APPLIED PHYSICS LAB

1. FLY WHEEL –DETERMINATION OF MOMENT OFINERTIA.

Aim: Determination of the moment of inertia I of a flywheel about its axis of rotation.
Apparatus: Flywheel, stop clock, slotted weights, strings, meter scale Vernier Calipers and screw
gauge.
Principle: The moment of inertia (I) of flywheel can be determined using the principle of
conservation of energy. According to law of conservation of energy the potential energy gained by
the flywheel on winding is converted into linear kinetic energy of the mass attached + rotational
kinetic energy of flywheel + work done against friction. If F is the work done against friction per
turn then:

Formula: The moment of inertia I of flywheel is given by the formula

gm-cm2

Where I is the moment of inertia of flywheel

M is the mass attached to the flywheel
'n1' is the number turns wrapped round the axle
'n2' is the number of turns made by the flywheel after the mass is released.
'h' is the height of the weights from ground
't' is the time taken for the flywheel to revolve n2 turns
'r' is the effective radius of the axle of the flywheel
'g' is the acceleration due to gravity = 980 cm sec -2

Table:
S. Load Height No. of revolutions (n2) Time in seconds (t) ‘I’
n1
No. (gm) (cm) Trail1 Trail2 Mean Trail1 Trail2 Mean gm-cm2
1 500 3
2 500 4
3 1000 3
4 1000 4
5 1500 2
6 1500 3

Least count= value of 1 Main Scale Division=

No. of Vernier Scale Division’s
S. Vernier M.S.R. + (V.C x L.C)
M.S.R (cm) V.C x L.C (cm)
No. Coincidence (cm)
Diameter of the Axle= _______ cm

Radius of the Axle = _________ cm

Precautions:
1. The readings are tabulated without parallax error
2. The length of the string is adjusted so that the mass exactly touches the ground
when the other end is fixed to the flywheel axle.
3. The string is wrapped over the axle of the flywheel without overlapping.
Result: The moment of inertia (I) of flywheel is ______________________

2. TORSIONAL PENDULUM: CALCULATION OF RIGIDITY MODULUS

AIM : To determine the rigidity modulus( ) of the material of the given wire by using Torsional
Pendulum

APPARATUS : Circular disc, metal wire, a stop watch, a vertical pin, a screw gauge, Vernier
calipers.
Description: It consists of a metal disc suspended by a
wire attached to the center of the disc. One end of the wire
is fixed to rigid support by means of chuck nut and the
other end is to the disc.
Principle: When the disc is rotated in horizontal plane to
the radial position the wire will be twisted. It will exert a
torque on the disc, which results into torsional oscillations.

Formula: The rigidity modulus of given material is given

by

dynes / cm2
where M is the Mass of the disc =1000 (gm)
R is the Radius of the disc (cm)
'a' is the Radius of the given wire (cm)
'L' is the Length of the torsional pendulum (cm)
'T' is the Time period (sec)

Table:
Length Time taken for 10 oscillations (sec) Time Period T 2 L/T2
S.No (L) Trail 1 Trail 2 Mean (T) (sec)
. (cm)
1 40
2 50
3 60
4 70
5 80
Avg.
Diameter of the String using Screw gauge:
Least Count= Pitch of the Screw
No. of Head Scale divisions

LC = Error = Correction =

S.no Pitch scale reading Head Scale reading HSRx Total Reading
. (mm) ‘a’ (HSR) L.C (a+b) (mm)
Observed Corrected (mm)
‘b’
1
2
3
Average

Average diameter =_________ __mm = ___________ cm

Average Radius =_____________________cm

Circumference of the disc 2πR =…………………….cm

Radius of the disc (R) =……………….……cm
Mass of the disc (M) = 1000 gm

y
Graph:

T2

x
O l

Precautions Fig - 1
1. The wire should not contain any kinks.
2. The readings are noted without parallax error.
3. The disc is rotated only by small angle.
4. There should not be any up and down and lateral movement of the disc

Result: The rigidity modulus of the material of given wire is _________dynes/cm2

The rigidity modulus ( ) of the given wire from graph = ………..dynes/cm2

 3. DETERMINATION OF THE WAVELENGTH OF A SEMICONDUCTORLASER
Aim: Determination of the wavelength Semiconductor laser source.
Apparatus: Laser source, diffraction grating, screen and meter scale.
Principle: The wavelength of the laser can be determined by using the principle of diffraction due
to N slits. When light rays are incident on a grating, a diffraction pattern of maxima and minima
intensity will be observed on the screen with diminished intensity with increasing orders.

Formula:

cm

Where q is diffraction angle (degree)

l is wavelength of the laser (cm)
N is the number of lines per cm.,where N=Lines on the Grating/2.54(lines cm-1)
n is the order of the spectrum.
Graph:
A graph is plotted between x and d for a given order. A straight line is obtained.The slope of the line
gives tanqi.e.slope = tanq or q= tan-1 (slope).

Precautions:
1. Do not view the laser beam through naked eye.
2. The measurements are made accurately without parallax

Result:
The wavelength of the given laser is _______ cm and
_________ Ao

TABULAR FORM:
 Distance between Distance
corresponding x between screen Tanq =
S. No. Order q Sinq
maxima (2x) (cm) and grating (D) x/D
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1 1 70
2 2 70
3 3 70
4 4 70
5 5 70
6 1 80
7 2 80
8 3 80
9 4 80
10 5 80
11 1 90
12 2 90
13 3 90
14 4 90
15 5 90
Average (l)

4. ESTIMATION OF THE DIMENSIONS OF A GIVEN 3-D OBJECT BY LASER LIGHT

SOURCE

Aim: To estimate the dimensions of a given 3-D object by laser light source.

Apparatus: Laser source (measuring tool), 3-D Object (whose area and volume is to be
measured).
Theory:Laser distance measurers work by sending pulses of laser light. The light reflects
off a solid surface, and the measurer calculates the amount of time it takes for the reflection
to return to the device. An internal processor calculates distance based on how long it takes
the reflection to return.
Observation table:

S.No. Length (m) Breadth (m) Height Area (m2) Volume (m3)
(m)
Manual In tool Manual In tool Manual In tool Manual In tool

Percentage Error = ((Approximate Value – Exact Value)/ Exact Value) × 100

Precautions:
1. Do not leave the switched-on measuring tool unattended.
2. Switch off the measuring tool after use.
3. Do not view the laser beam through naked eye. Keep your head always above the laser
beam.

Result:
a. Manually calculated area of the given object is _____________
b. Area given by measuring tool is ____________

c. Percentage error in area calculation _______________

a. Manually calculated volume of the given object is____________________

d. Volume given by measuring tool is ____________

e. Percentage error in volume calculation _______________

 5. OPTICAL FIBER

AIM: To determine the (i) Numerical aperture (NA). (ii) Acceptance angle (qmax), (iii) Power loss
due to bending.
APPARATUS: Optical Fiber Board, Numerical Aperture Jig, one meter optical fiber cable, Graph
paper screen, Mandrel and connecting wires.
PRINCIPLE & FORMULA:
1. THE NUMERICAL APERTURE (N.A.)The numerical aperture (NA) is a measure of how
much light can be collected by an optical fibre.NA of an optical fiber (step index) is given by
N.A. = (N2core - N2clad) ½ Ncore= 1.49 Nclad =1.41
= Sin (qmax)
qmax = Sin-1 (N.A.) __________ (1)
Ncore = refractive index of core material of optical fiber
Nclad = refractive index of cladding of optical fiber
qmax = Acceptance angle

N.A. = W / (4L2 + W2) ½

Knowing W and L, numerical aperture (NA) can be calculated from the above formula.

2. ACCEPTANCE ANGLE ‘QMAX:It is the maximum angle made by the light ray with the fiber
axis, so that light can propagate through the fiber after total internal reflection.Substituting N.A.
value in equation (1), acceptance angle ‘qmax’. can be obtained using the formula given below
qmax = Sin-1 (N.A.)

S. No. L (mm) W (mm) N.A. QMAX

1
2
3
Average
 PART-II : MEASUREMENT OF LOSSES

Loss of power in optical fiber is mainly due to absorption or scattering of light within the optical
fiber. The losses are may be due to (i) macro bending (ii) micro bending (iii) adaptor losses (joints
between cables). This loss of power ‘P’ from input (Pi) to output (Po) after propagating a distance
‘L’, can be written as
Po = Pie- aL

Where α is attenuation coefficient in decibels per unit length (dB/m)

𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝟏𝟎 [𝐏𝟏/𝐏𝟐]
𝛂=
𝑳
Where L is the length of the optical fiber cable = 1meter

dBm=10 x log(power meter reading in µw /1000)

Voltage Current Power Power One Turn Losses

S.No (V) (I) Meter Meter Power Power in dB
Reading Reading Meter Meter P1-P2 a
P1 (µw) P1 (dBm) Reading Reading dB/m
P2 (µw) P2 (dBm)
1
2
3

PRECAUTIONS:
 Gently insert the optical fiber cable in to LED by turning clockwise direction of its clinch nut
(until you feel the fiber touches the micro lens)
 Do not applying force, which may damage micro lens
 Gently tight the clinch nut that holds the inserted fiber firmly.
 Before taking reading check out fiber is free of all twists and strains.
 No twists should present while making power loss measurements.

RESULT:

1. Numerical aperture (NA) =

2. Acceptance angle (qmax) =
3. Attenuation coefficient (a) =
 6. STUDY OF I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE

AIM: To study volt-ampere characteristics and to determine forward and reverse resistances of p-n
junction diode.
APPARATUS: PN junction diode board, voltmeter, milli-ammeter, micro-ammeter, power supply
and connecting wires.
DESCRIPTION: The built-in PN junction diode kit consists a junction diode, a power supply, a
milli and micro ammeter and a voltmeter.
PRINCIPLE:
FORWARD BIAS: When the PN junction is forward biased i.e., positive terminal of the battery is
connected to p – type and negative terminal to the n-type material, the holes from p-type and
electrons from n-type are repelled by positive and negative terminals respectively and push them
towards the junction.
REVERSE BIAS: When the PN junction is reverse biased i.e., positive terminal of the battery is
connected to n–type and negative terminal to the p-type of junction diode. The holes from p-type
and electrons from n– type are attracted towards negative and positive terminals of the battery
respectively and as a result no current flows across the diode.

Forward Bias Circuit Diagram

Reverse Bias Circuit Diagram

GRAPH:

TABULAR FORM:
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
Voltage Current Voltage Current
S. No. S. No.
(Volt) (mA) (Volt) (mA)

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The readings are noted without parallax error.
2. Connections are to be made properly and gently.
3. All connections should be tight.
4. Apply voltage as per the specifications of the diode.
RESULT:
Forward Resistance of diode ________________ Ω.
Reverse Resistance of diode ________________ Ω.

7. STUDY OF I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR CELL

AIM: i) To draw the I-V characteristics of a solar cell ii) To calculate the Fill factor, (iii) Efficiency
( )
APPARATUS: Solar cell, illuminator, voltmeter, micro ammeter, potentiometer, connecting wires
etc.
PRINCIPLE & FORMULA: Solar cell is a p-n junction diode. A built-in-voltage exists across a
p-n junction but this voltage cannot deliver current in an external circuit. However, if light is
illuminated on the junction, current flows in the circuit. This effect is called the photovoltaic effect.
When the p-n junction is used in open circuit mode, the current flowing through the junction, I=0,
the junction voltage, V = Voc is called open circuit voltage. When the output is short circuited, V=0
then the current I = Isc is called Short circuit current.
Vm = maximum voltage, Im = maximum current
Then ideal output power PL = VocIsc
Maximum useful power Pm = VmIm
Once we know the above parameters
we can calculate the following parameters viz.,
𝑃
a. Fill factor = 𝑚
𝑃𝐿
𝑉 𝑚𝐼 𝑚
× 100%
𝑃 𝑜𝑢𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑡
b. Efficiency ( )= 𝑥100% =
𝑃 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸×𝐴

Where Poutput= 𝑚 𝑚, A-area of the cell = 3x10-4 m2

𝑉 𝐼
𝐴
Pinput is constant per a particular distance and is E=10 W/m2(emissive power)
Figure & Grpah
 Tables:

For Intensity-I For intensity-II

Voc=_______V Isc=_______mA Voc= _______V Isc=_______mA
Current S. Current
S.No. Voltage(V) P=VxI(mW) Voltage(V) P=VxI(mW)
(I) mA No. (I) mA

PL =VocIsc
Intensity Voc(v) Isc(mA) Vm(V) Im (mA) Pm = VmIm FF 𝜼%
(mW)

I1
I2
Average values

PRECAUTIONS:
1. See that the light from the source falls vertically on the solar cell.
2. Make sure that the connections are made properly and ensure good contact.

RESULT: For a solar cell the values for various parameters found are:
Fill factor = _________________________
Efficiency = _________________________