1.

Explain the procedures for deciding suitable sample size in

case of probability sampling.
Determining the suitable sample size in probability sampling involves several key steps to ensure that the sample is
representative and the results are statistically valid. Here’s a brief overview of the procedure:
1. Define the Population
 Clearly define the population from which the sample will be drawn. This includes identifying all the
individuals or elements that fit the criteria of the study.
 Example: If you're studying customer satisfaction, your population may be all customers who have
purchased a specific product within the last year.
2. Determine the Desired Confidence Level
 The confidence level represents how confident you want to be that the sample results reflect the true
population. Common confidence levels are 90%, 95%, and 99%.
 Example: A 95% confidence level means that if the study were repeated 100 times, the results would fall
within the same range 95 times.
3. Specify the Margin of Error (Precision)
 The margin of error is the range within which you expect the true population parameter to fall. Smaller
margins of error require larger sample sizes.
 Example: If you want to be within ±5% of the true population proportion, your margin of error is 5%.
4. Estimate the Population Proportion (p)
 In cases where you're estimating proportions (like yes/no questions), an estimated population proportion (p)
is needed. If no estimate is available, use 0.5 as it provides the maximum variability and thus the largest
sample size.
 Example: If you expect 60% of your population to agree with a statement, p = 0.6. If unsure, use p = 0.5.
5. Select the Sampling Technique
 Determine the type of probability sampling method (simple random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster
sampling, etc.) that will be used. The sampling technique can impact the sample size calculation,
particularly if stratified or cluster sampling is involved.
 Example: In stratified sampling, the population is divided into subgroups (strata), and sample sizes are
calculated for each subgroup.
6. Consider Other Factors
 Practical considerations such as budget, time, and data collection constraints can influence the sample size.
You might need to balance statistical power with practical limitations.
 Example: If your sample size calculation recommends 500 participants, but budget allows for only 200,
you might need to adjust your margin of error or confidence level.
 2. What key factors should researchers consider when selecting
an appropriate sampling design for their research study, and
how do these factors influence the choice between probability
and non-probability sampling methods?
When selecting an appropriate sampling design for a research study, researchers should consider several key factors
that will guide the decision between probability and non-probability sampling methods. These factors include:
1. Research Objectives
 Factor: The goals of the research (e.g., generalization of results to a larger population, in-depth insights
from specific groups).
 Impact on Sampling Choice: If the goal is to generalize findings to a larger population, probability
sampling is preferred. If the goal is to explore or understand specific groups or phenomena in detail, non-
probability sampling may be sufficient.
2. Population Characteristics
 Factor: The size, diversity, and accessibility of the target population.
 Impact on Sampling Choice: For large, diverse, and accessible populations, probability sampling ensures
representative samples. For smaller or less accessible populations, non-probability sampling might be more
feasible, especially when complete population data is unavailable.
3. Accuracy and Precision of Results
 Factor: The need for statistical precision and the desired confidence in the results.
 Impact on Sampling Choice: Probability sampling, with its ability to estimate sampling error and provide
confidence intervals, is preferable when accuracy and precision are crucial. Non-probability sampling may
be less accurate but more practical in exploratory research or when precision is not as critical.
4. Time and Cost Constraints
 Factor: Available time, budget, and resources for conducting the study.
 Impact on Sampling Choice: Probability sampling can be time-consuming and costly, especially if large
samples or random selection is involved. Non-probability sampling methods (e.g., convenience or
judgment sampling) are generally quicker and cheaper to implement.
5. Sampling Frame Availability
 Factor: Whether a complete list of the population is available for random selection.
 Impact on Sampling Choice: If a complete sampling frame (list of all potential participants) is available,
probability sampling is feasible and appropriate. If such a list is not available, non-probability sampling
methods like snowball or convenience sampling may be used.
6. Homogeneity or Heterogeneity of the Population
 Factor: The degree of similarity or difference within the population.
 Impact on Sampling Choice: If the population is relatively homogeneous (little variation), non-probability
sampling may provide sufficient representation. If the population is highly heterogeneous (with diverse
subgroups), probability sampling methods like stratified sampling are ideal to ensure all subgroups are
adequately represented.
7. Ethical Considerations
 Factor: Ethical concerns such as fairness, consent, and privacy.
  Impact on Sampling Choice: Ethical considerations might influence the sampling design, especially in
non-probability sampling where participants are chosen based on specific criteria or convenience, which
can sometimes lead to bias or exclusion.

3. How do convenience, purposive, and judgmental sampling

techniques differ, and what are the specific situations or
research scenarios in which each of these sampling methods is
most appropriate and effective? Explain with examples
Convenience, purposive, and judgmental sampling are all types of non-probability sampling methods, each with its
own unique characteristics, advantages, and limitations. Here's a breakdown of how these techniques differ and
when each is most appropriate:
A. Convenience Sampling
 Definition: Convenience sampling involves selecting participants who are easiest to access or most
convenient to the researcher. It doesn’t follow a systematic process or random selection.
 Example: A researcher conducting a survey on campus might select students who are available in the
student lounge during certain hours.
Appropriate Situations:
 Exploratory Research: When the goal is to explore ideas quickly and without much emphasis on
generalizability.
 Time or Budget Constraints: When researchers need to gather data quickly and have limited resources.
Limitations:
 Bias: This method is prone to selection bias, as it does not ensure that the sample is representative of the
entire population.
 Limited Generalizability: The results may not be generalizable to the broader population.
Example: A company might use convenience sampling to test customer satisfaction by asking the first 50 customers
they interact with.
B. Purposive Sampling (also known as Judgmental Sampling)
 Definition: Purposive sampling involves selecting participants based on specific characteristics or qualities
that align with the research objectives. The researcher has a clear purpose or judgment in selecting the
sample.
 Example: A researcher studying the impact of a new teaching method may specifically select teachers who
have used this method for at least one year.
Appropriate Situations:
 Specific Expertise or Experience: When you need to gather insights from individuals who have specific
knowledge, experience, or characteristics relevant to the study.
 In-Depth or Qualitative Research: When the focus is on gaining deep insights from a specific group of
individuals, not on statistical representation.
Limitations:
 Subjectivity: The selection of participants is based on the researcher’s judgment, which can introduce bias.
 Limited Representativeness: The sample may not be representative of the broader population, limiting the
generalizability of findings.
Example: A researcher studying the experiences of cancer patients undergoing a particular treatment may
purposively select patients who are currently receiving that treatment and have a specific age range.
C. Judgmental Sampling
  Definition: Judgmental sampling is a subtype of purposive sampling where the researcher uses their
expertise or judgment to select participants who are believed to be the best suited to provide insights on the
research problem.
 Example: A researcher examining the best practices of successful startups might use their judgment to
select a few startups that are perceived as particularly innovative or successful in their industry.
Appropriate Situations:
 Expert Opinion: When the researcher needs to gather insights from experts or key informants who have
specialized knowledge or experience related to the topic.
 Limited Scope: In situations where you are studying a niche group or rare phenomenon and want to target
individuals who are most likely to provide valuable data.
Limitations:
 High Risk of Bias: The selection process is subjective, and the researcher’s personal judgment can
significantly influence the sample.
 Limited Generalizability: Similar to purposive sampling, the results may not be applicable to a larger
population.
Example: A researcher evaluating innovative leadership practices might choose to interview senior executives at the
top 10 highest-performing companies, based on the researcher’s judgment of who can provide the most valuable
insights.

4. What is the difference between a sample and a census? Explain

the process of selecting a simple random sample with an
example.
Difference Between a Sample and a Census:

 Sample:

o A sample is a subset of the population selected for a study. Researchers use samples to gather data
and make inferences about the entire population without needing to survey every individual.

o Advantages: Cost-effective, quicker, and less time-consuming than surveying the whole
population.

o Example: If a company wants to understand customer satisfaction, it might select a sample of 500
customers from a population of 10,000 customers.

 Census:

o A census is the process of collecting data from every member of the population. It attempts to
survey or measure every individual in the population.

o Advantages: Provides a complete and accurate representation of the population, minimizing

sampling error.
 o Example: A national population census, where every citizen is asked for demographic
information.

Key Differences:

1. Scope: A sample represents only a portion of the population, while a census includes the entire population.

2. Cost and Time: A sample is generally less costly and time-consuming, while a census is more resource-
intensive.

3. Accuracy: A census, when conducted properly, is more accurate as it involves all members, while a sample
may introduce sampling error.

Process of Selecting a Simple Random Sample (SRS):

A simple random sample (SRS) is a method where every individual in the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Here’s the step-by-step process for selecting an SRS:

1. Define the Population:

o Identify and define the target population from which you want to select your sample. This can be
any group that you want to study (e.g., customers, students, employees).

o Example: You are studying employee satisfaction in a company with 500 employees.

2. List All Population Members:

o Create a list of all individuals in the population. This could be a complete database or a registry of
all units in the population.

o Example: You have a list of the 500 employees in the company.

3. Determine the Sample Size:

o Decide how many individuals you want to include in the sample. The sample size is usually
determined based on the research objectives, confidence level, margin of error, and available
resources.

o Example: You decide to survey 50 employees out of the 500.

4. Assign Numbers to Each Member:

o Assign a unique number to each individual in the population list. This makes it easier to select
random participants.

o Example: Assign numbers from 1 to 500 to each of the employees in your list.

5. Select Random Numbers:

o Use a random number generator (such as an online tool or a random number table) to select the
sample. The number of random numbers you select should be equal to the desired sample size.

o Example: If you are selecting 50 employees, use a random number generator to pick 50 random
numbers between 1 and 500.
 6. Select the Individuals Corresponding to the Random Numbers:

o The individuals corresponding to the selected random numbers are included in the sample.

o Example: If the random number generator selects numbers 10, 34, 200, and so on, you would
select the 10th, 34th, and 200th employees on your list.

7. Conduct the Survey/Study:

o After selecting your sample, you proceed with collecting the data from the selected participants
(e.g., conducting a survey, interviews, etc.).

5. Explain the major differences between judgmental and

convenience sampling methods. brief
Differences Between Judgmental and Convenience Sampling Methods:
1. Selection Process:

 Judgmental Sampling: The researcher uses their expertise or judgment to select participants based on
specific criteria that align with the research objectives. The sample is purposefully chosen to include
individuals who are believed to provide valuable insights.

 Convenience Sampling: Participants are selected based on their easy availability or convenience to the
researcher, without any specific criteria or judgment used to select individuals.

2. Purpose:

 Judgmental Sampling: This method is used when the researcher needs participants with specific
knowledge, experience, or characteristics related to the study. It’s often used in qualitative research where
in-depth understanding is more important than generalizability.

 Convenience Sampling: It is typically used when the researcher needs a quick and easy sample, often for
exploratory research, and does not require specific characteristics in participants.

3. Bias:

 Judgmental Sampling: It can be biased because the selection process depends on the researcher's
subjective judgment of who is most relevant to the study.

 Convenience Sampling: It also introduces bias as it relies on the researcher’s ability to access convenient
participants, which may not represent the population accurately.

4. Examples:

 Judgmental Sampling: A researcher studying expert opinions on a new technology might select top
industry leaders or specialists in that field.

 Convenience Sampling: A researcher conducting a survey in a university might simply ask the first 100
students they encounter on campus.
5. Generalizability:

 Judgmental Sampling: Typically, the sample is not generalizable to the larger population because it’s
specifically chosen based on expert criteria.

 Convenience Sampling: Similar to judgmental sampling, it’s not generalizable because the sample is based
on convenience, and may not reflect the broader population.

6. Explain the characteristics of a good sampling design.

A good sampling design ensures that the sample selected accurately represents the population and provides reliable,
valid results. Here are the key characteristics of a good sampling design:
1. Representativeness:
 The sample should be a mini-representation of the entire population. It should reflect the diversity of the
population in terms of relevant characteristics (e.g., age, gender, income, etc.).
2. Precision:
 The sampling design should ensure that the sample's estimates are as close as possible to the true values in
the population. Precision minimizes sampling errors and enhances the accuracy of inferences.
3. Randomness:
 A good sampling design often incorporates randomization, ensuring that every individual or unit in the
population has an equal chance of being selected, thus minimizing bias.
4. Adequate Sample Size:
 The sample size should be large enough to provide reliable results but not too large to become inefficient or
costly. The size is determined based on the population size, desired confidence level, and margin of error.
5. Clarity and Simplicity:
 The sampling process should be clear and simple to follow. The procedures for selecting the sample should
be straightforward and well-defined to avoid confusion and errors.
6. Cost-effectiveness:
 The design should balance the need for accuracy with budget constraints. The process should aim to obtain
the best possible results within the available resources.
7. Practicality:
 The sampling design should be feasible in terms of time, resources, and logistics. It should align with the
researcher’s objectives, constraints, and the specific conditions of the study.
8. Bias Minimization:
 A good sampling design minimizes bias in the selection process. It ensures that the sample is selected
without favoring certain groups over others, providing an unbiased representation of the population.
9. Consistency:
 The design should be replicable and consistent if the research were to be repeated under similar conditions.
This ensures the reliability of results.

7. Give reasons for and against sample survey and census survey.
Reasons for Sample Survey:
1. Cost-Effectiveness:
 o For: Sample surveys are much less expensive than census surveys because they involve data
collection from a smaller portion of the population, reducing costs related to travel, data
processing, and analysis.
o Example: A company conducting a market research survey may only need to survey a subset of
customers rather than the entire customer base, saving both time and money.
2. Time Efficiency:
o For: Since only a sample is surveyed, data collection and analysis are quicker, making sample
surveys ideal for research that needs to be completed within a short timeframe.
o Example: A political poll conducted before an election can gather results quickly, helping
campaign managers make timely decisions.
3. Manageability:
o For: A sample survey is easier to manage in terms of logistics and coordination, especially when
dealing with large populations. It allows researchers to focus resources on gathering high-quality
data from a smaller, more manageable group.
o Example: A university conducting a study on student satisfaction can focus on a representative
sample rather than surveying every single student, making the process more practical.
4. Flexibility in Data Collection:
o For: Researchers can tailor sample surveys to gather specific information from particular groups,
which may not be possible in a census where the entire population must be surveyed.
o Example: A health study might focus on a particular age group or geographic area within the
population to examine specific health issues.
5. Reduced Risk of Overload:
o For: With a sample survey, the researcher avoids the potential overload of managing a large
volume of responses that can occur in a census, which may lead to errors in data processing.
Reasons Against Sample Survey:
1. Sampling Errors:
o Against: The primary disadvantage of a sample survey is the possibility of sampling error. If the
sample is not truly representative of the population, the findings may be biased or inaccurate.
o Example: If a survey about urban infrastructure is based only on people from one part of the city,
it may not reflect the experiences of residents from other areas.
2. Limited Generalizability:
o Against: Since a sample survey only collects data from a subset of the population, there may be
limitations in generalizing the results to the entire population, especially if the sample size is too
small or poorly selected.
o Example: A survey conducted among university students in a specific region may not be
applicable to students in other regions or countries.
3. Potential for Bias:
o Against: If the sample is not selected randomly or is otherwise biased, it could lead to incorrect
conclusions. Biases such as selection bias or non-response bias can skew the results.
o Example: A survey conducted by an organization with a vested interest in the outcome may lead
to biased sampling and results.
4. Increased Variability:
o Against: The results of a sample survey may have higher variability due to the random nature of
sampling, leading to less precision compared to a census.
o Example: A survey that uses a small sample might show results that significantly differ from a
larger, more comprehensive study.
Reasons for Census Survey:
1. Complete Accuracy:
o For: A census survey provides complete data for the entire population, eliminating sampling
errors. It allows for precise measurement of every member of the population.
o Example: A government conducting a national census to determine population size and
demographics ensures that no segment of the population is left out.
2. No Sampling Bias:
 o For: Because a census includes the entire population, there are no concerns about sampling biases,
ensuring that the findings are fully representative.
o Example: A census used for policy-making, like the U.S. Census, eliminates the risk of bias and
ensures every demographic group is accounted for.
3. Detailed Subgroup Analysis:
o For: A census allows for in-depth analysis of subgroups within the population, which may not be
feasible in a sample survey due to limited data.
o Example: A national education census might allow detailed analysis of educational attainment
among different ethnic, age, or geographic groups.
4. Legal or Official Requirement:
o For: Some surveys or data collection efforts (such as population censuses) are mandated by law or
required for governmental planning and allocation of resources.
o Example: A government census is essential for determining representation in government and for
the equitable distribution of public resources.
Reasons Against Census Survey:
1. High Cost:
o Against: Census surveys are expensive because they require gathering data from the entire
population. The logistics, resources, and time required to collect, process, and analyze data from
all individuals are significant.
o Example: The cost of conducting a nationwide census, with millions of people involved, is much
higher than a sample survey.
2. Time Consuming:
o Against: Due to the large scale of a census survey, data collection, processing, and analysis can
take a long time, making it impractical for research that needs results quickly.
o Example: A national census can take several months to complete and years to analyze, making it
unsuitable for timely decision-making.
3. Difficult to Manage:
o Against: Managing a census survey, especially in large and diverse populations, can be
logistically challenging. Coordinating data collection from every member of a population can lead
to errors or gaps in data.
o Example: A census in rural or remote areas may be difficult due to challenges in reaching isolated
populations.
4. Increased Risk of Errors:
o Against: With such large-scale data collection, the risk of errors increases. Human errors,
miscommunication, and missing data are more likely in a census than in a smaller, more focused
sample survey.
o Example: A nationwide census may have issues like incorrect addresses or missing responses,
leading to data gaps.

8. Explain the process of selecting a simple random sample with

an example. brief
A simple random sample is a sampling technique where each member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected. The process ensures that the sample is representative and unbiased.
Steps for Selecting a Simple Random Sample:
1. Define the Population:
o Identify the entire group of individuals or items from which the sample will be drawn. This is the
population.
Example: The population could be all students enrolled at the University of Dhaka.
2. Determine the Sample Size:
 o Decide how many individuals or items are needed in the sample. The sample size is usually
determined based on the level of precision desired, budget, and time constraints.
Example: Suppose you want to select a sample of 100 students from the University of Dhaka.
3. Create a Sampling Frame:
o A sampling frame is a list or representation of all members of the population. It serves as the
reference for selecting the sample.
Example: A list of all enrolled students at the University of Dhaka can serve as the sampling frame.
4. Assign Numbers to Each Member:
o Assign a unique number to each individual or item in the sampling frame. The numbers should be
randomly assigned to prevent any bias.
Example: Number the students from 1 to 10,000 based on their registration numbers.
5. Use a Random Selection Method:
o Use a random method (such as a random number generator or drawing lots) to select the sample.
This ensures that each member has an equal probability of being chosen.
Example: Use a random number generator to select 100 numbers from the range 1 to 10,000. The
corresponding students are your sample.
6. Collect Data from the Selected Sample:
o Once the sample is selected, collect data or information from those individuals or items.
Example: Conduct surveys or interviews with the 100 randomly selected students.