Once it reaches the a suitably resistant stratum the shaft is rotated. The triangular fins either side of its leading edge carve out a conical base cavity. At the same time concrete is pumped down the centre of the shat and through the one-way valve. Rotation of the fins is calculated so that as soil is pushed away from the pile base it is simultaneously replaced by in-flowing concrete. Rates of push, rotation and concrete injection are all controlled by an onboard computer. Torque on the shaft is also measured by the computer. When torque levels reach a constant low value the base in formed. The inventors claim that the system can

install a\ typical pile in 12 minute. A typical 6m long pile with an 800mm diameter base and 350mm shaft founded on moderately dense gravel beneath soft overlaying soils can achieve an ultimate capacity of over 200t. The pile is suitable for embankments, hard standing supports and floor slabs, where you have a soft silty layer over a gravel strata.

Figure 8 -4 C.H.D.P.

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Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

LOAD TEST ON PILES

9.1 Introduction
Pile load test are usually carried out that one or some of the following reasons are fulfilled: To obtain back-figured soil data that will enable other piles to be designed. To confirm pile lengths and hence contract costs before the client is committed to over all job costs. To counter-check results from geotechnical and pile driving formulae To determine the load-settlement behaviour of a pile, especially in the region of the anticipated working load that the data can be used in prediction of group settlement. To verify structural soundness of the pile.

Test loading: There are four types of test loading:

compression test uplift test lateral-load test torsion-load test

the most common types of test loading procedures are Constant rate of penetration (CRP) test and the maintained load test (MLT).

9.1.1 CRP (constant rate of penetration) In the CRP (constant rate of penetration) method, test pile is jacked into the soil, the load being adjusted to give constant rate of downward movement to the pile. This is maintained until point of failure is reached. Failure of the pile is defined in to two ways that as the load at which the pile continues to move downward without further increase in load, or according to the BS, the load which the penetration reaches a value equal to one-tenth of the diameter of the pile at the base. Fig.9-2, In the cases of where compression tests are being carried out, the following methods are usually employed to apply the load or downward force on the pile: A platform is constructed on the head of the pile on which a mass of heavy material, termed "kentledge" is placed. Or a bridge, carried on temporary supports, is constructed over the test pile and loaded with kentledge. The ram of a hydraulic jack, placed on the pile head, bears on a cross-head beneath the bridge beams, so that a total reaction equal to the weight of the bridge and its load may be obtained. 9.1.2 MLT, the maintained increment load test Fig.9-1, the maintained increment load test, kentledge or adjacent tension piles or soil anchors are used to provide a reaction for the test load applied by jacking(s) placed over the pile being tested. The load is increased in definite steps, and is sustained at each level of loading until all settlements has either stop or does not exceed a specified amount of in a certain given period of time.

Figure 9-1 test load arrangement using kentledge

Figure 9-2 test being carried out

Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

Limit State Design

Introduction Traditionally, design resistance of foundations has been evaluated on an allowable stress basis that piles were designed with ultimate axial capacity between 2 and 3 times than working load. However structural design is now using a limit state design (LSD) bases whereby partial factors are applied to various elements of the design according to the reliability with which the parameters are known or can be calculated. LSD approach is the base of all the Eurocodes, including that for foundations design. It is believed that Limit state design has many benefits for the economic design of piling. The eurocode approach is particularly rigorous, and this guide adopts the partial factors presented in the codes.
See Elements of Soil Mechanics (8th Edition) to learn how to design piles (and other geotechnical structures) to Eurocode 7. Full details are here....

Eurocode 7 divides investigation, design and implementation of geoconstructions into three categories. It is a requirement of the code that project must be supervised at all stages by personnel with geotechnical knowledge. In order to establish minimum requirements for the extent and quality of geotechnical investigation, deign and construction three geotechnical categories

defined. These are: Geotechnical Category 1, 2, 3. 10.1 Goetechnical category 1, GC 1 this category includes small and relative simple structures: -for which is impossible to ensure that the fundamental requirements will be satisfied on the basis of experience and qualitative geotecnical investigation; -with negligible risk for property and life. Geotechnical Category 1 procedures will be only be sufficient in ground conditions which are known from comparable experience to be sufficiently straight-forward that routine methods may be used for foundation design and construction. Qualitative geotechnical investigations 10.2 Geotechnical Category, GC 2 This category includes conventional types of structures and foundations with no abnormal risks or unusual or exceptionally difficult ground or loading conditions. Structures in Geotechnical category 2 require quantitative geotechnical data and analysis to ensure that the fundamental requirements will be satisfied, but routine procedures for field and laboratory testing and for design and execution may be used. Qualified engineer with relevant experience must be involved. 10.3 Geotechnical Category, GC 3 This category includes structures or parts of structures which do not fall within the limits of Geotechnical Categories 1and 2. The following are examples of structures or parts of structures complying with geotechnical category 2: conventional type of :

spread foundations; raft foundations; piled foundations; walls and other structures retaining for supporting soil or water; excavations; bridge piers and abutments; embankment and earthworks; ground anchors and other tie-back systems; tunnels in hard, non-fractured rock and not subjected to special water tightness or other requirement.

Geotechnical Category 3 includes very large or unusual structure. Structures involving abnormal risks or unusual or exceptionally difficult ground or loading conditions and highly seismic areas. Qualified geotechnical engineer must be

involved. The following factors must be considered in arriving at a classification of a structure or part of a structure:

Nature and size of the structure Local conditions, e.g. traffic, utilities, hydrology, subsidence, etc. Ground and groundwater conditions Regional seismicity..

10.3.1 Conditions classified as in Eurocode 7 In the code, conditions are classified as favourable or unfavourable. Favourable conditions are as such: + if experience shows that the material posses limited spreading characteristic + if large scale investigation was carried out and test results are reliable + the existence of well documented investigation carried out using reliable methods which can give reproducible results + if additional tests, investigations and supervisions are recommend + high certainty in defining test results + failure is plastic

Unfavourable conditions are as such: -- if experience shows that the material posses spreading characteres -- if test results shows large spreading than the normal conditions -- if the extent of investigation is limited -- limited experience and methods lucking reproducibility -- where there is no recommendation for additional test, investigations and supervision -- uncertainty in analysing test results -- if failure is brittle Eurocode 7 refers to foundation loadings as action. The se can be permanent as In

the case of weights of structures and installations, or variable as imposed loading, or wind and snow loads. They can be accidental, e.g. vehicle impact or explosions. Actions can vary spatially, e.g. self-weights are fixed (fixed actions), but imposed loads can vary in position (free actions). The duration of actions affections affects the response of the ground. It may cause strengthening such as the gain in strength of a clay by long-term loading, or weakening as in the case of excavation slopes in clay over the medium or long term. To allow for this Eurocode 7 introduces a classification related to the soil response and refers to transient actions (e.g. wind loads), short-term actions (e.g. construction loading) and long-term actions. In order to allow for uncertainties in the calculation of he magnitude of actions or combinations of actions and their duration and spatial distribution, Euorcode requires the design values of actions Fd to be used for the geotechnical design either to be assessed directly or to be derived from characteristic values Fk : Fd = Fk 10.4 The partial factors
m, n, Rd

The partial factor m: this factor is applied as a safety factor that the characteristic values of the material is divided by this factor. (m = material index) and covers :

unfavourable deviation from the material product property inaccuracies in the conversion factors: and uncertainties in the geometric properties and the resistance model.

In ultimate limit state, depending upon a given conditions, for Geotechnical Category 2, the values of the m may be decided using table 10-1& 10-2. The partial co-efficient n: in order to ensure stability and adequate strength in the structure and in the ground, in the code, cases A, B, and C have been introduced. Values of n is given in table 10-3 Partial co-efficient Rd: this co-efficient is applied in consideration of deviation between test results and future construction. Values of the n should be between 1.4 - 1.8
Table 10-1 partial factors on material properties for conventional design situations for ultimate limit states

Material property tan modules other properties

Partial factor 1.1- 1.25 1.2 - 1.8 1.6 - 2.0

Table 10-2 partial factors on material properties for conventional design situations for service limit state

Material property modules other properties

Partial factor 1.2 - 1.8 1.6 - 2.0

Normally the design values, d , Ed, tan , can be decided using the following formulae:

fd = fk/(

Ed = Ek /( tan
d

= tan

/(

Where: f = reaction force

= internal angle of friction

E = elastic module
Table 10-3 partial factor
n

Class A B C

1.0 1.1 1.2

Table 10-4 adhesion factor

pile Concrete piles Steel piles timber piles (wood piles)

b 0.5 0.5 0.5

s 0.005 0.002 0.009

The table is used for qc ? 10 Mpa

Table 10-5 Bearing factors N , Nq, NC

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

N 6.48 7.64 8.99 10.6 12.5 14.7 17.4 20.6 24.4 29.0 34.4 41.9 49.1 58.9 70.9 85.6 104 126 154 190 234

NC 20.7 22.2 23.9 25.8 27.9 30.1 32.7 35.5 38.9 42.2 46.1 50.6 55.6 61.3 67.9 75.3 83.9 93.7 105 118 134

Nq 10.7 11.8 13.2 14.7 16.4 18.4 20.6 23.2 26.1 29.4 33.3 37.7 42.9 48.9 56.0 64.2 73.9 85.4 99.0 115 135