Introduction to Mechanics and applications

9+3
Moment of inertia (M.I) - Radius of gyration - M.I of circular disc, solid cylinder, diatomic molecule -
K.E of a rotating body –– centre of mass – conservation of linear momentum – Relation between
Torque and angular momentum - Torsional pendulum - The concept of gravity – Law of universal
gravitation –weigh and weightlessness – Projectile motion – range – height – time.

2.1.Introduction:
Inertia. According to Newton's first law of motion a body at rest will remain at rest and a Body
moving with uniform velocity in a straight line will continue to do so unless an external force
is applied to it. This property of a body by virtue of which it is unable to change its state of rest
(or) of uniform motion in a straight line by itself is known as "inertia". For translatory motion
the value of inertia depends only on the mass of the body. The greater is the mass ,greater is
the inertia.
2.2.An expression for the kinetic energy of a rotating body.
Kinetic energy of rotation.
For translator motion kinetic energy depends upon mass 𝑚 and velocity 𝑣 and is
1
given by 𝑚𝑣 2 .
2
When a body rotates about an axis, the kinetic energy of its rotation is determined not only
by its mass 𝑚 and angular velocity 𝜔, but also depends upon the position of the axis about
which it rotates and the distribution of mass about this axis.
If a body A rotates about an axis XY (Figure2.1) with an
angular velocity 𝜔, all its particles have the same
angular velocity, but as they are at different distances
from the axis of rotation, their linear velocities are
different. Let the linear velocities of the particles of mass
𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , …at the distant 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 ... from the axis of rotation
be 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 …, respectively, The kinetic energy of the body
is, therefore, equal to the sum of the kinetic energies of
the various particles and is given by
1 1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 2 𝑚2 𝑣22 + ⋯
Since 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
1 1 1
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐾. 𝐸. = 2 𝑚1 𝑟12 𝜔2 + 2 𝑚2 𝑟22 𝜔2 + 2 𝑚3 𝑟32 𝜔2 + ⋯ Fig (2.1)
1 1 1
= ∑𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔2 = 𝑚2 ∑𝑚𝑟 2 = 𝐼𝜔2
2 2 2
where 𝐼 is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis XY and is equal to ∑𝑚𝑟 2

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2.3.Moment of inertia.
We have expressed the moment of inertia as ∑𝑚𝑟 2
Hence the moment of inertia of a body about an axis is defined as the sum of the products of
the mass and the square of the distance of the different particles of the body from the axis of
rotation.
1
In the above case we have seen that K.E. of rotation = 2 𝐼𝜔2
If 𝜔 = 1, then 𝐼 = 2 × 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦.
Hence moment of inertia may also be defined as twice the kinetic energy of rotation of a
body when its angular velocity is unity.
2.4. Radius of gyration and the dimensions and units of moment of inertia.
(a).Radius of gyration. If the entire mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated at
a point such that the kinetic energy of rotation is the same as that of the body itself, then the
distance of that point from the axis of rotation is called the radius of gyration of the body
about that axis. If 𝑘 denotes the radius of gyration and 𝑀 the mass of the body supposed to be
concentrated at the point, then we have
1 1 1
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝐼𝜔2 = ∑𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔2 = 𝑀𝑘 2 𝜔2
2 2 2
2 2
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 +⋯
𝑀𝑘 2 = ∑𝑚𝑟 2 = 𝑚𝑛
𝑛
Where 𝑛 is the number of particles each of mass 𝑚 into which the given mass 𝑀 is divided.
Now
𝑀 = 𝑚𝑛
𝑟12 +𝑟22 +⋯
𝑘2 =
𝑛
1/2
𝑟1 + 𝑟22 +
2
⋯
∴𝑘=
𝑛
Hence the radius of gyration is the square root of the mean square distance of the particles of
the body from the axis of rotation.
According to the definition of radius of gyration given above the dimensions of 𝑘 are those of
length 𝐿1 alone.
Now moment of inertia 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑘 2
∴ Dimensions of 𝐼 = 𝑀1 𝐿2
(b).Units of moment of inertia. In S.I units the moment of inertia is expressed as 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚2 .

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 (c).Moment of inertia is a scalar quantity
Moment of inertia – a scalar. Moment of inertia is a scalar quantity because the value
of 𝐼 about a given axis remains unchanged by reversing its direction of rotation about the axis.
In other words it has no direction. The total moment of inertia of a number of bodies about a
given axis is equal to the sum of their individual moments of inertia about the axis.
𝐿2 = 2𝐸𝐼. The angular momentum of a rotating body 𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔 where 𝐼 is the moment of inertia
of the body the axis of rotation and 𝜔 the angular velocity.
1
Kinetic energy of rotation 𝐸 = 𝐼𝜔2 ; 2E = I 𝜔2 Since L2 = I 2 𝜔2
2
therefore 𝜔2 =L2/I 2 substitute 𝜔2 in 2E above equation
2E = I x L2/I 2
2E = L2/I
2EI = L2
2.5.The M.I. of circular disc about an axis through its centre perpendicular to its plane.

Moment of inertia of a circular disc about an axis

through its centre perpendicular to its plane. Let
𝑀 be the mass of the disc and 𝑅 its radius.
Consider an elementary ring of radius 𝑥 and width
𝑑𝑥 as shown in Fig(2.2). Its area is equal to the
product of the circumference and width
i.e., 2𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥. (Area = circumference x width)
𝑀
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = Fig (2.2)
𝜋𝑅 2
𝑀 2𝑀
∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝜋𝑅 2 2𝜋𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅2
𝑥𝑑𝑥 (Mass of the element = Area x Mass per unit
area)
Moment of inertia of the element about axis through its centre perpendicular to its plane(I=
Mr2)
2𝑀 2𝑀
2
𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 = 2 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
=
𝑅 𝑅
Hence moment of inertia of the whole disc about this axis
𝑅 𝑅
2𝑀 3
2𝑀 𝑥 4 1
𝐼= 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2
𝑅 0 𝑅 4 0
2

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 2.5.1.The moment of inertia of a circular disc.
(a) About a diameter
(b) About a tangent.
(a) Moment of inertia of a circular disc about its diameter.
The moment of inertia of a circular disc about an axis perpendicular to its plane and
passing through its centre is given by

1
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅 2
2

Where 𝑀 is the mass and 𝑅 its radius.

Now consider two perpendicular diameters AB and

CD of the circular disc as in Fig(2.3). Since all the
diameters are symmetrical the moment of inertia
of the disc about one diameter is the same as that
about any other diameter.

If 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are the moment of inertia of the disc

about two axes Perpendicular to each other, then
applying the principle of perpendicular axis, the
moment of inertia 𝐼 of the disc about an axis
perpendicular to the plane of the disc through O.

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 (Principle Perpendicular axis theorem I = I1+I2)

Since the two diameters are symmetrical with respect to the disc 𝐼1 = 𝐼2

𝐼 𝑀𝑅 2 1 𝑀𝑅 2
∴ 𝐼 = 2𝐼1 𝑜𝑟 𝐼1 = = × =
2 2 2 4

(b) Moment of inertia of circular disc about a tangent.

Moment of inertia of a disc about a diameter CD,
𝑀𝑅 2
𝐼1 =
4
Applying the principle of parallel axis, the moment of inertia 𝐼
about the tangent 𝑋𝑌 at 𝐴. (Figure2.4)
𝑀𝑅 2 5
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝑀 × 𝑂𝐴2 = + 𝑀𝑅 2 = 𝑀𝑅 2
4 4
(Principle of parallel axis Theorem 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝑀 × 𝑂𝐴2 ) Fig (2.4 )

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 2.6. The moment of inertia of a solid cylinder about axis of cylindrical symmetry.

(a) The moment of inertia of the solid cylinder about its axis of symmetry. A cylinder is thick
circular disc (or) it may be considered to be a combination of a number of thin discs each of
mass 𝑚 and radius 𝑅 placed one above the other. The moment of inertia of the cylinder will
be equal to the sum of the moments of inertia of each of the discs about an axis through the
centre and perpendicular to the plane.
1
Moment of inertia of one disc = 2 𝑚𝑅 2

1 1 1
∴ Moment of inertia of the cylinder = ∑ 2 𝑚𝑅 2 = 2 𝑅 2 ∑𝑚 = 2 𝑀𝑅 2

Where 𝑀 is the mass of the cylinder.

(b) The moment of inertia of a solid cylinder about the axis passing through its centre and
perpendicular to its own axis of symmetry.
Moment of inertia of the solid cylinder about an axis passing through its centre and
perpendicular to its own axis of symmetry. Let 𝑀 be the mass of the cylinder, R its radius and
𝑀
𝑙 its length then its mass per unit length = 𝑙 .
Let 𝑌𝑌′ be the axis passing through its centre and perpendicular to its own axis 𝑋𝑋′.
Consider a thin slice S of thickness 𝑑𝑥 at a distance 𝑥 from O.

Fig (2.5)
𝑀
Mass of the disc 𝑆 = 𝑙
𝑑𝑥
Moment of inertia of this disc about a parallel axis 𝑌𝑌′; by the principle of parallel axis
𝑀𝑅 2
= 4
+ 𝑀 ∗ 𝑂𝑆 2
𝑀
Substitute M - Mass of the disc S in above equation (Mass of the disc 𝑆 = 𝑙
𝑑𝑥) and OS = 𝑥
𝑀 𝑅2 𝑀
= 𝑙
𝑑𝑥 4 + 𝑙
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2
Ref(Principle of parallel axis Theorem 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝑀 × 𝑂𝐴2 )
The moment of inertia of the cylinder about the axis 𝑌𝑌′ is obtained by integrating the above
expression within the limits

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 𝑙 𝑙
𝑥=+ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = − .
2 2
+𝑙/2 3 +𝑙/2
𝑀 𝑅2 𝑀 𝑅 2
𝑥 𝑀 𝑅2 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙3 𝑙3
∴𝐼= + 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥+ = + + +
𝑙 −𝑙/2 4 𝑙 4 3 −𝑙/2 𝑙 4 2 2 24 24
𝑀 𝑅2 𝑙 𝑙3 𝑅2 𝑙2
= + =𝑀 +
𝑙 4 12 4 12

2.7.The moment of inertia of diatomic molecule

In a stable equilibrium position, the two atoms of a diatomic molecule are separated by a
certain distance r. The distance is called intermolecular distance or bond length.
Let us imagine the diatomic molecule as a system of two tiny spheres at either end of a thin
weightless rod fig (2.6).
Let C be the centre of mass of the molecule.
Let r1 and r2 be the distances of the two atoms from the centre of
mass C of the molecule.
Now r1+r2 = r ---------(1)
and m1r1 = m2r2 -------(2)
Where m1 and m2 are the masses of two atoms
From equation (1)
r2=r-r1 -----------(3)
Substitute r2 value from equation (3) in equation (2)
m1r1=m2(r-r1) (or) m1r1= m2r-m2r1
m1r1 + m2r1 = m2r
r1(m1+m2) = m2r
r1= m2 r/(m1+m2) ---------------(4)
From equation (1)
r1=r-r2 -----------(5)
Substitute r1 value from equation (5) in equation (2)
m1r1 = m2r2 -------(2)
m2r2=m1(r-r2) (or) m2r2= m1r-m1r2
m2r2 + m1r2 = m1r
r2(m1+m2) = m1r
r2= m1 r/(m1+m2) ------------------(6)

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 Let I be moment of inertial of diatomic molecules about an axis passing through center of
mass of molecule and perpendicular to bond length
I = m1r12+m2r22
substitute r1 and r2 from equation (4) and (6)
(or) I= m1[ m2 r/(m1+m2) ]2+m2[ m1 r/(m1+m2)]2
(or) I = m1m22 r2 / (m1+m2)2 + m2m12 r2 / (m1+m2)2
(or) I= m1m22 r2+ m2m12 r2 / (m1+m2)2
(or) I= m1m2 (m1 +m2) r2 / (m1+m2)2
(or) I= m1m2 r2 / (m1+m2)
(or) I= m1m2 r2/ (m1+m2 )
m1m2 / m1+m2 = μ(reduced mass of molecule)
I=μ r2
Therefore moment of inertia of a diatomic molecule about an axis passing through the centre of the
diatomic molecule and perpendicular to bond length is product of reduced mass of molecule and
square of bond length.

Fig (2.6)

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 2.8. Kinetic Energy of a rotating body
Consider a rigid body rotating with angular velocity ω about an axis XOX′. Consider
the particles of masses m1, m2, m3… situated at distances r1, r2, r3… respectively from the axis
of rotation. The angular velocity of all the particles is same but the particles rotate with
different linear velocities. Let the linear velocities of the particles be v1,v2,v3 … respectively.
1
Kinetic energy of the first particle = 2
x m1 v12
But v1=r1ω
1
∴ Kinetic energy of the first particle = 2
x m1( r1ω)2
1
= 2
x m1r1 2 ω2

Fig (2.7)
Similarly,
1
Kinetic energy of second particle= 2
x m2r22 ω2
1
Kinetic energy of third particle = 2
x m3r32 ω 2 and so on.
The kinetic energy of the rotating rigid body is equal to the sum of the kinetic
1
energies of all the particles. ∴ Rotational kinetic energy = 2
x (m1r12ω2 + m2r22ω2 +

m3r32ω2 + ..... + mnrn2ω2)

1
= 2
x ω2(m1r12 + m2r22 + m3r32 + ….. + mnrn2)
n
1
i.e) ER = 2
x ω2 ( ∑ mi ri 2 ) -------------(1)
i=1
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 1
In translatory motion, kinetic energy = 2
x mv2
n
The term I = (∑ miri 2)
i=1
is known as moment of inertia of the rotating rigid body about the axis of rotation.
Therefore the moment of inertia is I = mass × (distance )2
1
Kinetic energy of rotating body = 2
x ω2I
2.9 Centre of mass
Every body is a collection of large number of tiny particles. In translatory
motion of a body, every particle experiences equal displacement with time; therefore the
motion of the whole body may be represented by a particle. But when the body rotates
(or) vibrates during translatory motion, then its motion can be represented by a point on
the body that moves in the same way as that of a single particle subjected to the same
external forces would move. A point in the system at which whole mass of the body is
supposed to be concentrated is called centre of mass of the body. Therefore, if a system
contains two or more particles, its translatory motion can be described by the motion of
the centre of mass of the system
 Example for motion of centre of mass Let us consider the motion of the centre of mass of the
Earth and moon system (Fig 2.7). The moon moves round the Earth in a circular orbit and the
Earth moves round the Sun in an elliptical orbit. It is more correct to say that the Earth and
the moon both move in circular orbits about their common centre of mass in an elliptical
orbit round the Sun.
 For the system consisting of the Earth and the moon, their mutual gravitational attractions
are the internal forces in the system and Sun’s attraction on both the Earth and moon are the
external forces acting on the centre of mass of the system.
Fig (2.7) Centre of mass of earth – moon system

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 Fig (2.7)

2.10.Momentum
P = mv
P- Momentum
m- mass
v- velocity
Momentum:
The ability to keep increasing (or) developing; the force that makes something move
faster and faster.

2.10.1 Conservation of Linear Momentum

According to the conservation of linear momentum,
If the net external force acting on a system of bodies is zero, then the momentum of
the system remains constant.

 We have to remember that the momentum of the system is conserved and not that of the
individual particles. The momentum of the individual bodies in the system might increase
(or) decrease according to the situation, but the momentum of the system will always be
conserved, as long as there is no external net force acting on it.
2.10.2 Conservation of Linear Momentum Formula
The principle of conservation of momentum states that if two objects collide, then the
total momentum before and after the collision will be the same if there is no external
force acting on the colliding objects.

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 Conservation of linear momentum formula mathematically expresses the momentum of
the system remains constant when the net external force is zero.
Initial momentum = Final momentum
Pi = Pf
2.11. Linear Momentum Formula
Linear momentum is mathematically expressed as:
p = mv
p is the linear momentum.
v is the linear velocity.
m is the mass of the body.
The moment of inertia is I = mass × (distance )2
Angular Velocity ω =θ/t
ω in radians per unit time
θ in radians
Linear velocity
v = s/t = r θ/t (s = rθ and ω = θ/t )
v= r ω (Refer the fig (2.8))
Angular acceleration (α) = d ω/ dt
Linear acceleration (a) = dv/ dt

Fig (2.8)

Angular momentum of a rotating rigid body is,

L=Iω
I is the moment of inertia (I= mr2)
ω is the angular velocity
Couple and moment of the couple (Torque)
Suppose two strings are tied to a wheel at the points X and Y, and two equal and
opposite forces, F, are exerted tangentially to the wheels Fig (A). If the wheel is pivoted at
its centre O it begins to rotate about O in an anticlockwise direction.

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  Two equal and opposite forces whose lines of action do not coincide are said to constitute a
couple in mechanics. The two forces always have a turning effect (or) moment, called a
torque. The perpendicular distance between the lines of action of two forces, which
constitute the couple, is called the arm of the couple.
 The product of the forces forming the couple and the arm of the couple is called the moment
of the couple or torque.
 Torque( ) = one of the forces × perpendicular distance between the forces
 A quantity that is a measure of this rotational effect produced by the force is called torque.
In vector notation, τ = r × F
 The torque is maximum when θ = 90° (i.e) when the applied force is at right angles to r

Fig (A)

2.12 Relation between torque and angular momentum

The angular momentum of a rotating rigid body is,
L=Iω
Differentiating the above equation with respect to time,
dL /dt = I x d ω/ dt = I α ------------(1)
where α = d ω/ dt is angular acceleration of the body.
But torque τ = I α ------------(2)
Therefore, torque τ = dL/ dt
Thus the rate of change of angular momentum of a body is equal to the external
torque acting upon the body.

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  Hook’s Law
Stress is directly proportional to the strain produced, within the elastic limit”.
Stress α Strain
Stress = E Strain, Where E is the modulus
therefore E = Stress/Strain
Stress = Force/Unit area
Strain = Change in dimension/Original
dimension
Young’s Modulus
Y = Longitudinal Stress / Longitudinal Strain
𝐹 𝑙
Y = ( 𝐴)/( 𝐿 )
Y = F L /A 𝑙 ( N/m2 (or) Pascals)
 Rigidity Modulus
n = Shearing Stress/Shearing Strain
n=F/AФ N/m2 (or ) Pascals
 Shearing Stress
F/A
 Shearing Strain
It is defined as the angular deformation produced on the body due to the
application of external tangential forces on it.

Bulk modulus (K)

K= Bulk Stress / Bulk Strain
𝐹 𝑣
K=( 𝐴)/( 𝑉 )
K = FV/Av N/m2 (or) Pascals

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 2.13 . Torsional Pendulum
1. Torsional oscillation
It is the periodic oscillation produced by twisting the wire.
2. Torsional Pendulum
A body suspended from a rigid support by means of a thin elastic wire is called a torsional
pendulum.
3. Rigidity modulus
Rigidity modulus is defined as ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain.

4. Moment of Inertia
It is a measure of a body’s tendency to resist the angular acceleration.
5. Torque
The product of moment of inertia and angular acceleration (or) the rate of change of
angular momentum.

Torsion Pendulum
A body suspended by a thread (or) wire which twists first in one direction and then in the
reverse direction, in the horizontal plane is called a torsional pendulum. The first torsion
pendulum was developed by Robert Leslie in 1793.A simple schematic representation of a
torsion pendulum is given below.

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 Principle: When a disc is rotated in a horizontal plane, the disc executes simple harmonic
oscillation due to the restoring couple produced in the wire.
Description:
A torsion pendulum consists of a wire with one end fixed to a split chuck and the
other end fixed to the centre of the circular disc of radius R as shown in figure.
Let ‘L’ be the distance between chuck end to the disc and ‘r’ be the radius of the
suspended wire.
Working:
The circular disc is rotated in horizontal plane so that the wire is twisted through an
angle ‘θ’. The various elements of the wire will undergo shearing strain and a restoring
couple is produced. Now if the disc is released, the disc will produce torsion oscillations.
The couple acting on the disc produces an angular acceleration in it, which is
proportional to the angular displacement and is always directed towards its mean
position.
Therefore from the law of conservation of energy the total energy of the system is
conserved.
Total energy of the torsion pendulum= Potential energy (P.E)+ Kinetic energy (K.E)
-----------(1)
The potential energy confined to the wire is equal to the work done in twisting the
disc, thereby creating a restoring couple (C).

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Applications of Torsional Pendulum:

1.The working of " Torsion pendulum clocks " ( shortly torsion clocks or pendulum clocks), is based
on torsional oscillation.

2.The freely decaying oscillation of Torsion pendulum in medium(like polymers),helps to determine

their characteristic properties.

3.New researches, promising the determination of frictional forces between solid surfaces and
flowing liquid environments using forced torsion pendulums.

2.14 .The concept of Gravity

 In kinematics, the freely falling body under the gravity of the Earth is discussed. The
fundamental forces of nature are gravitational, electromagnetic and nuclear forces. The
gravitational force is the weakest among them. But this force plays an important role in
the birth of a star, controlling the orbits of planets and evolution of the whole universe.

 Before the seventeenth century, scientists believed that objects fell on the Earth due to
their inherent property of matter. Galileo made a systematic study of freely falling bodies.

Newton’s law of gravitation

 The motion of the planets, the moon and the Sun was the interesting subject among the
students of Trinity college at Cambridge in England. Isaac Newton was also one among
these students. In 1665, the college was closed for an indefinite period due to plague.
Newton, who was then 23 years old, went home to Lincolnshire. He continued to think
about the motion of planets and the moon. One day Newton sat under an apple tree and
had tea with his friends. He saw an apple falling to ground. This incident made him to
think about falling bodies

 He concluded that the same force of gravitation which attracts the apple to the Earth
might also be responsible for attracting the moon and keeping it in its orbit. The
centripetal acceleration of the moon in its orbit and the downward acceleration of a body
falling on the Earth might have the same origin. Newton calculated the centripetal
acceleration by assuming moon’s orbit (Fig.2.10) to be circular.

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 Fig (2.10)

Acceleration due to gravity on the Earth’s surface,

g = 9.8 m s–2

Centripetal acceleration on the moon, ac = v2 /r

where r is the radius of the orbit of the moon (3.84 × 108 m) and v is the speed
of the moon.

Time period of revolution of the moon around the Earth,

T = 27.3 days.

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 The speed of the moon in its orbit,

v = 2r π/T

v = 2 π × 3.84 × 10 8 / 27.3 ×24×60 ×60

= 1.02 × 103 ms −1

∴ Centripetal acceleration, ac = v2 /r

= (1.02 x 103)2 / 3.84 × 10 8

ac = 2.7 × 10−3 ms −2

Newton assumed that both the moon and the apple are accelerated towards the centre
of the Earth. But their motions differ, because, the moon has a tangential velocity
whereas the apple does not have.

Newton found that ac was less than g and hence concluded that force
produced due to gravitational attraction of the Earth decreases with increase in
distance from the centre of the Earth. He assumed that this acceleration and therefore
force was inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the centre of the
Earth.

He had found that the value of ac was about 1/3600 of the value of g, since the
radius of the lunar orbit r is nearly 60 times the radius of the Earth R.

The value of ac was calculated as follows :

ac/g = (1/r2 )/(1/R2) = (R/r)2 = (1/60)2 = 1/3600

∴ ac = g/ 3600 = 9.8 /3600 = 2.7 x 10 -3 m/s2

Newton suggested that gravitational force might vary inversely as the

square of the distance between the bodies. He realised that this force of attraction was
a case of universal attraction between any two bodies present anywhere in the
universe and proposed Law of universal gravitational law.

Universal gravitational law.

 The law states that every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other
particle with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

 Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 with their centres separated by a distance r.
The gravitational force between them is
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 F α m1m2

2
F α 1/r

F α m1m2/ r2

F = G m1m2/ r2

where G is the universal gravitational constant.

Fig(2.11)

If m1 = m2 = 1 kg and r = 1 m, then F = G. Hence, the Gravitational constant ‘G’ is numerically

equal to the gravitational force of attraction between two bodies of mass 1 kg each separated by a
distance of 1 m. The value of G is 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2 and its dimensional formula is M−1 L3
T−2. [ Note : Ref : F = G m1m2/ r2 , G = F r2/ m1m2 ------› G = m a r2/ m1m2

since, a = v/t = x/t*1/t = x/t2 substituting acceleration value in G equation

G = m x r2/ m1m2 t2 ,Now G = MLL2/ MM T2 = L3/ M T2 = L3 M-1 T-2]

2.15 -1 Weight of an object

 Objects on Earth experience the gravitational force of Earth. The gravitational force
acting on an object of mass m is mg. This force always acts downwards towards the
centre of the Earth. When we stand on the floor, there are two forces acting on us. One is
the gravitational force, acting downwards and the other is the normal force exerted
by the floor upwards on us to keep us at rest.

 The weight of an object W is defined as the downward force whose magnitude W is

equal to that of upward force that must be applied to the object to hold it at rest or at
constant velocity relative to the earth.
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  The direction of weight is in the direction of gravitational force. So the magnitude of
weight of an object is denoted as, W=N=mg. Note that even though magnitude of weight
is equal to mg, it is not same as gravitational force acting on the object.

 Apparent weight in elevators

Everyone who used an elevator would have felt a jerk when the elevator takes off or
stops. Why does it happen? Understanding the concept of weight is crucial for explaining this
effect. Let us consider a man inside an elevator in the following scenarios.

 When a man is standing in the elevator, there are two forces acting on him.

1. Gravitational force which acts downward. If we take the vertical direction as positive
y direction, the gravitational force acting on the man is FG = - mgj.

2. The normal force exerted by floor on the man which acts vertically upward, N = N j

Case (i) When the elevator is at rest: The acceleration of the man is zero. Therefore the net
force acting on the man is zero. With respect to inertial frame (ground), applying Newton’s
second law on the man,

FG +N = 0

- mgj + Nj = 0

By comparing the components, we can write

N –mg = 0 (or) N = mg ---------(1)

Since weight, W =N, the apparent weight of the man is equal to his actual weight Fig (a).

Case (ii) When the elevator is moving uniformly in the upward or downward direction.

In uniform motion (constant velocity), the net force acting on the man is still zero.

 Hence, in this case also the apparent weight of the man is equal to his actual weight. It
is shown in Figure (a)

Case (iii) When the elevator is accelerating upwards : If an elevator is moving with
upward acceleration ( a = aj ) with respect to inertial frame (ground), applying Newton’s
second law on the man, r F G +N = ma

Writing the above equation in terms of unit vector in the vertical direction,

- mgj + N j = maj

By comparing the components,

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 N= ma + mg ; N = m (g + a )--------------- (2)

Therefore, apparent weight of the man is greater than his actual weight. It is shown in Figure
(b)

Case (iv) When the elevator is accelerating downwards

If the elevator is moving with downward acceleration (a = − a j ), by applying

Newton’s second law on the man, we can write

FG + N = m a

Writing the above equation in terms of unit vector in the vertical direction,

- mgj + Nj = - maj

By comparing the components,

N = m( g – a) -----------(3)

Therefore, apparent weight W = N = m(g-a) of the man is lesser than his actual weight. It is
shown in Figure(c).

2.15 .2 Weightlessness of freely falling bodies:

Freely falling objects experience only gravitational force. As they fall freely,
they are not in contact with any surface (by neglecting air friction). The normal force acting on
the object is zero. The downward acceleration is equal to the acceleration due to the gravity
of the Earth. i.e (a = g). From equation (3) we get

a = g ∴ N = m (g – g) = 0.

This is called the state of weightlessness. When the lift falls (when the lift wire cuts) with
downward acceleration a = g, the person inside the elevator is in the state of weightlessness
or free fall. It is shown in Figure (d)

2.15.3 Weightlessness in satellite:

 Television pictures and photographs show astronauts and objects floating in satellites
orbiting the Earth. This apparent weightlessness is sometimes explained wrongly as
zero–gravity condition. Then, what should be the reason?

 Consider the astronaut standing on the ground. He exerts a force (his weight) on the
ground. At the same time, the ground exerts an equal and opposite force of reaction
on the astronaut. Due to this force of reaction, he has a feeling of weight.

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  When the astronaut is in an orbiting satellite, both the satellite and astronaut have
the same acceleration towards the centre of the Earth. Hence, the astronaut does not
exert any force on the floor of the satellite. So, the floor of the satellite also does not
exert any force of reaction on the astronaut. As there is no reaction, the astronaut
has a feeling of weightlessness.

 Not only the astronauts, but all the objects in the satellite will be in the state of
weightlessness which is similar to that of a free fall.

Fig(a)

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2.16. Projectile motion

A body thrown with some initial velocity and then allowed to move under the action of gravity
alone, is known as a projectile.

If we observe the path of the projectile, we find that the projectile moves in path, which can be
considered as a part of parabola. Such a motion is known as projectile motion.

A few examples of projectiles are (i) a bomb thrown from an aero plane (ii) a javelin (or) a shot-put
thrown by an athlete (iii) Motion of a ball hit by a cricket bat etc.

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The different types of projectiles are shown in Fig.2.20. A body can be projected in two ways.

Fig (2.20)

(i) It can be projected horizontally from a certain height.

(ii) It can be thrown from the ground in a direction inclined to it.

The projectiles undergo a vertical motion as well as horizontal motion. The two components of the
projectile motion are (i) vertical component and (ii) horizontal component. These two perpendicular
components of motion are independent of each other.

A body projected with an initial velocity making an angle with the horizontal direction possess
uniform horizontal velocity and variable vertical velocity, due to force of gravity. The object
therefore has horizontal and vertical motions simultaneously. The resultant motion would be the
vector sum of these two motions and the path following would be curvilinear.

The above discussion can be summarized as in the Table 2.1

Table 2.1 Two independent motions of a projectile

Motion Forces Velocity Acceleration

Horizontal No force acts constant Zero
Vertical The force of gravity Changes Downwards
−1
acts downwards ~10 𝑚 𝑠 ~10 𝑚 𝑠 −2
In the study of projectile motion. It is assumed that the air resistance is negligible and the
acceleration due to gravity remains constant.

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Angle of projection
The angle between the initial direction of projection and the horizontal direction through the point
of projection is called the angle of projection.
Velocity of projection
The velocity with which the body is projected is known as velocity of projection.
Range
Range of a projectile is the horizontal distance between the point of projection and the point where
the projectile hits the ground
Trajectory
The path described by the projectile is called the trajectory.
Time of flight
Time of flight is the total time taken by the projectile from the instant of projection till it strikes the
ground.
2.16.1 Motion of a projectile projected at an angle with the horizontal (oblique projection)
Consider a body projected from a point O on the surface of the Earth with an initial velocity 𝑢 at an
angle 𝜃 with the horizontal as shown in Fig. 2.23. The velocity 𝑢 can be resolved into two
components

Fig (2.23)

(i) 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃, along the horizontal direction 𝑂𝑋 and

(ii) 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃, along the vertical direction 𝑂𝑌

The horizontal velocity 𝑢𝑥 the object shall remain constant as no acceleration is acting in the
horizontal direction. But the vertical component 𝑢𝑦 of the object continuously decreases due to
the effect of the gravity and it becomes zero when the body is at the highest point of its path.
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 After this, the vertical component 𝑢𝑦 is directed downwards and increases with time till the body
strikes the ground at B.

Path of the projectile

Let 𝑡1 be the time taken by the projectile to reach the point 𝐶 from the instant of projection.

Horizontal distance travelled by the projectile in time 𝑡1 is,

𝑥 = 𝑕𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃 × 𝑡1 𝑜𝑟 𝑡1 = …………… 1
𝑢 cos 𝜃

Let the vertical distance travelled by the projectile in time 𝑡1 = 𝑠 = 𝑦

At O, initial vertical velocity 𝑢1 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃

From the equation of motion [ Ref Note : Newton's

1
𝑠 = 𝑢1 𝑡1 − 2
𝑔𝑡12 equation of motion

Substituting the known values. (s = y and u1= usinθ ) v=u + at---(I)

1
𝑦 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑡1 − 2 𝑔𝑡12 … … … … … … 2 v2=u2+2as---(II)

1
Substituting t1 from equation (1) in equation (2) s = ut + 𝑎𝑡 2--(III)]
2

𝑥 1 𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔
𝑢 cos 𝜃 2 𝑢 cos 𝜃

𝑔𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 − ……………… 3
2𝑢2 cos 2 𝜃

The above equation is of the form 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 2 and represents a parabola. Thus the path of a
projectile is a parabola.

Resultant velocity of the projectile at any instant 𝒕𝟏

At 𝐶, the velocity along the horizontal direction is 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃 and the velocity along the
vertical direction is 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢2

From the equation of motion.

𝑢2 = 𝑢1 − 𝑔𝑡1 Ref [v = u + at---(I)]

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 𝑢2 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡1

∴ The resultant velocity at

𝐶 is 𝑣 = 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑢22

𝑣= 𝑢 cos 𝜃 2 + 𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡1 2

𝑣= 𝑢2 + 𝑔2 𝑡12 − 2𝑢𝑡1 𝑔 sin 𝜃

The direction of 𝑣 is given by

𝑢2 𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡1 𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡1

tan 𝛼 = = 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = tan−1
𝑢𝑥 𝑢 cos 𝜃 𝑢 cos 𝜃

Where 𝛼 is the angle made by 𝑣 with the horizontal line.

Maximum height reached by the projectile

The maximum vertical displacement produced by the projectile is known as the maximum height
reached by the projectile. In Fig 2.23, EA is the maximum height attained by the projectile. It is
represented as 𝑕𝑚𝑎𝑥

At 𝑂, the initial vertical velocity 𝑢1 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃

At A, the final vertical velocity 𝑢3 = 0

The vertical distance travelled by the object = 𝑠𝑦 = 𝑕𝑚𝑎𝑥

From equation of motion, 𝑢32 = 𝑢12 − 2𝑔𝑠𝑦

2 2
Substituting the known values, 0 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 2𝑔𝑕𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑢 2 sin 2 𝜃
2𝑔𝑕𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑢2 sin2 𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑕𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑔
----------(4)

Time taken to attain maximum height

Let 𝑡 be the time taken by the projectile to attain its maximum height.

From equation of motion 𝑢3 = 𝑢1 − 𝑔 𝑡

Substituting the known values 0 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡

𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃

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 𝑢 sin 𝜃
𝑡= ……………… 5
𝑔

Time of flight

Let 𝑡𝑓 be the time of fight (i.e.,) the time taken by the projectile to reach B from O through A.
when the body returns to the ground, the net vertical displacement made by the projectile

𝑠𝑦 = 𝑕𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑕𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0

From the equation of motion

1
𝑠𝑦 = 𝑢1 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑡𝑓2
2

Substituting the known values

1
0 = 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑡𝑓2
2
1 2 2𝑢 sin 𝜃
𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑢 sin 𝜃 𝑡𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑓 = …………… 6
2 𝑓 𝑔

From equations (5) and (6) 𝑡𝑓 = 2𝑡 … … … … … … 7

(i.e) the time of fight is twice the time taken to attain the maximum height.

Horizontal range

The horizontal distance 𝑂𝐵 is called the range of the projectile.

Horizontal range = horizontal velocity × time of flight

𝑖. 𝑒 𝑅 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃 × 𝑡𝑓

Substituting the value of 𝑡𝑓

2𝑢 sin 𝜃
𝑅 = 𝑢 cos 𝜃
𝑔

𝑢2 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔

𝑢 2 sin 2𝜃
𝑅= ---------------(8)
𝑔

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 Maximum Range

From (8), it is seen that for the given velocity of projection, the horizontal range depends on the
angle of projection only. The range is maximum only if the value of sin 2𝜃 is maximum.

For maximum range 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 , sin 2𝜃 = 1

𝑖. 𝑒 𝜃 = 45°

Therefore the range is maximum when the angle of projection is 45°.

𝑢2 × 1 𝑢2
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ……………… 9
𝑔 𝑔

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